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Control Systems

Syllabus
1.0 Introduction to Control system
1.1 Scope of Control System Engineer
1.2 Classification of Control System
1.3 Historical development of Control system
1.4 Analogues systems
1.5 Transfer function of Systems
1.6 Block diagram representation
1.7 Signal Flow Graph(SFG)

2.1 The Concept of Feedback and Closed loop control

2.2 Merits of using Feedback control system

3.0Control System Components

3.1 Potentiometers
3.2 DC and AC Servomotors

3.4 Amplidyne
3.5 Hydralulic systems
3.6 Pneumatic systems

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3.3 Tachometers

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2.3 Regenerative Feedback

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2.0 Feedback Characteristics of Control systems and sensitivity measures

3.7 Stepper Motors

4.0 Time Domain Performance Analysis of Linear Control Systems

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4.1 Standard Test Signals

4.2 Time response of 1st order Systems

4.3 Unit step response of a prototype 2nd order system
4.4 Unit Ramp response of a second order system
4.4 Performance Specification of Linear System in Time domain
4.5 The Steady State Errors and Error Constants
4.6 Effect of P, PI, PD and PID Controller
4.7 Effect of Adding a zero to a system
4.8 Performance Indices(ISE,ITSE,IAE, ITAE)
4.9 Approximations of Higher order Systems by Lower order Problems

5.0 The Stability of Linear Control Systems

5.1 The Concept of Stability
5.2 The Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion
5.3 Relative stability analysis

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6.0 Root Locus Technique

6.1 Angle and Magnitude Criterion
6.2 Properties of Root Loci
6.3 Step by Step Procedure to Draw Root Locus Diagram
6.4 Closed Loop Transfer Function and Time Domain response
6.5 Determination of Damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus
6.6 Root Locus for System with transportation Lag.
6.7 Sensitivity of Roots of the Characteristic Equation.
7.0 Frequency Domain Analysis.

7.2 Frequency Domain Specifications

7.3 Polar Plots and inverse Polar plots
7.4 Bode Diagrams

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7.4.1 Principal factors of Transfer function

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7.1 Correlation between Time and frequency response

7.4.2 Procedure for manual plotting of Bode Diagram

7.4.3 Relative stability Analysis

7.4.4 Minimum Phase, Non-minimum phase and All pass systems

7.6 Nyquist Criterion

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7.5 Log Magnitude vs Phase plots.

7.6.1 Mapping Contour and Principle of Argument

7.6.2 Nyquist path and Nyquist Plot

7.6.3 Nyquist stability criterion

7.6.4 Relative Stability: Gain Margin, and Phase Margin

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7.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response

7.7.1 Gain Phase Plot
7.7.1.1 Constant Gain(M)-circles
7.7.1.2 Constant Phase (N) Circles
7.7.1.3 Nichols Chart

7.8 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain

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MODULE#1

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CHAPTER#1
1. Basic Concept of Control System
Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve the following six
problems in the most efficient manner possible.
(a)The identification problem :to measure the variables and convert data for analysis.
(b)The representation problem:to describe a system by an analytical form or mathematical model
(c)The solution problem:to determine the above system model response.
(d)The stability problem:general qualitative analysis of the system

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(e)The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one

(f)The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.

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The two basic approaches to solve these six problems are conventional and modern approach. The
electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex function theory. The modern
approach has mechanical orientation and based on the state variable theory.

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Therefore, control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil and electrical engineering.
For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical and chemical components.
Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of business, social and political systems
increases; the ability to control these systems will also increase.

1.1. Basic terminologies in control system

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System: A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form

a whole unit such that that combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal.
Control: The action to command, direct or regulate a system.
Plant or process: The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled.
Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
Control system: A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to
achieve a certain goal.
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means
Control System: An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will
provide a desired response.
Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device that
provides the motive power to the process.

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Design: The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system to
achieve a specified purpose.
Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a system by
utilizing actual input signals.
Optimization: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favorable or
advantageous design.
Feedback Signal: A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the
system.
Negative feedback: The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input signal.

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Block diagrams: Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer functions of
the elements of the system.
Signal Flow Graph (SFG): A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed
branches and that is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations.

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Specifications: Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be and to do.
It is also defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.
Open-loop control system: A system that utilizes a device to control the process without
using feedback. Thus the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.

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Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the output and
compares it with the desired output.

Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are more or
less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.

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Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.
Stability: It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its output is out of
control or increases without bound.
Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable or more than
one output variable.
Trade-off: The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be made
between conflicting criteria.

1.2. Classification
1.2.1. Natural control system and Man-made control system:
Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.
Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.
automobile, power plants etc.
1.2.2.

Automatic control system and Combinational control system:

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Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic theories
from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly has sensors, actuators and
responders.
Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of natural
and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc.
1.2.3.

Time-variant control system and Time-invariant control system:

Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more
parameters of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.
Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its parameters
vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and resistors only.

1.2.4.

Linear control system and Non-linear control system:

Homogeneous property: f x y
Additive property: f

f x

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Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of homogeneity

and additive.
f x

f y

1.2.5.

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Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of
homogeneity and additive, i.e. f x x3
Continuous-Time control system and Discrete-Time control system:
Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all
of its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type speed control of motor.

Deterministic control system and Stochastic control system:

1.2.6.

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Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of

its parameters are function of discrete time i.e. microprocessor type speed control of
motor.
Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable
or repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

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Stochastic control system:It is a control system where its output is unpredictable or

non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

1.2.7.

Lumped-parameter control system and Distributed-parameter control system:

Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by ordinary differential equations.
Distributed-parameter control system:It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by an electrical network that is a combination of resistors,
inductors and capacitors.

1.2.8.

Single-input-single-output (SISO) control system and Multi-input-multi-output

(MIMO) control system:
SISO control system: It is a control system that has only one input and one output.
MIMO control system:It is a control system that has only more than one input and
more than one output.

1.2.9.

Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system:

Open-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action only
depends on input signal and does not depend on its output response.

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Closed-loop control system:It is a control system where its control action depends
on both of its input signal and output response.

1.3. Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system

1.3.1. Open-loop control system:
It is a control system where its control action only depends on input signal and does
not depend on its output response as shown in Fig.1.1.

Fig.1.1. An open-loop system

Advantages:

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Simple design and easy to construct

Economical
Easy for maintenance
Highly stable operation
Dis-advantages:

Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
Recalibration of the parameters are required time to time
Closed-loop control system:

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1.3.2.

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Examples: traffic signal, washing machine, bread toaster, etc.

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It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and
output response as shown in Fig.1.2.

Fig.1.2. A closed-loop system

Examples: automatic electric iron, missile launcher, speed control of DC motor, etc.

Advantages:

More accurate operation than that of open-loop control system

Can operate efficiently when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
Less nonlinearity effect of these systems on output response
High bandwidth of operation
There is facility of automation
Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required
Dis-advantages:
Complex design and difficult to construct

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Expensive than that of open-loop control system

Complicate for maintenance
Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system
1.3.3.

Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop control systems:

It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and
output response.
Open-loop control systems

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No feedback is given to the control system

Cannot be intelligent

There is no possibility of undesirable

system oscillation(hunting)

Error detection is present

Large bandwidth
Less stable or prone to instability
Not affected by non-linearities
Less sensitive to disturbances
Complex design
Costly

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7
8
9
10
11
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System output variation due to variation in

parameters of the system is less.

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The output will not very for a constant

input, provided the system parameters
remain unaltered
System output variation due to variation in
parameters of the system is greater and the
output very in an uncontrolled way
Error detection is not present
Small bandwidth
More stable
Affected by non-linearities
Very sensitive in nature
Simple design
Cheap

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Closed-loop control systems

A feedback is given to the control system
Intelligent controlling action
Closed loop control introduces the
possibility
of
undesirable
system
oscillation(hunting)
In the system the output may vary for a
constant input, depending upon the
feedback

IN

Sl.
No.

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1.4. Servomechanism

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It is the feedback unit used in a control system. In this system, the control variable is
a mechanical signal such as position, velocity or acceleration. Here, the output signal
is directly fed to the comparator as the feedback signal, b(t) of the closed-loop control
system. This type of system is used where both the command and output signals are
mechanical in nature. A position control system as shown in Fig.1.3 is a simple
example of this type mechanism. The block diagram of the servomechanism of an
automatic steering system is shown in Fig.1.4.

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Fig.1.3. Schematic diagram of a servomechanism

Fig.1.4. Block diagram of a servomechanism

Examples:
Missile launcher
Machine tool position control
Power steering for an automobile
Roll stabilization in ships, etc.
1.5. Regulators
It is also a feedback unit used in a control system like servomechanism. But, the
output is kept constant at its desired value. The schematic diagram of a regulating

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system is shown in Fig.1.5. Its corresponding simplified block diagram model is

shown in Fig.1.6.

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Fig.1.5. Schematic diagram of a regulating system

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Fig.1.6. Block diagram of a regulating system

Examples:

Temperature regulator
Speed governor
Frequency regulators, etc.

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CHAPTER#2
2. Control System Dynamics
2.1. Definition: It is the study of characteristics behaviour of dynamic system, i.e.
(a) Differential equation
i. First-order systems
ii. Second-order systems
(b) System transfer function: Laplace transform
2.2. Laplace Transform: Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic
equations. They are related to frequency response.
L x t

x(t )e st dt

X s

(2.1)

L x t

x(t )e st dt

X s

Laplace domain
No.

Function

x(t)=
X(s)= {x(t)}

Delay

Unit impulse

Unit step

Ramp

Exponential
approach

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1
s2

Exponential
decay

1
s

u(t)

1 e

s2

Cosine

11

12

s(s

s
2

s2

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(2.2)

Sine

{X(s)}

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-1

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Time-domain

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Hyperbolic
sine

Hyperbolic
cosine

s
s2

Exponentiall
y decaying
sine wave

Exponentiall
y decaying
cosine wave

sin t
)2

(s

cos t

(s

)2

2.3. Solution of system dynamics in Laplace form: Laplace transforms can be solved using
partial fraction method.
A system is usually represented by following dynamic equation.
N s

A s
B s

(2.3)

The factor of denominator, B(s) is represented by following forms,

i.

Unrepeated factors

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ii. Repeated factors

iii. Unrepeated complex factors
(i) Unrepeated factors
N (s)
( s a )( s b)

s a s b
A( s b ) B ( s a )
( s a )( s b)

(2.4)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.1:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.

2s
( s 1)(s 2)

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Y (s )

A
B
2s
( s 1)( s 2) ( s 1) ( s 2)
A( s 2) B( s 1)
2s
( s 1)( s 2)
( s 1)( s 2)

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Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

Y ( s)

(s 1)

(s 2)

2, B

4 . Therefore,

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By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

2e

4e

2t

y (t )

(ii) Unrepeated factors

N (s)
( s a)2

A
a )2

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A

(s

B
(s

A
a)

B(s a)
( s a )2

(2.5)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.2:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.

Y ( s)

2s
(s 1) 2 (s 2)

Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

2s
( s 1) 2 ( s 2)

A
( s 1) 2

(s 1)

(s 2)

By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A

Y ( s)

2
(s 1) 2

(s 1)

( s 2)

2, B

4 . Therefore,

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

y( t )

2te

4e

4e

2t

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(iii) Complex factors: They contain conjugate pairs in the denominator.

N ( s)
( s a)( s a )

As B
(s
)2

(2.6)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.3:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.

Y ( s)

2s 1
( s 1 j)( s 1 j )

Y ( s)

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Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

2s
1
2
(s 1) 1 (s 1)2 1

y(t ) 2e t cos t e t sin t

2.4. Initial value theorem:

lim

y (t )

lim sY (s)

(2.7)

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Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

Example 2.4:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation using the
initial-value theorem.

Y ( s)

(s 1

2s 1
j )(s 1 j )

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Solution:
Solution of above equation,

y(t ) 2e t cos t e t sin t

Applying initial value theorem,

lim ( s
s

s (2s 1)
1 j )( s 1 j)

2.5. Final value theorem:

lim

y (t )

lim sY (s)
s

(2.8)

Example 2.5:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation using the
initial-value theorem.

Y ( s)

2s
(s 1) 2 (s 2)

Solution:
Solution of above equation,

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Control Systems

2te

4e

4e

2t

Applying final value theorem,

lim ( s

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s (2s 1)
1 j )( s 1 j)

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CHAPTER#3
3. Transfer Function
3.1. Definition: It is the ratio of Laplace transform of output signal to Laplace transform of input
signal assuming all the initial conditions to be zero, i.e.
Let, there is a given system with input r(t) and output c(t) as shown in Fig.3.1 (a), then its
Laplace domain is shown in Fig.3.1 (b). Here, input and output are R(s) and C(s) respectively.

(b)

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(c)

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(a)

Fig.3.1. (a) A system in time domain, (b) a system in frequency domainand (c) transfer function with differential
operator

G(s) is the transfer function of the system. It can be mathematically represented as follows.
C s

&
G s

R s

zero initial

Equation Section (Next)(3.1)

condition

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Example 3.1: Determine the transfer function of the system shown inFig.3.2.

Fig.3.2. a system in time domain

Solution:
Fig.3.1 is redrawn in frequency domain as shown in Fig.3.2.

Fig.3.2. a system in frequency domain

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Applying KVL to loop-1 of the Fig.3.2

Vi s

1
I s
Cs

R Ls

(3.2)

Applying KVL to loop-2 of the Fig.3.2

1
I s
Cs

(3.3)

1
Cs

(3.4)

Vo s

From eq (2.12),
Vo s /

I s

CsVo s

Vi s

R Ls

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Now, using eq (2.13) in eq (2.10),

1
CsVo s
Cs

Vo s

Vi s

1
R Ls
Cs
Cs

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LCs

(3.5)

RCs 1

Then transfer function of the given system is

G s

(3.6)

RCs 1

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LCs

3.2. General Form of Transfer Function

K s z1 s z2 ... s zm
s

p1 s

p2 ... s

pn

s zi
K

i 1
n

(3.7)

s zj
i 1

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G s

Where, z1 , z2 ...zm are called zeros and p1 , p2 ... pn are called poles.
Number of poles n will always be greater than the number of zeros m

Example 3.2:
Obtain the pole-zero map of the following transfer function.
( s 2)( s 2 j 4)( s 2 j 4)
G (s )
( s 3)( s 4)( s 5)( s 1 j 5)( s 1 j 5)
Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.
Zeros

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s=2

s=3

s=-2-j4

s=4

s=-2+j4

s=5

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s=-1-j5

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s=-1+j5

Fig.3.3. pole-zero map

d
in the transfer function, the differential equation can be obtained
dt

Replacing s by

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3.3. Properties of Transfer function:

Zero initial condition
It is same as Laplace transform of its impulse response

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Poles and zeros can be obtained from the transfer function

Stability can be known
Can be applicable to linear system only
3.4. Advantages of Transfer function:
It is a mathematical model and gain of the system
Replacing s by

d
in the transfer function, the differential equation can be obtained
dt

Poles and zeros can be obtained from the transfer function

Stability can be known
Impulse response can be found
3.5. Disadvantages of Transfer function:
Applicable only to linear system
Not applicable if initial condition cannot be neglected
It gives no information about the actual structure of a physical system

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CHAPTER#4
4. Description of physical system
4.1. Components of a mechanical system: Mechanical systems are of two types, i.e. (i)
translational mechanical system and (ii) rotational mechanical system.
4.1.1. Translational mechanical system
There are three basic elements in a translational mechanical system, i.e. (a) mass, (b)
spring and (c) damper.

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(a) Mass: A mass is denoted by M. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

d 2x
distance x, then f M 2 as shown in Fig.4.1.
dt

Fig.4.1. Force applied on a mass with displacement in one direction

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If a force f is applied on a massM and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f

d 2 x1
dt 2

d 2 x2
dt 2

as shown in Fig.4.2.

X1
f

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X2

Fig.4.2. Force applied on a mass with displacement two directions

(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

distance x, then f Kx as shown in Fig.4.3.

Fig.4.3. Force applied on a spring with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a springK and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f K x1 x2 as shown in Fig.4.4.

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Fig.4.4. Force applied on a spring with displacement in two directions

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(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

dx
as shown in Fig.4.5.
distance x, then f D
dt

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Fig.4.5. Force applied on a damper with displacement in one direction

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If a force f is applied on a damperD and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
dx1 dx2
as shown in Fig.4.6.
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f D
dt
dt

Fig.4.6. Force applied on a damper with displacement in two directions

Rotational mechanical system

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4.1.2.

There are three basic elements in a Rotational mechanical system, i.e. (a) inertia, (b)
spring and (c) damper.
(a) Inertia: A body with aninertia is denoted by J. If a torqueT is applied on it and it
d2
displays distance , then T J 2 . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia
dt
J and it displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite

d2 1 d2 2
.
dt 2
dt 2
(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a torqueT is applied on it and it displays
distance , then T K . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia J and it
displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite
direction, then T K 1 2 .
(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a torqueT is applied on it and it displays
d
distance , then T D
. If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia J and it
dt
direction, then T

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in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite

d 1 d 2
direction, then T D
.
dt
dt
4.2. Components of an electrical system: There are three basic elements in an electrical system,
i.e. (a) resistor (R), (b) inductor(L) and (c) capacitor (C). Electrical systems are of two types,
i.e. (i) voltage source electrical system and (ii) current source electrical system.
4.2.1. Voltage source electrical system: If i is the current through a resistor(Fig.4.7) and v
is the voltage drop in it, then v Ri .
displays distance

If i is the current through an inductor (Fig.4.7) and v is the voltage developed in it,
di
then v L .
dt

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If i is the current through a capacitor(Fig.4.7) and v is the voltage developed in it,

1
idt .
then v
C

4.2.2.

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Fig.4.7. Current and voltage shown in resistor, inductor and capacitor

Current source electrical system:

v
.
R

If i is the current through a resistor and v is the voltage drop in it, then i

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If i is the current through an inductor and v is the voltage developed in it, then
1
i
vdt .
L
If i is the current through a capacitor and v is the voltage developed in it, then
dv
i C .
dt

4.2.3.

Work out problems:

Q.4.1. Find system transfer function betweenvoltage drop across the capacitanceand
input voltage in the followingRC circuit as shown in Fig.4.8.

Fig.4.8.

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Control Systems

Solution
Voltage across resistance, eR (t )

i (t ) R
1
Voltage across capacitance, eC (t )
i(t ) dt
C
Total voltage drop, ei

eR

eC

1
i(t ) dt
C

i (t ) R

Laplace transform of above equation, Ei ( s)

I ( s) R

1
Cs

System transfer function betweenvoltage drop across the capacitanceand input

EC (s )
Ei ( s )

1
s 1

is the time-constant

GA

where, RC

1
RCs 1

IN

voltage,

BE
A

&

Q.4.2. Find system transfer function betweenfunction between the inductance

currentto the source currentin the followingRL circuit as shown in Fig.4.9.

Fig.4.9.

Voltage across the Resistance, e (t )

iR R

Voltage across the Inductance, e(t )

Total current, ia

iR iL

e (t )
R

diL
dt

iR

e( t )
R
1
iL
e(t ) dt
L

1
e(t ) dt
L

Laplace transform of the current source,

Ia (s)

E (s)

1
R

1
and I L ( s )
Ls

E
Ls

Transfer function between the inductance current to the source current,

I L (s )
I a (s)

1
L
s 1
R

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1
s 1

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Control Systems

L
is the time-constant
R

where

IN

Q.4.3. Find system transfer function betweenfunction between the capacitance

voltageto the source voltage in the followingRLC circuit as shown in Fig.4.10.

Fig.4.10.

iR
di
Voltage across the Inductance, eL (t ) L
dt
1
idt
Voltage across thecapacitance, eC (t )
C
Total voltage, e t

di
dt

1
idt
C

&

iR L

GA

Voltage across the Resistance, eR (t )

Laplace transform of the voltage source, E ( s)

I ( s) R Ls

1
Cs

Transfer function between capacitance voltage and source voltage

EC ( s )
E (s)

2
n

1
Cs

s2

2
n

BE
A

Cs R Ls

1
and
LC

R
L
2
C
Q.4.4.Find the transfer function of the following Spring-mass-damperas shown
in Fig.4.11.
where

Fig.4.11.

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Control Systems

Solution

X (s )
F ( s)

1
ms cs k

m s

2
n

GA

(a)

IN

4.3. Analogous system: Fig.4.12 shows a translational mechanical system, a rotational control
system and a voltage-source electrical system.

BE
A

&

(b)

(c)

Fig.4.12. (a) a voltage-source electrical system,(b) a translational mechanical system and (c) a rotational control
system

From Fig4.12 (a), (b) and (c), we have

d 2q
dq 1
R
q v t
2
dt C
dt
d2
d
J 2 D
K
T
dt
dt
d2x
dx
M 2 D
Kx f
dt
dt
L

Equation Chapter 8 Section 0(4.1)

Where,

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Control Systems

idt

(4.2)

The solutions for all the above three equations given by eq (4.2) are same. Therefore, the
above shown three figures are analogous to each other. There are two important types of
analogous systems, i.e. force-voltage (f-v) analogy and force-current analogy. From eq (4.2),
f-v analogy can be drawn as follows.
Rotational
Torque (T)
Inertia (J)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement (
Velocity (u) =

Electrical
Voltage (v)
Inductance (L)
Resistance (R)
Elastance (1/C)
Charge (q)
Current (i) = q

IN

Translational
Force (f)
Mass (M)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement (x)
Velocity (u) = x

Similarly, f-i analogy that can be obtainedfrom eq (4.1), can be drawn as follows.
Rotational
Torque (T)
Inertia (J)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement (
Velocity (u) =

Electrical
Current (i)
Capacitance (C)
Conductance (1/R)
Reciprocal of Inductance (1/L)

GA

Translational
Force (f)
Mass (M)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement (x)
Velocity (u) = x

&

Voltage (v) =

4.4. Mathematical model of armature controlled DC motor: The armature control type speed
control system of a DC motor is shown in Fig.4.6. The following components are used in this
system.
Ra=resistance of armature

BE
A

La=inductance of armature winding

ia=armature current
If=field current

Ea=applied armature voltage

Eb=back emf

Tm=torque developed by motor

=angular displacement of motor shaft
J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to motor shaft
f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft

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Control Systems

The air-gap flux

IN

Fig.4.6. Schematic diagram of armature control type speed control system of a DC motor

is proportional of the field current i.e.

GA

KfIf

(4.3)

The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
air gap flux i.e.

&

Tm = k1 K f I f ia

(4.4)

In armature-controlled D.C. motor,the field current is kept constant,so that eq(4.4) can be
written as follows.
(4.5)

Tm =K t ia

BE
A

The motor back emf being proportional to speed is given as follows.

Eb =K b

d
dt

(4.6)

The differential equation of the armature circuit is

La

dia
dt

Ra ia

Eb

Ea

(4.7)

d
dt

Tm

Kt Ia

(4.8)

The torque equation is

d2
dt 2

Taking the Laplace transforms of equations (4.6), (4.7) and (4.8), assuming zero initial
conditions, we get
Eb s =sK b

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

(4.9)

sLa +Ra I a s

Ea s

Eb s

(4.10)

(s 2 J

Tm ( s )

Kt Ia

(4.11)

sf ) ( s )

25

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Control Systems

From eq(4.9) to (4.11) the transfer function of the system is obtained as,
Kt

(s )
Ea ( s )

G s

Ra

sLa

sJ

(4.12)

Kt K b

Eq(4.12) can be rewritten as

G s

Kt
sLa sJ f
Kt Kb
Ra sLa sJ f

Ra

(s)
Ea ( s )

1
s

(4.13)

The block diagram that is constructed from eq (4.13) is shown in Fig.4.7.

1
sJ

1
s

s
s

GA

IN

1
sL

Fig.4.7. Block diagram of armature control type speed control system of a DC motor

&

The armature circuit inductance La is usually negligible. Therefore, eq(4.13) can be

simplifiedas follows.

The term

s2

Kt
J
Ra

s f

Kt Kb
Ra

(4.14)

(s )
Ea ( s)

Kt Kb
indicates that the back emf of the motor effectively increases the
Ra

BE
A

viscous friction of the system. Let,

K t Kb
Ra

(4.15)

Where f be the effective viscous friction coefficient. The transfer function given by eq(4.15)
may be written in the following form.
s
Ea s

Here K m =

Kt
= motor gain constant, and
Ra f

Km
s s 1

(4.16)

J
= motor time constant.Therefore, the motor
f

torque and back emf constant Kt, Kb are interrelated.

4.5. Mathematical model of field controlled DC motor: The field control type speed control
system of a DC motor is shown in Fig.4.8. The following components are used in this system.
Rf=Field winding resistance

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Control Systems

Lf=inductance of field winding

If=field current
ef=field control voltage
Tm=torque developed by motor
=angular displacement of motor shaft
J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to motor shaft

IN

f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft

Ia
(constant)

Rf

GA
M

&

ef

Tm

Lf

If

Fig.4.8. Block diagram of field control type speed control system of a DC motor

BE
A

In field control motor the armature current is fed from a constant current source.The air-gap
.

Kf If

(4.17)

The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
air gap flux i.e.

Tm =k1K f I f I a

Kt I f

(4.18)

Ef

(4.19)

The equation for the field circuit is

Lf

dI f
dt

Rf I f

The torque equation is

J

d2
dt 2

d
dt

Tm

Kt I f

(4.20)

Taking the Laplace transforms of equations (4.19) and (4.20) assuming zero initial conditions,
we get the following equations

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Control Systems

Rf I f s

Lf s

Ef s

(4.21)

and

Js 2

fs

Tm s

Kt I f s

(4.22)

From eq(4.21) and (4.22) the transfer function of the system is obtained as
G s

Kt

Ef s

s Rf

sL f

Js

(4.23)

The transfer function given by eq(4.23) may be written in the following form.
Kt

Ea s

Rf

Js

s s

Kt
= motor gain constant, and
Rf f

Lf
Rf

= time constant of field circuit and

(4.24)

J
f

GA

Here K m

s Lf s

Km
1 s

IN

= mechanical time constant.For small size motors field control is advantageous.The block
diagram that is constructed from eq (4.24) is shown in Fig.4.9.

&

Ef(s)

sL

K
s sJ f
t

(s)

BE
A

Fig.4.9. Block diagram of field control type speed control system of a DC motor

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Control Systems

CHAPTER#5
5. Block Diagram Algebra
5.1. Basic Definition in Block Diagram model:
Block diagram: It is the pictorial representation of the cause-and-response relationship
between input and output of a physical system.

(b)

(a)

IN

Fig.5.1. (a) A block diagram representation of a system and (b) A block diagram representation with gain of a
system

Output: The value of input multiplied by the gain of the system.

G s R s

GA

C s

(5.1)

Summing point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which two or more signals
can be added or subtracted. In Fig.15, inputs R(s) and B(s) have been given to a summing
point and its output signal is E(s). Here,

R s

B s

(5.2)

BE
A

&

E s

Fig.5.2. A block diagram representation of a systemshowing its different components

Take-off point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which a signal can be taken
directly and supplied to one or more points as shown in Fig.5.2.
Forward path: It is the direction of signal flow from input towards output.
Feedback path: It is the direction of signal flow from output towards input.

5.2. Developing Block Diagram model from mathematical model:

Lets discuss this concept with the following example.
Example: A system is described by following mathematical equations. Find its corresponding
block diagram model.

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

x1

3x1

2 x2

5 x3

(5.3)

x2

x1

4 x2

3 x3

(5.4)

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Control Systems

x3

2 x1

x2

x3

(5.5)

Example: Eq (5.3), (5.4) and (5.5) are combiningly results in the following block diagram
model.
x3(s)

x2(s)
x2(s)

+
++

x s
1

1/s

x 1(s)

x s
++
+
2

4
3

GA

x3(s)

1/s

x2(s)

IN

x 1(s)

x3(s)

x2(s)

1/s

x3(s)

&

x1(s)

+ x s
++

BE
A

Fig.5.3. A block diagram representation of the above example

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5.3.

Control Systems

Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model:

Sl.
No.

Rule
No.

Rule 1

Cascade

Rule 2

Parallel

Rule 3

Rule 4

Rule 5

Configuration

Equivalent

Rule 6

&

GA

IN

G(s)
1 G s H s

BE
A

Name

Loop

Associative
Law

Move takeoff point

after a block
Move takeoff point
before a
block

Rule 7

Move
summingpoint point
after a block

Rule 8

Move
summingpoint point
before a
block

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BEAM & GAIN

10

Rule 9

Move takeoff point

after a
summingpoint

Rule 10

Move takeoff point

before a
summingpoint

IN

Control Systems

Fig.5.4. Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model

Step 1: Reduce the cascade blocks.

Step 2: Reduce the parallel blocks.

GA

5.4. Procedure for reduction of Block Diagram model:

Step 3: Reduce the internal feedback loops.

Step 4: Shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards left.

&

Step 5: Repeat step 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.

C s
R s

Step 6: Find transfer function of whole system as

5.5. Procedure for finding output of Block Diagram model with multiple inputs:

BE
A

Step 1: Consider one input taking rest of the inputs zero, find output using the procedure
described in section 4.3.
Step 2: Follow step 1 for each inputs of the given Block Diagram model and find their
corresponding outputs.
Step 3: Find the resultant output by adding all individual outputs.

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Control Systems

CHAPTER#6
6. Signal Flow Graphs (SFGs)
It is a pictorial representation of a system that graphically displays the signal transmission in it.
6.1. Basic Definitions in SFGs:
Input or source node: It is a node that has only outgoing branches i.e. node r in Fig.6.1.
Output or sink node: It is a node that has only incoming branches i.e. node c in Fig.6.1.
Chain node: It is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches i.e. nodes x1,
x2,x3,x4,x5 and x6 in Fig.6.1.
Gain or transmittance: It is the relationship between variables denoted by two nodes or
value of a branch. In Fig.6.1, transmittances are t1, t2,t3,t4,t5and t6.

IN

Forward path: It is a path from input node to output node without repeating any of the nodes
in between them. In Fig.6.1, there are two forward paths, i.e. path-1:r-x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-c and
path-2:r-x1-x3-x4-x5-x6 -c.

GA

Feedback path: It is a path from output node or a node near output node to a node near input
node without repeating any of the nodes in between them (Fig.6.1).
Loop: It is a closed path that starts from one node and reaches the same node after trading
through other nodes. In Fig.6.1, there are four loops, i.e. loop-1:x2 -x3-x4-x1, loop-2:x5-x6x5, loop-3:x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6 -x1 and loop-4:x1-x3-x4-x5 -x6-x1.

&

Self Loop: It is a loop that starts from one node and reaches the same node without trading
through other nodes i.e. loop in node x4 with transmittance t55 in Fig.6.1.
Path gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a forward path. In
Fig.6.1, the path gains are P1 = t1t2t3 t4t5 (for path-1) and P2 = t9t3t4t5 (for path-2).

Loop gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a loop In Fig.6.1,
there are four loops, i.e. L1 = -t2t3t6, L 2 = -t5t7, L 3 = -t1t2t3t4t5t8, and L4 = -t9t3t4t5t8 .

BE
A

Dummy node: If the first node is not an input node and/or the last node is not an output node
than a node is connected before the existing first node and a node is connected after the
existing last node with unity transmittances. These nodes are called dummy nodes. In Fig.6.1,
r and c are the dummy nodes.
Non-touching Loops: Two or more loops are non-touching loops if they dont have any
common nodes between them. In Fig.6.1, L1 and L2 are non-touching loops
Example:

Fig.6.1. Example of a SFG model

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Control Systems

6.2. Properties SFGs:

Applied to linear system
Arrow indicates signal flow
Nodes represent variables, summing points and take-off points
Algebraic sum of all incoming signals and outgoing nodes is zero
SFG of a system is not unique
Overall gain of an SFG can be determined by using Masons gain formula

6.3. SFG from block diagram model:

Ea(s)

1
sL

KT

IN

Lets find the SFG of following block diagram model shown in Fig.6.2.

sJ

1
s

s
s

GA

E b(s)

(s)

Kb

&

Fig.6.2. Armature type speed control of a DC motor

Step-1: All variables and signals are replaced by nodes.

Step-2: Connect all nodes according to their signal flow.

BE
A

Step-3: Each ofgains is replaced by transmittances of the branches connected between two nodes
of the forward paths.
Step-4: Each ofgains is replaced by transmittances multiplied with (-1) of the branches connected
between two nodes of the forward paths.

1
sL

sJ

1
s

s
s

(a)

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BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

1
sL

sJ

1
s

(b)

IN

Fig.6.3. Armature type speed control of a DC motor

6.4. Masons gain formula:

GA

Transfer function of a system=

C s

G s

Pk

k 1

R s

(6.1)

&

Where,
N= total number of forward paths

Pk= path gain of kth forward path

possible
-touching

BE
A

=1-(
two non-touching loops) - (
loops) +
k=

th

value of

forward path

Example:

Find the overall transfer function of the system given in Fig.6.1 using Masons gain
formula.
Solution:

In Fig.6.1,
No. of forward paths: N 2
Path gain of forward paths: P1

t1t2 t3t4 t5 and P2

Loop gain of individual loops: L1

t 2t3t6 , L2

t6 t3t4 t5
t5t7 , L3

t1t2 t3t4 t5t8 and L4

t9t3t 4t5t8

No. of two non-touching loops = 2 i.e. L1 and L2

No. of more than two non-touching loops = 0

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BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

L1 L2

L3

1 0 1and

G s

G s

P2

L1 L2

0 1 L1 L2 L3 L4

L1L2

1 0 1

t1t2t3t 4t5 1
t1t2t3t 4t5t8

t6t3t 4t5 1

1 t 2 t 3t 6

t5 t7

t9t3t 4t5t8

t 2 t 3t 5t 6 t 7

1 t 2 t 3t 6

t1t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t3 t4 t5
t5 t7 t1t2 t3t 4t5 t8 t9 t3t 4t5 t8

t 2 t3 t5 t6 t7

BE
A

&

GA

IN

G s

P1

L4

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Control Systems

CHAPTER#7
7. Feedback Characteristics of Control System
7.1. Feedback and Non-feedback Control systems
Non-feedback control system: It is a control system that does not have any feedback paths.
It is also known as open-loop control system. It is shown in Fig.7.1 (a) and (b).
Feedback control system: It is a control system that has at least one feedback path. It is also
known as closed-loop control system. It is shown in Fig.7.2 (a) and (b).

(a)

GA

IN

(b)
Fig.7.1. (a) Block diagram of a non-feedback control system and (b) SFG of a non-feedback control system

(a)

(b)

&

Fig.7.2. (a) Block diagram of a feedback control system and (b) SFG of a feedback control system

7.2. Types of Feedback in a Control system

7.2.1. Degenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback
signal opposes the input signal. Here,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) (Feedback signal).

BE
A

Referring Fig.7.3,

E s

R s

B s

(7.1)

and

T1 s

G s
1 G s H s

(7.2)

Fig.7.3. (a) Block diagram of a degenerative feedback control system

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BEAM & GAIN

7.2.2.

Control Systems

Regenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback

signal supports or adds the input signal. Here,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) + (Feedback signal).
Referring Fig.7.4,

E s

R s

B s

(7.3)

and
G s

T2 s

(7.4)

GA

IN

1 G s H s

Fig.7.4. Block diagram of a regenerative feedback control system

&

7.3. Effect of parameter variation on overall gain of a degenerative Feedback Control system
The overall gain or transfer function of a degenerative feedback control system depends upon
these parameters i.e. (i) variation in parameters of plant, and (ii) variation in parameter of
feedback system and (ii) disturbance signals.

BE
A

The term sensitivity is a measure of the effectiveness of feedback on reducing the influence of
any of the above described parameters. For an example, it is used to describe the relative
variations in the overall Transfer function of a system T(s) due to variation in G(s).

7.3.1.

( )
( )

Effect of variation in G(s) on T(s) of a degenerative Feedback Control system

In an open-loop system,

C s

G s R s

Let, due to parameter variation in plant G(s) changes to [G(s) +

|G(s)| >> |
-loop system then changes to

C s

C s
C s

C s

G s

C s

G s R s

G s R s

G s R s

G s R s
(7.5)

In an closed-loop system,

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BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

G s

C s

R s

1 G s H s

Let, due to parameter variation in plant G(s) changes to [G(s) +

|G(s)| >> |
-loop system then changes to
C s
C s

G s

G s

C s

G s

G s
G s

C s

C s

C s

Or

1 G s H s

R s

G s

1 G s H s

G s

1 G s H s

Comparing eq (42 and (43), it is clear that

G s H s is

IN

G s

&

C s

G s

R s

G s

GA

C s

G s H s

G s H s . Therefore,

neglected. Now,
C s

R s

G s

1 G s H s

G s H s

Since, |G(s)| >> |

H s

R s

1 G s H s

R s

(7.6)

R s

= (1 +

BE
A

This concept can be reproved using sensitivity. Sensitivity on T(s) due to variation in G(s) is
given by

SGT

T T
GG

T G
G T

(7.7)

For open-loop system,

SGT

T T
GG

G
G

G
1
G

(7.8)

For closed-loop system,

SGT

T T
GG

Therefore, it is proved that

1 GH
1 GH
(

GH
2

1
1 GH

G 1 GH
)

= (1 +

(7.9)
).

Hence, the effect of

parameter variation in case of closed loop system is reduced by a factor of

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BEAM & GAIN

7.3.2.

Control Systems

Effect of variation in H(s) on T(s) of a degenerative Feedback Control system

This concept can be reproved using sensitivity. Sensitivity on T(s) due to variation in H(s) is
given by

SHT

H
T

T T
H H

T
H

H
G 1 GH

(7.10)

For closed-loop system,

T
H

H
T

1 GH

For higher value of GH, sensitivity

directly the system output.

GH
1 GH

(7.11)

approaches unity. Therefore, change in H affects

IN

S HT

BE
A

&

GA

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

40

Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

&

GA

MODULE#2

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41

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

CHAPTER#8
8. Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

8.1. Time response

Time response c(t)is the variation of output with respect to time. The part of time response
that goes to zero after large interval of time is called transient response ctr(t). The part of time
response that remains after transient response is called steady-state response css(t).

Fig.7.1. Time response of a system

8.2. System dynamics

System dynamics is the study of characteristic and behaviour of dynamic systems

i.e.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Differential equations: First-order systems and Second-order systems,

Laplace transforms,
System transfer function,
Transient response: Unit impulse, Step and Ramp

Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic equations. They are related to
frequency response

L x t

x (t )e st dt

X s

(8.1)

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No.

Control Systems

Function

Time-domain
-1

x(t)=

Laplace domain

{X(s)}

X(s)= {x(t)}
e-

Delay

Unit impulse

Unit step

u(t)

1
s

Ramp

1
s2

Exponential decay

e-

IN

Exponential approach

1 e

GA

s (s

Sine

s2

10

12

s2

Hyperbolic cosine

s
s

Exponentially decaying sine

wave

Exponentially decaying cosine

wave

BE
A

11

Hyperbolic sine

&

Cosine

sin t
)2

(s
t

cos t
(s

)2

8.3. Forced response

C ( s) G ( s) R( s)

K ( s z1 )( s z2 ) ( s zm )
R(s)
( s p1 )( s p2 ) ( s pn )

(8.2)

undefined ; t
0
;t

(8.3)

R(s) input excitation

8.4. Standard test signals

8.4.1. Impulse Signal:
t

0
0

Laplace transform of impulse signal is

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Control Systems

(8.4)

Dirac delta function

xi (t a )

(8.5)

GA

x (t )

IN

Fig.7.2. Impulse signal

&

Integral property of Dirac delta function

(t ) (t to )dt

(to )

(8.6)

Laplace transform of an impulse input

X (s )

st

xi (t a) dt

xi e

sa

(8.7)

BE
A

8.4.2. Step Signal: A step signal u(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

u t

;t

;t

(8.8)

Laplace transform of step signal is

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

U s

K
s

(8.9)

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Control Systems

Fig.7.2. Step signal

8.4.3. Ramp Signal: A step signal r(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

;t

Kt ; t

r t

(8.10)

Laplace transform of ramp signal is

K
s2

(8.11)

GA

IN

R s

8.4.4.

&

Fig.7.3. Ramp signal

Parabolic Signal A step signal a(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

0

a t

Kt 2
2

;t

;t

(8.12)

BE
A

Laplace transform of parabolic signal is

A s

K
s3

(8.13)

Fig.7.4. Parabolic signal

8.4.5.

Sinusoidal Signal A sinusoidal x(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

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Control Systems

x t

(8.14)

sin t

Laplace transform of sinusoidal signal is

X s

st

sin t dt

s2

(8.15)

GA

IN

Fig.7.4. Sinusoidal signal

8.5. Steady-state error:

BE
A

&

A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback is shown as follows.

Fig.7.5. A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback

Here,

E s

R s

B s

(8.16)

B s

C s H s

(8.17)

C s

E s G s

(8.18)

Applying (1) in (9),

E s

C s H s

(8.19)

E s G s H s

(8.20)

R s

Using (11) in (12),

E s

R s

1 G s H s

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

E s

R s

(8.21)

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Control Systems

R s

E s

(8.22)

1 G s H s

Steady-state error,

ess

lim e t

lim sE s

(8.23)

Using (15) in (16),

ess

lim sE s
s

sR s

lim
s

G s H s

01

(8.24)

Therefore, steady-state error depends on two factors, i.e.

IN

(a) type and magnitude of R(s)

(b) open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)
8.6. Types of input and Steady-state error:
8.6.1. Step Input

GA

A
s

R s

Using (18) in (17),

A
s
lim
s 01 G s H s
s

KP

BE
A

01

A
1 lim G s H s

ess

Where,

lim

&

ess

A
G s H s

(8.26)

A
1 KP

(8.27)

lim G s H s
s

(8.25)

(8.28)

8.6.2. Ramp Input

A
s2

R s

(8.29)

Using (18) in (17),

A
s2
lim
s 01 G s H s
s

ess

lim

ess

A
lim sG s H s
s

A
s 1 G s H s

A
s sG s H s

ess

lim

(8.30)
A
KV

Where,

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Control Systems

lim sG s H s

KV

(8.31)

8.6.3. Parabolic Input

A
s3

R s

(8.32)

Using (18) in (17),

A
s3
lim
s 01 G s H s
s

lim
s

lim

ess

A
lim s 2G s H s

(8.33)

A
KA

Where,

IN

A
s 1 G s H s
2

A
s G s H s

ess

GA

ess

lim s 2G s H s

KA

(8.34)

Error Constant

&

Types of input and steady-state error are summarized as follows.

Equation

Position Error Constant (KP)

Velocity Error Constant (KV)

BE
A

Acceleration Error Constant (KA)

KP

lim G s H s

KV

lim sG s H s

KA

lim s 2G s H s

Steady-state error (ess)

ess

A
1 KP

ess

A
KV

ess

A
KA

8.7. Types of open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)and Steady-state error:

8.7.1. Static Error coefficient Method
The general form of G(s)H(s) is
G s H s

K 1 T1s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
s j 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

(8.35)

Here, j = no. of poles at origin (s = 0)

or, type of the system given by eq (28) is j.
8.7.1.1. Type 0
G s H s

K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

(8.36)

Here,

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Control Systems

lim G s H s

KP

(8.37)

Therefore,
ess

A
1 K

(8.38)

8.7.1.2. Type 1
K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s

G s H s

(8.39)

s 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here,

lim sG s H s
s

Therefore,

8.7.1.3. Type 2

K 1 T1s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s

G s H s

KA

lim s 2G s H s
s

(8.41)

(8.42)

s 2 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

&

Here,

A
K

(8.40)

GA

ess

IN

KV

(8.43)

BE
A

Therefore,

ess

A
K

(8.44)

Steady-state error and error constant for different types of input are summarized as follows.

Type

Step input

Ramp input

Parabolic input
KA

KP

ess

KV

A
1 K

Type 1

Type 2

Type 0

ess

ess

0
A
K

A
K

The static error coefficient method has following advantages:

Can provide time variation of error
Simple calculation

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Control Systems

But, the static error coefficient method has following demerits:

BE
A

&

GA

IN

Applicable only to stable system

Applicable only to three standard input signals
Cannot give exact value of error. It gives only mathematical value i.e. 0 or

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Control Systems

8.7.2. Generalized Error coefficient Method

From eq (15),
1
1 G s H s

E s

R s

So,

1
1 G s H s

Where, F1

and F2 s

(8.45)

F1 s F2 s

E s
R s

Using convolution integral to eq (38)

t

f2 t

f1

f1

r t

Using Taylors series of expansion to r t

r t

r t

r t f1

Now, applying eq (40) in eq (39),

t

Now, steady-state error, ess is

ess

f1

2!

r t d

r t d

r t f1

r t f1

2!

3!

r t f1

...

(8.48)

(8.49)

2!

r t f1

d
0

lim e t

r t f1

(8.47)

...

f1

lim

BE
A

lim e t

ess

3!

ess

Therefore,

2!

r t d

f1

r t

&

e t

(8.46)

GA

r t

IN

e t

3!

t f1

...

r t f1

d
0

3!

t f1

...

(8.50)

Eq (44) can be rewritten as

ess

C0 r t

C1r t

C2
r t
2!

C3
r
3!

...

(8.51)

Where, C0 , C1, C2, C3, etc. are dynamic error coefficients. These are given as

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Control Systems

C0

f1

lim F1 s
s

C1

f1

lim
s

dF1 s
ds

C2
0

2!

f1

lim
s

3!

f1

lim
s

(8.52)

ds 2

C3

, and so on

d 2 F1 s

d 3 F1 s
ds 3

A Governing differential equation is given by

y

Kx (t )

IN

8.8. First-order system:

(8.53)

G (s)

(1

s)

(8.54)

BE
A

&

Y (s )
X (s)

GA

Where, Time constant, sec = ,

Static sensitivity (units depend on the input and output variables) = K ,
y(t) is response of the system and
x(t) is input excitation
The System transfer function is

Pole-zero map of a first-order system

Normalized response
In this type of response

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Control Systems

Static components are taken out leaving only the dynamic component
The dynamic components converge to the same value for different physical systems of
the same type or order
Helps in recognizing typical factors of a system
8.8.1. Impulse input to a first-order system
Governing differential equation
y
y

Kxi (t )

(8.55)

Laplacian of the response

Kxi
(1 s)

Kxi

1
s

Time-domain response

y (t )

Kxi

IN

Y (s )

GA

Impulse response function of a first-order system

h (t )
By putting x =1 in the response
i

(8.56)

(8.57)

(8.58)

&

Response of a first-order system to any force excitation

y (t )

e F (t

)d

(8.59)

BE
A

The above equation is called Duhamels integral. Normalized response of a first-order system to
impulse input is shown below.

y (t )
Kxi

t/
8.8.2. Step input to a first-order system
Governing differential equation

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

Kxiu (t )

(8.60)

53

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Laplacian of the response

Kxi
s (1 s )

Y (s )

Kxi
s

Kxi
1
s

(8.61)

Time-domain response
t

y (t )

(8.62)

Kxi 1 e

IN

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

&

GA

y (t )
Kxi

t/

BE
A

8.8.3. Ramp input to a first-order system

Governing differential equation

Kt

(8.63)

Laplacian of the response

Y (s)

K
s 2 (1 s )

1
s2

(8.64)

Time-domain response

y (t )
K

(8.65)

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

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Control Systems

y (t )
Kxi

IN

t/

Laplacian of the response

K
(1

A
s) s

Time-domain response

(8.66)

s 1/

t/

cos t

sin t

1
s

(8.67)

(8.68)

y (t )
KA

KA sin t

&

Y ( s)

GA

8.8.4. Sinusoidal input to a first-order system

Governing differential equation

BE
A

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

8.9. Second-order system

A Governing differential equation is given by

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Control Systems

my cy ky

Kx (t )

(8.69)

Where, = Time constant, sec,

K = Static sensitivity (units depend on the input and output variables),
m = Mass (kg),
c = Damping coefficient (N-s/m),
k = Stiffness (N/m),
y(t) is response of the system and
x(t) is input excitation
The System transfer function is

K
m s

2
n

(8.70)

GA

IN

Y (s)
X ( s)

(a) >1 over damped

Poles are:

&

Pole-zero map

(8.71)

s1,2

BE
A

Graphically, the poles of an over damped system is shown as follows.

(b)

=1 critically damped
Poles are:

s1,2

(8.72)

Graphically, the poles of an critically damped system is shown as follows.

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Control Systems

(c) <1 under damped

Poles are:

s1,2
d

Damped natural frequency

d

GA

Where,

j 1

IN

s1,2

(8.73)

(8.74)

BE
A

&

Graphically, the poles of an critically damped system is shown as follows.

Here, tan

(d)

= 0 un-damped
Poles are:

s1,2

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

(8.75)

57

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Control Systems

Solved problems:

IN

1. A single degree of freedom spring-mass-damper system has the following data: spring stiffness 20
kN/m; mass 0.05 kg; damping coefficient 20 N-s/m. Determine

GA

(a) undamped natural frequency in rad/s and Hz

(b) damping factor
(c) damped natural frequency n rad/s and Hz.
If the above system is given an initial displacement of 0.1 m, trace the phasor of the system for three
cycles of free vibration.
Solution:

632.46 rad/s

632.46
100.66 Hz
2

20

2 km

2 20 103 0.05
2

632.46 1 0.322

600 rad/s

BE
A

0.32

&

fn

20 103
0.05

k
m

fd

600
2

y (t )

95.37 Hz

nt

Ae

0.1e

0.32 632.46 t

2. A second-order system has a damping factor of 0.3 (underdamped system) and an un-damped
natural frequency of 10 rad/s. Keeping the damping factor the same, if the un-damped natural
frequency is changed to 20 rad/s, locate the new poles of the system? What can you say about the
response of the new system?
Solution:
Given,
d1

n1

d2

n2

p1,2

10 rad/s and

n1

n1

d1

n2

20 rad/s

10 1 0.32

9.54 rad/s

20 1 0.32

19.08 rad/s

j 9.54

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p3,4

n2

Control Systems

j19.08

d2

0.3

tan

17.45o

1 0.3

IN

y 2

Y (s)

Kxi
m s2

2
n

2
n

(8.77)

M
2

(8.76)

Kxi

2m

Kxi
(t )
m

&

Laplacian of the output

GA

8.9.1. Second-order Time Response Specifications with Impulse input

(a) O
General equation

1
2

1 (s

(s

1)

BE
A

Time-domain response

Kxi

y(t )

2
n

nt

sinh

1 t

(8.78)

(b) Critically
General equation

2
n

Kxi
(t )
m

(8.79)

Laplacian of the output

Y (s)

Kxi
1
2
m s

y (t )

Kxi
m n

(8.80)

2
n

Time-domain response
n

te

nt

(8.81)

(c) Under

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Control Systems

Poles are: s1,2

General equation

y 2

2
n

Kxi
(t )
m

(8.82)

Laplacian of the output

Y (s )

Kxi
m (s

1
j d )( s

(8.83)

Time-domain response

Kxi
e
m d

nt

sin

(8.84)

IN

y (t )

BE
A

Solved problems:

&

GA

Normalized impulse-response of a second-order system with different damping factors are shown
graphically as follows.

3. A second-order system has an un-damped natural frequency of 100 rad/s and a damping factor of
0.3. The value of the coefficient of the second time derivative (that is m) is 5. If the static
sensitivity is 10, write down the response (do not solve) for a force excitation shown in the figure
in terms of the Duhamels integral for the following periods of time: 0<t<t1, t1<t<t2 and t>t2.

Solution:
n =100

Damping factor

rad/s

=0.3

Coefficient of the second time derivative m=5

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Static sensitivity K=10

d

100 1 0.32

95.39 rad/s

Here,

F (t )

t
t1

;0 t

F (t )

t2 t1

t1

t2 t

; t1

t2

)e

sin

IN

K
F (t
m d 0

y (t )

y (t )

10F
e
5 95.39t1 0

0.3 100

(t

sin 95.39

)d

;0 t t1 ,

30

(t

)d

sin 95.39

(t

sin 95.39

GA

0.057 F
e
t1
0

y (t )

0.057 F 1
e
t1
0

30

)d

sin 95.39

(t

)d

sin 95.39

30

8.9.2.

;t

(t2 t

sin 95.39

BE
A

0.057 F 2
e
t2 t1 t1

30

)d

y (t )

0.057 F 1
e
t1
0

(t2 t

t2 and

&

30

; t1

0.057 F
e
t2 t1 t1

t2

)d

Second-order Time Response Specifications with step input

Y (s)

y (t )

Kxi
m s( s

Kxi
1 e
m n2

Y (s )

y (t )

nt

1
2
n

cosh

2
n

Kxi
m s (s
Kxi
1 e
m n2

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

nt

cos

1)( s

1 t

1
j d )(s

sinh

sin

(8.85)

1)

(8.86)

(8.87)

1 t

(8.88)

61

Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

&

GA

8.10. Time Response Specifications with step-input for under-damped case

For under-damped case, the step-response of a second-order is shown as follows

y (t )

Kxi
1
m n2

nt

tan

sin(

(8.89)

(8.90)

For this case, different time-domain specifications are described below.

(i) Delay time, td

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Control Systems

(ii) Rise time, t r

(iii) Peak time, tp
(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp
(v) Settling time
For unity step input,
(i)Delay time, td: It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
1
e n td
y td
1
sin( d td
2
1 2

1 0.7
wn

td

(8.91)

.
e

1 1

1
e
1

n tr

nt r

sin(

d tr

GA

y tr

IN

(ii) Rise time, tr:The time required by the system response to reach from 10% to 90% of the
final value for over-damped case, from 0% to 100% of the final value for under-damped case
and from 5% to 95% of the critically value for over-damped case.

sin(

d tr

) 0

d tr

wd

(8.92)

&

tr

d 1

(iii) Peak time, tp:The time required by the system response to reach the first maximum value.
dy t p
0
dt
nt p

sin(

dtp

BE
A

dt

nt p

sin(

dtp

dt

wd t p

tan

; where n 1, 2,3,...

For n=1,
wd t p
tp

n
n
wd

(8.93)

(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp: It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
y tp 1
M p % 100
1

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BEAM & GAIN

Mp %

100

n tr

Mp %

100

Mp %

100

dtp

sin(

100

sin(

sin

100

100

sin(

100 e

(8.94)

GA

Mp %

dtp

sin(

) 1

nt p

100

d tr

sin(

IN

Mp %

Control Systems

For

&

(iv) Settling time, ts: It is the time taken by the system response to settle down and stay with in 2%
or 5% its final value.
For 2% error band,
4
ts
(8.95)
wn

5% error band,

ts

Sl. No.

3
wn

(8.96)

Time Specifications
Formula

BE
A

Type

1 0.7
wn

Delay time

td

Rise time

tr

Peak time

tp

Maximum overshoot

Mp %

Settling time

ts

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

wd
wd
100 e

4
wn

64

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Solved Problems:
1. Consider the system shown in Figure 1. To improve the performance of the system a feedback is
added to this system, which results in Figure 2. Determine the value of K so that the damping
ratio of the new system is 0.4. Compare the overshoot, rise time, peak time and settling time and
the nominal value of the systems shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1

IN

Figure 2

Solution:

R s

Here,

G(s)
1 G (s )
2
n

20 and 2

c s

Here,

2
n

0.112

20

20
s ( s 1 20 K )
20
1
s( s 1 20 K )

BE
A

R s

G( s)
1 G( s)

For Figure 2,

20 rad/s and

20
s 20

&

c s

20
s s 1
20
1
s s 1

20 and 2

GA

For Figure 1,

20
1 20 K s 20

1 20K

20 rad/s

But, given that

1 20 K
2 n

1 20 K
2 20

0.4

0.128

Transient characteristics of Figures 1 and 2

CharacteristicS
Overshoot, Mp
Rise time, tr, sec
Peak time, tp, sec
Settling time (2%), sec
Steady-state value, c

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

Figure 1
70%
0.38
0.71
8
1.0

Figure 2
25%
0.48
0.77
2.24
1.0

65

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

1.1. Transient Response using MATLAB

Solution:
>> num=[3 20]
num=
3
20
>> den=[1 5 36]
den=
1
5
36
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
3s+20
-------------------s^2+5s+36
>>step(sys)

C s

20
4 s 25

&

s2

25

R s

BE
A

Solution:
>> num=[20]
num=
20
>> den=[1 425]
den=
1
4
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
20
-------------------s^2+4s+25
>>step(sys)

R s

3s 20
s 5s 36
2

GA

Program 2: Find the step response for the following system

C s

IN

Program 1: Find the step response for the following system

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2. Stability
2.1. Concept of stability
Stability is a very important characteristic of the transient performance of a system. Any working
system is designed considering its stability. Therefore, all instruments are stable with in a boundary of
parameter variations.
A linear time invariant (LTI) system is stable if the following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) Notion-1: When the system is excited by a bounded input, output is also bounded.
Proof:

C s

b0 s m
a0 s n

G s

R s

b1s m
a1 s n

1
1

So,
1

Using convolution integral method

c t
1

(9.2)

(9.3)

(9.4)

G s = impulse response of the system

&

r t

G s R s

(9.1)

GA

c t

... bm
... an

IN

A SISO system is given by

Taking absolute value in both sides,

c t

r t

BE
A

Since, the absolute value of integral is not greater than the integral of absolute value of the integrand
c t

r t

c t

r t

(9.5)

c t

r t

Let, r(t) and c(t) are bounded as follows.

r t

M1

c t

M2

(9.6)

Then,

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Control Systems

c t

M1 g

M2

(9.7)

Hence, first notion of stability is satisfied if

is finite or integrable.

(ii) Notion-2: In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero irrespective of initial
conditions. This type of stability is called asymptotic stability.

2.2. Effect of location of poles on stability

Pole-zero map

Normalized response

Critically damped close-loop poles

Normalized response

BE
A

Pole-zero map

&

GA

IN

Over-damped close-loop poles

Under-dampedclose-loop poles
Pole-zero map

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Normalized response

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Control Systems

Un-dampedclose-loop poles
Normalized response

&

GA

IN

Pole-zero map

BE
A

Negative Under-dampedclose-loop poles

Pole-zero map
Normalized response

Pole-zero map

Negative Over-dampedclose-loop poles

Normalized response

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Control Systems

IN

2.3. Closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis

Closed-loop can be located by replace the denominator of the close-loop response with s=j .

Example:

GA

1. Determine the close-loop poles on the imaginary axis of a system given below.

K
s ( s 1)

G ( s)
Solution:

s2

Replacing s

jw

(K

) j

B( j ) ( j )2 ( j ) K

s K

&

Characteristics equation, B ( s )

BE
A

Comparing real and imaginary terms of L.H.S. with real and imaginary terms of R.H.S., we get

K and

Therefore, Closed-loop poles do not cross the imaginary axis.

2. Determinetheclose the imaginary axis of a system given below.

B ( s ) s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0 .

Solution:

Characteristics equation,

B( j ) ( j )3 6( j )2 8 j
(K 6 2 ) j(8

K 0

) 0

Comparing real and imaginary terms of L.H.S. with real and imaginary terms of R.H.S., we get

8 rad/s and K

48

Therefore, Close-loop poles cross the imaginary axis for K>48.

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Control Systems

2.4. Routh-Hurwitzs Stability Criterion

General form of characteristics equation,
B(s) an sn an 1sn 1

a1s a0 0

(s r1)(s r2) (s rn) 0

Where, ri
2.4.1.

Roots of the characteristics equation

Necessary condition of stability:

Coefficients of the characteristic polynomial must be positive.

Example:

IN

3. Consider a third order polynomial B ( s ) s 3 3s 2 16 s 130 . Although the coefficients of the

above polynomial are positive, determine the roots and hence prove that the rule about
coefficients being positive is only a necessary condition for the roots to be in the left s-plane.
Solution:

s3

3s 2 16s 130

By using Newton-Raphsons method r1

GA

Characteristics equation, B ( s )

5 and r2,3 1

j5

&

Therefore, from the above example, the condition that coefficients of a polynomial should be positive
for all its roots to be in the left s-plane is only a necessary condition.

2.4.2. Sufficient condition of stability:

2.4.2.1.Method I (using determinants)

The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by determinant form

as follows.

BE
A

an

an

an

an

an

an

an

an

(9.8)

Here, the determinant decreases by two along the row by one down the
column. For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.
an 1 an 3 an 5
an 1 an 3
(9.9)
an 1 0, 2
0, 3
an an 2 an 4 0
1
an an 2
0
an 1 an 3

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Control Systems

2.4.2.2.Method II (using arrays)

The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by array form as
follows.

sn
s

n 1

n 2

n 3

an

an

an

an

an

an

bn

bn

bn

cn

cn

cn

(9.10)

Where,
1

(an 1 )(an 2 ) an ( an 3 )
an 1

bn

( an 1 )( an 4 ) an ( an 5 )
an 1

cn

(bn 1 )(an 3 ) an 1 (bn 3 )

bn 1

(9.11)

GA

IN

bn

&

For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.

The number of roots of B(s) with positive real parts is equal to the number of sign
changes an, an-1, bn-1, cn-1, etc.
Example:

4. Find stability of the following system given by G ( s )

K
and H ( s) 1 using Rouths ( s 1)

Hurwitz stability criterion.

BE
A

Solution:

G (s)
1 G (s) H (s)

In the system, T s

K
s ( s 1)
K
1
s ( s 1)

K
s K

Method-I,

Characteristics equation, B s
1

Here,
2

s2

1
1 0
1 K

For stability,

The system is always stable for K>0.

Method-II,

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Control Systems

Characteristics equation, B s

s2

Here, Routh array is

s2 1

s1 1

s0 K
There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array.Therefore, the system is always stable
for K>0.
5. Find stability of the following system given by G ( s )

K
and H ( s )
s( s 2)( s 4)

1 using

Solution:

C (s )
R s

G s
1 G s H s

Method-I,
General form of characteristics equation, B s

6s

8s K

GA

In the system,

K
s ( s 2)( s 4)
K
1
s ( s 2)( s 4)

IN

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion.

a3 s 3

s3

&

And in this system, characteristics equation is B s

a2 s 2

6s2

a1s

8s

a0

Here,sufficient condition of stability suggests

6 K
2

6 K

48 K

0,

K 48 K

BE
A

8 0,

Therefore, the system is always stable for K

48 .

Method-II,

Characteristics equation is B s

s3

6s2

8s

andRouths array
s3

s2

48 K
6
s0
K
s1

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array if K

always stable for 0 K 48 .

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48 . Therefore, the system is

73

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Control Systems

6. Find stability of the following system given by B s

s3 5s 2 10 s 3 using Routh-Hurwitz

stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, given Characteristics equation is B s
s3 1
s

s 3 5s 2 10s 3 0 , andRouths array is

10

5
s 9.4
s0 3

3
0

7. Find stability of the following system given by B s

stability criterion.

s3 2s2 3s 10 using Routh-Hurwitz

GA

Solution:

IN

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is always
stable.

In this problem, given characteristics equation is

s 3 2 s 2 3s 10

B s

0 and

s3 1

s2 2

10

s1

&

Rouths array is

s 10

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.

BE
A

8. Examine stability of the following system given by s5 2s4 4s3 8s2 3s 1 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.

Solution:

In this problem, Rouths array is

s5 1
s4 2
3

s 0

2.5

s1
s0

Here, the criterion fails. To remove the above difficulty, the following two methods can be used.
Method-1
(i) Replace 0 by very small number) and complete the array with .
(ii) Examine the sign change by taking
0
Now, Rouths array becomes

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s5
s

Control Systems

1
2

4
8

3
1

2.5 0

s3
5 8

s2

5 8

s1 2.5

5 8
1

0 , Rouths array becomes

Now putting
s5

2.5 0

s3
5 8

s2

GA

IN

s0

5 8

s1 2.5

5 8

&

s0

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
Method-2
1
Z

. The system characteristic equation s5 2s4 4s3 8s2 3s 1 0 becomes

Replace s by

BE
A

1 2 4 8 3
1 0
Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2 Z

Z5

3Z 4

8Z 3

4Z 2

2Z 1 0

Now, Rouths array becomes

s5

s4

4 1
3
s 3 6.67 1.67 0
1
0
s 2 3.25
0
s1 0.385 0
s0

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
9. Examine stability of the following system given by s5 2s4 2s3 4s2 4s 8 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, Rouths array is

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Control Systems

s5 1 2 4
s4 2 4 8
s3 0 0 0
s2
s1
s0
Here, the criterion fails. To remove the above difficulty, the following two methods can be used.
The auxillary equation is

2s4 4s2 8

As

dA s

s5 1
s4 2
s2
s1
s0

2 4

4 8
8 8 0
2 8 0
24 0

GA

IN

8s3 8s
ds
Now, the array is rewritten as follows.

&

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is
unstable.
10. Examine stability of the following system given by s4 5s3 2s2 3s 1 0 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion. Find the number of roots in the right half of the s-plane.

Solution:
In this problem, Rouths array is
s4

1 .4

4 .1 4

BE
A

s1

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
There are two poles in the right half of the s-plane.

2.4.3. Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) Stability can be judged without solving the characteristic equation
(ii) Less calculation time
(iii) The number of roots in RHP can be found in case of unstable condition
(iv) Range of value of K for system stability can be calculated
(v) Intersection point with the jw-axis can be calculated
(vi) Frequency of oscillation at steady-state is calculated

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Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

2.4.4. Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) It is valid for only real coefficient of the characteristic equation
(ii) Unable to give exact locations of closed-loop poles
(iii) Does not suggest methods for stabilizing an unstable system
(iv) Applicable only to the linear system

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Control Systems

IN

Equation Chapter 1 Section 1

BE
A

&

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

GA

MODULE#3

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Control Systems

CHAPTER#10
10. Root locus
10.1. Definition:
The locus of all the closed-loop poles for various values of the open-loop gain K is called root locus.
The root-locus method is developed by W.R. Evans in 1954. It helps to visualize the various
possibilities of transient response of stable systems.
Closed-loop response function
C ( s)
G ( s)
(10.1)
R(s) 1 G (s )H (s)
Characteristic equation

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.2)

IN

1 G (s) H (s) 1

&

GA

Vector from open-loop pole to the root-locus

BE
A

Vector from open-loop zero to the root-locus

Behaviors of closed-loop poles

Closed-loop poles negative

and real
Closed-loop poles complex
with negative real parts
Closed-loop poles positive and
real
Closed-loop poles complex
with positive real parts

Exponential decay

Stable

Decaying and oscillatory

Stable

Exponential increase

Unstable

Exponential and oscillatory

increase

Unstable

10.2. BASIS for CONSTRUCTION

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10.2.1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Control Systems

Construction steps
Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane
Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
Determine breakaway and break-in points
Draw asymptotes to the root-locus
Determine angles of departure
Determine angles of arrival
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Obtain additional points and complete the root-locus

10.2.2. Starting points

Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

For K=0,

p2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

p1 )( s

GA

(s

(10.3)

IN

1 G (s) H (s) 1

(s

p1 )( s

p2 )...( s

pn ) 0

(10.4)

&

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.

10.2.3. Ending points

Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

1 G (s) H (s) 1

BE
A

For K=

(10.5)

K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s z m )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
(s

z1 )( s

z2 )...( s z m ) 0

(10.6)

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

10.2.4. Magnitude and angle criterion

1 G ( s ) H ( s) 1

G ( s ) H ( s) (cos

j sin )

(10.7)

Angle criterion:
n

m
i

angle in case of ith pole and

1800

360k

(10.8)

j 1

i 1

Where,

angle in case of jth zero

Magnitude criterion:

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Control Systems

G (s ) H ( s)

(10.9)

10.2.5. Determining gain at a root-locus point

Using the magnitude of vectors drawn from open-loop poles and zeros to the root-locus point, we get
n

(s

pi )

i 1
m

(s z j )

| ( s p1 ) || ( s p2 ) | ... | ( s pn ) |
| ( s z1 ) || s z 2 ) | ... | ( s zm ) |

(10.10)

j 1

Gain at a root-locuspoint is determinedusing synthetic division.

Solution:

6
-0.85
5.15

8s

(10.11)

-4.378

-3.079

3.622

K-3.079=0

&

6s 2

GA

S3

IN

Example:
Determine K of the characteristic equation for the root s=-0.85.

BE
A

10.2.6. Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

1. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an open-loop zero on the real axis.
2. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an infinite value on the real axis.
3. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis and end at a
complex open-loop zero or infinity.
4. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis. They may once
again enter the real axis and end at open-loop zeros or at a large value on the real axis.
5. Start from a pair of complex open-loop poles, enter the real axis and end at an openloop zero or an infinite value on the real axis. They could leave the real axis again and
end at a complex open-loop zero or infinity.
10.2.7. Angle contributions from complex poles
Complex poles and zeros do not contribute to the angle criterion on the real axis

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GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

&

10.2.8. Determine breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 K

BE
A

f (s)

f (s )

df ( s )
ds

r ( s s1 ) r 1 ( s

(s

A( s)
B( s )

B ( s ) KA(s )

B(s)
As )

s1 ) r ( s

s 2 )...( s

s2 )...( s sn

r 1)

df ( s )
ds s
f ' (s)

(10.13)

(10.14)
sn

r 1)

(10.15)

( s s1 ) r .( s s3 )..( s sn

r 1)

...

(10.16)

(10.17)

s1

B ' ( s ) KA' ( s )

B ' ( s)
A' ( s )

(10.12)

(10.18)
(10.19)

Therefore,
B ' ( s ) A( s )

B ( s ) A' ( s )

(10.20)

At breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus,

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Control Systems

B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s )
A2 ( s )

dK
ds

(10.21)

GA

IN

10.2.9. Draw asymptotes to the root-locus

&

Angle of asymptotes
1800 k 360
where, k=0, 1, 2, 3..
c
(n m )
Location of asymptotes

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )

(10.22)

s n ( p1 p2 ... pn ) s n 1
s m ( z1 z 2 ...zm ) s m 1 ...

(10.23)

BE
A

sn

[( p1

p2

... pn ) ( z1

pi

( s zi )
n
c)
m
c)

(s
(s

( p1

sn

...

(10.24)
(10.25)
(10.26)

( n m)

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
(n m)

m 1

... zm )]s n

z2

cs

n m 1

z2 ...zm )

...

(10.27)

(10.28)

Angle of departure
d

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180 (

2)

(10.29)

83

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Control Systems

- angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from other open - loop poles
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from all open-loop zeros
Angle of arrival

180 (

) (

(10.30)

BE
A

&

GA

IN

d=180

a=180

- angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from other open- loop zeros
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from all open-loop poles
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Re al[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0
imaginary[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0

(10.31)
(10.32)

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=2
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-1

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Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

IN

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

BE
A

&

GA

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
s( s 1)
dK
2s 1 0
ds
=-0.5
b

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Control Systems

Gain at the breakaway point

K b | 0.5 0 || 0.5 ( 1) | 0.25

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360
( n m)

900 k

180 360k
2

IN

270 k 1
z2 ... zm )

0 1
2

0.5

BE
A

&

Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1
c
( n m)

GA

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
s2 s K 0
1 GH 1
s ( s 1)

B( j )

( j )2 ( j ) K

(K

K
0
j
0
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0

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Control Systems

Here,
1 4K
2

IN

&

GA

BE
A

Problem-2: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 2)( s 4)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
s ( s 2)( s 4)
dK
( s 2)( s 4) s ( s 4) s ( s 2) 0
ds
Breakaway point as b=-0.85 and 3.15
b = 3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point
Gain at the breakaway point

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K b | 0.85 0 || 0.855 ( 2) || 0.85 ( 4) | 3.079

-0.85

-4.378

-3.079

5.15

3.622

K-3.079=0

IN

1800 k 360
( n m)
600 k

180 k
0

180 360 k
3

300 k

1
2

Centroid of asymptotes

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)

z2 ...z m )

0 2 4
3

BE
A

( p1
c

&

GA

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
1 GH 1
s 3 6s 2 8s K 0
s( s 2)( s 4)

B( j )

( j )3

6( j ) 2 8 j

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(K

j (8

89

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Control Systems

When imaginary-part is zero, then

j 8 and when real-part is zero,

then K 6
48 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>48.
6

48

+j2.828

-8+j16.97

-48

6+j2.828

J16.97

6+j2.828

J16.97

-j2.828

-j16.97

No.

Closed-loop pole
on the real axis

-4.309

3.07

-4.50

5.625

-5.00

-5.50

-6.00

48

-6.5

73.125

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-0.85,-0.85

Remarks

Already computed

-0.75 j0.829

&

GA

Therefore, closed-loop pole on the real axis for K=48 at s

IN

15

-0.5 j1.6583

28.875

-0.25 j2.2776

BE
A

Already computed

j2.8284
0.25 j3.448

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-4.5

K=|-4.5-(-4)||-4.5-(-2)||-4.5-0|= 5.625
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
1

-4.5

-6.75

-5.625

1.5

1.25

K-5.625=0

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3
0.75 j 0.829

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IN

BEAM & GAIN

Problem-3: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given

K
s ( s 1)

GA

by G ( s ) H ( s )

BE
A

&

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Control Systems

0
2 s ( s 1) s

2s 3

GA

dK
ds

IN

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
s 2 ( s 1)

Breakaway point as

b= -2/3and 0
= -2/3is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point.
Therefore b= 0 and the two loci start from the origin and breakaway at the origin itself.
b

1800 k 360
( n m)

180 360 k
3

600 k

&

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

180 k

3000 k

BE
A

Centroid of asymptotes

( p1

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)

z2 ... z m )

0 1
3

1
3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed.

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Control Systems

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B( s ) s 3 s 2 K
2
B ( j ) ( j )3 ( j ) 2 K ( K
) j 3
When imaginary-part is zero, then
0 s 0 and when real-part is zero,
2
then K
0.
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles

No.

Closed-loop pole on the

real axis

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-1.5

1.125

0.25j0.82

-2.0

0.50j1.32

-2.5

9.375

-3.0

18

1.125

-1.5

0.75

-1.125

-0.5

0.75

BE
A

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
0.25 j 0.82
s2,3

1.00j2.23

0.75j1.78

GA

&

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-1.5

K=|-1.5-(-1)||-1.5-(0)||-1.5-0|= 1.125
s 3 s 2 1.125 0

IN

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93

Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

by G ( s ) H ( s)

K
s

5s

8s 2 6s

GA

Problem-4: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

s4

5s 3 8 s 2

6s

s(s2

2 s 2)( s 3)

(s 1

j )( s 1

j )( s 3) s

&

Number of open-loop poles n=4

Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-3, s=-1+j and s=-1-j

BE
A

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

GA

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
( s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s )
dK
0
ds
4 s 3 15s 2 16s 6 0

sn

&

s 3 3.75s 2 4s 1.5 0
f ' ( s ) 3s 2 7.5 s 4
This equation is solved using Newton-Raphsons method

f ( sn )
f ' ( sn )

sn

No.

sn

-3.75

BE
A

f ' ( sn )

f ( sn )

sn

-13.5

18.0625

-3.0026

-3.0026

-3.7721

8.5273

-2.5602

-2.5602

-0.9421

4.4624

-2.3491

-2.3491

-0.1658

2.9364

-2.2926

-2.2926

-0.0103

2.5737

-2.2886

-2.2886

-5

-5.03x10

Breakaway point as b= -2.3

Gain at the breakaway point, K | 2.3 ( 3) || 2.3 0 || 2.3 ( 1
1

j ) || 2.3 ( 1

-2.2886

-6.2053

-4.1073

-4.3316

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j) | 4.33

95

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

2.7114

1.7947

1.8926

GA

IN

3,4

2.7114

1.7947

1.893

-2.2886

-0.9676

-1.893

0.4228

0.8270

&

Other closed-loop poles for K=4.3

=-0.2114j0.8814

BE
A

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:
c

1800 k 360
( n m)
450 k

180 360 k
4

135 k 1

2250 k
0

315 k

Centroid of asymptotes

( p1
c

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)

z2 ...z m )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

j 1

0 3 1
4

1.25

96

Control Systems

&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

Steps 6:Determine angles of departure

1800

(1350

26.560

900 )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

71.560

288.44 0

97

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Step 7: As there are no complex open-loop zeros, angle of arrival need not be computed.
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B(s) s 4 5s3 8s 2 6s K
B ( j ) ( j ) 4 5( j )3 8( j ) 2

6j

6
5

When imaginary-part is zero, then

then K

6
5

6
5

K)

j (6

6
and when real-part is zero,
5

8.16 .

There are two closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles
S1

S2

S3,4

-0.25

-2.9217

-0.91420.7969j

1.0742

-0.50

-2.8804

-0.80980.655j

1.5625

-0.75

-2.8593

-1.0

-2.8393

-1.25

-2.8055

-1.75

-2.0

GA

IN

No.

1.7930

-0.58040.6063j

2.0000

-0.47220.6631j

2.3242

-2.6562

-0.37630.7354j

2.8125

-2.5214

-0.23930.8579j

4.0

BE
A

&

-0.69530.5938j

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Control Systems

Additional Information from Root-Locus Plot

1. Gain Margin

GM

20log

K2
K1

(10.33)

Where,

tan

&

GA

IN

K1 is the gain of a feedback system at some point on the root-locus

K2 is the gain at which the system becomes unstable
2. Transient Characteristics

BE
A

3. Percentage overshoot

Mp

/ tan

(10.34)

4. Settling time

ts

(10.35)
n

5. Steady-state error is also related to K.

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s )

K s 2 10s 100
s 4 20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500

,H s

(a) Determine the value of gain at which the system will be stable and as well have a maximum
overshoot of 5%.
(b) What is the gain margin at this point?
(c) What is the steady-state error for a unit step excitation at the above point?
Solution:

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99

BEAM & GAIN

tan

Control Systems

ln M p

(a)

1.0487

460
1

0.690

(10.36)

BE
A

&

GA

IN

1 tan 2

(b) GM

20 log

192.2
261

2.65dB

(c) Position error

Ks

lim s
s

K ( s 2 10 s 100)
20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500

100 K
1500

Steady-state error,

1
1
1 K s 1 100 K / 1500
1500
5.4%
Se ( )
1500 100 261
Se ( )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

1500
1500 100 K

100

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Root locus
The locus of all the closed-loop poles for various values of the open-loop gain K is called root locus.
The root-locus method is developed by W.R. Evans in 1954. It helps to visualize the various
possibilities of transient response of stable systems.
Closed-loop response function
C ( s)
G ( s)
(10.37)
R(s) 1 G (s )H (s)
Characteristic equation

1 G (s) H (s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.38)

&

GA

IN

Vector from open-loop pole to the root-locus

BE
A

Vector from open-loop zero to the root-locus

Behaviors of closed-loop poles

Closed-loop poles negative

and real
Closed-loop poles complex
with negative real parts
Closed-loop poles positive and
real
Closed-loop poles complex
with positive real parts

Exponential decay

Stable

Decaying and oscillatory

Stable

Exponential increase

Unstable

Exponential and oscillatory

increase

Unstable

BASIS for CONSTRUCTION

Construction steps
10. Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

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BEAM & GAIN

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Control Systems

Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
Determine breakaway and break-in points
Draw asymptotes to the root-locus
Determine angles of departure
Determine angles of arrival
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Obtain additional points and complete the root-locus

Starting points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

1 G (s) H (s) 1

p1 )( s

p2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

GA

(s

(10.39)

IN

For K=0,

(s

p1 )( s

p2 )...( s

pn ) 0

(10.40)

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.

&

Ending points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.41)

1 G (s) H (s) 1
For K=

BE
A

K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s z m )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(s

z1 )( s

z2 )...( s z m ) 0

(10.42)

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

Magnitude and angle criterion

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

G ( s ) H ( s ) (cos

j sin )

(10.43)

Angle criterion:
n

m
i

angle in case of ith pole and

1800

360k

(10.44)

j 1

i 1

Where,

angle in case of jth zero

Magnitude criterion:
G ( s ) H ( s)

(10.45)

Determining gain at a root-locus point

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Using the magnitude of vectors drawn from open-loop poles and zeros to the root-locus point, we get
n

(s

pi )

i 1
m

(s z j )

| ( s p1 ) || ( s p2 ) | ... | ( s pn ) |
| ( s z1 ) || s z 2 ) | ... | ( s zm ) |

(10.46)

j 1

Gain at a root-locus point is determined using synthetic division.

Example:
Determine K of the characteristic equation for the root s=-0.85.
Solution:

8s

-0.85

-4.378

5.15

(10.47)

-3.079

GA

6s 2

IN

S3

3.622

K-3.079=0

Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

BE
A

&

6. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an open-loop zero on the real axis.
7. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an infinite value on the real axis.
8. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis and end at a
complex open-loop zero or infinity.
9. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis. They may once
again enter the real axis and end at open-loop zeros or at a large value on the real axis.
10. Start from a pair of complex open-loop poles, enter the real axis and end at an openloop zero or an infinite value on the real axis. They could leave the real axis again and
end at a complex open-loop zero or infinity.

Angle contributions from complex poles

Complex poles and zeros do not contribute to the angle criterion on the real axis

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Determine breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus

A( s)
0
1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 K
B( s )
B ( s ) KA(s )

B(s)
As )

df ( s )
ds

r ( s s1 ) r 1 ( s

(s

GA

K
f (s )

s1 ) r ( s

s2 )...( s sn

s 2 )...( s

r 1)

BE
A

Therefore,

B ' ( s ) A( s )

r 1)

(10.50)
(10.51)

(10.49)

r 1)

...

(10.52)

(10.53)

s1

B ' ( s ) KA' ( s )
K

sn

( s s1 ) r .( s s3 )..( s sn

&

df ( s )
ds s

f ' (s)

IN

f (s)

(10.48)

(10.54)

B ' ( s)
A' ( s )

B ( s ) A' ( s )

(10.55)

(10.56)

At breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus,

dK
B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s )
ds
A2 ( s )

(10.57)

Draw asymptotes to the root-locus

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Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

GA

Angle of asymptotes
1800 k 360
where, k=0, 1, 2, 3..
c
(n m)
Location of asymptotes

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )

(10.58)

s n ( p1 p2 ... pn ) s n 1
s m ( z1 z 2 ...zm ) s m 1 ...

(10.59)

&

K
sn

p2

[( p1

BE
A

( p1

pi

( s zi )

n
c)
m
c)

(s
(s

... pn ) ( z1

sn

...

(10.60)
(10.61)
(10.62)

( n m)

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
(n m)

m 1

... zm )]s n

z2

cs

n m 1

z2 ...zm )

...

(10.63)

(10.64)

Angle of departure
d

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

180 (

2)

(10.65)

105

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

- angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from other open - loop poles
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from all open-loop zeros
Angle of arrival

180 (

) (

(10.66)

BE
A

&

GA

IN

d=180

a=180

- angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from other open- loop zeros
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from all open-loop poles
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Re al[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0
imaginary[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0

(10.67)
(10.68)

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=2
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-1

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Control Systems

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

IN

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

BE
A

&

GA

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
s( s 1)
dK
2s 1 0
ds
=-0.5
b

Gain at the breakaway point

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Control Systems

K b | 0.5 0 || 0.5 ( 1) | 0.25

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360
( n m)

900 k

180 360k
2

IN

270 k 1

Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1
c
( n m)

z2 ... zm )

0.5

BE
A

&

0 1
2

GA

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
s2 s K 0
1 GH 1
s ( s 1)

B( j )

( j )2

(j )

(K

K
0
j
0
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0

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BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Here,
1 4K
2

IN

&

GA

BE
A

Problem-2: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 2)( s 4)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
s ( s 2)( s 4)
dK
( s 2)( s 4) s ( s 4) s ( s 2) 0
ds
b=-0.85 and 3.15
b = 3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point
Gain at the breakaway point

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Control Systems

K b | 0.85 0 || 0.855 ( 2) || 0.85 ( 4) | 3.079

-0.85

-4.378

-3.079

5.15

3.622

K-3.079=0

IN

600 k

1800 k 1

3000 k

180 360 k
3

0
2

Centroid of asymptotes

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)

z 2 ...z m )

0 2 4
3

BE
A

( p1
c

&

1800 k 360
(n m)

GA

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
1 GH 1
s ( s 2)( s 4)

B( j )

( j ) 3 6( j ) 2 8 j

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(K

j (8

111

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

When imaginary-part is zero, then

j 8 and when real-part is zero,

then K 6
48 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>48.
6

48

+j2.828

-8+j16.97

-48

6+j2.828

J16.97

6+j2.828

J16.97

-j2.828

-j16.97

No.

Closed-loop pole
on the real axis

-4.309

3.07

-4.50

5.625

-5.00

-5.50

-6.00

48

-6.5

73.125

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-0.85,-0.85

Remarks

Already computed

-0.75 j0.829

&

GA

Therefore, closed-loop pole on the real axis for K=48 at s

IN

15

-0.5 j1.6583

28.875

-0.25 j2.2776

BE
A

Already computed

j2.8284
0.25 j3.448

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-4.5

K=|-4.5-(-4)||-4.5-(-2)||-4.5-0|= 5.625
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
1

-4.5

-6.75

-5.625

1.5

1.25

K-5.625=0

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3
0.75 j 0.829

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Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

Problem-3: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given

K
s ( s 1)

GA

by G ( s ) H ( s )

BE
A

&

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Control Systems

0
2 s ( s 1) s

2s 3

GA

dK
ds

IN

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
s 2 ( s 1)

b= -2/3and 0
= -2/3is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point.
Therefore b = 0 and the two loci start from the origin and breakaway at the origin itself.
b

1800 k 360
(n m)

180 360 k
3

600 k

&

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

180 k 1

3000 k

BE
A

Centroid of asymptotes

( p1

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)

z2 ... z m )

0 1
3

1
3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed.

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Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B( s ) s 3 s 2 K
2
B ( j ) ( j )3 ( j ) 2 K ( K
) j 3
When imaginary-part is zero, then
0 s 0 and when real-part is zero,
2
then K
0.
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles

No.

Closed-loop pole on the

real axis

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-1.5

1.125

0.25j0.82

-2.0

0.50j1.32

-2.5

9.375

-3.0

18

1.125

-1.5

0.75

-1.125

-0.5

0.75

BE
A

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
0.25 j 0.82
s2,3

1.00j2.23

0.75j1.78

GA

&

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-1.5

K=|-1.5-(-1)||-1.5-(0)||-1.5-0|= 1.125
s 3 s 2 1.125 0

IN

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115

Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

by G ( s ) H ( s)

K
s

5s

8s 2 6s

GA

Problem-4: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

s4

5s 3 8 s 2

6s

s(s2

2 s 2)( s 3)

(s 1

j )( s 1

j )( s 3) s

&

Number of open-loop poles n=4

Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-3, s=-1+j and s=-1-j

BE
A

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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GA

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K
( s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s )
dK
0
ds
4 s 3 15s 2 16s 6 0

sn

&

s 3 3.75s 2 4s 1.5 0
f ' ( s ) 3s 2 7.5s 4
This equation is solved using Newton-Raphsons method

f ( sn )
f ' ( sn )

sn

No.

sn

-3.75

BE
A

f ' ( sn )

f ( sn )

sn

-13.5

18.0625

-3.0026

-3.0026

-3.7721

8.5273

-2.5602

-2.5602

-0.9421

4.4624

-2.3491

-2.3491

-0.1658

2.9364

-2.2926

-2.2926

-0.0103

2.5737

-2.2886

-2.2886

-5

-5.03x10

b= -2.3
Gain at the breakaway point, K | 2.3 ( 3) || 2.3 0 || 2.3 ( 1

j ) || 2.3 ( 1

-2.2886

-6.2053

-4.1073

-4.3316

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2.7114

1.7947

1.8926

1
s

3,4

2.7114

1.7947

-2.2886

-0.9676

1.893

-1.893

GA

IN

Other closed-loop poles for K=4.3

0.8270

0.4228

=-0.2114j0.8814

1800 k 360
( n m)

180 360 k
4

450 k

&

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

135 k 1

2250 k

BE
A
0

315 k

Centroid of asymptotes

( p1

p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)

z2 ...z m )

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j 1

0 3 1
4

1.25

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&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

Steps 6: Determine angles of departure

1800

(1350

26.560

900 )

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288.44 0

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Step 7: As there are no complex open-loop zeros, angle of arrival need not be computed.
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B(s) s 4 5s3 8s 2 6s K
B ( j ) ( j ) 4 5( j )3 8( j ) 2

6j

6
5

When imaginary-part is zero, then

then K

6
5

6
5

K)

j (6

6
and when real-part is zero,
5

8.16 .

There are two closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles
S1

S2

S3,4

-0.25

-2.9217

-0.91420.7969j

1.0742

-0.50

-2.8804

-0.80980.655j

1.5625

-0.75

-2.8593

-1.0

-2.8393

-1.25

-2.8055

-1.75

-2.0

GA

IN

No.

1.7930

-0.58040.6063j

2.0000

-0.47220.6631j

2.3242

-2.6562

-0.37630.7354j

2.8125

-2.5214

-0.23930.8579j

4.0

BE
A

&

-0.69530.5938j

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Additional Information from Root-Locus Plot

6. Gain Margin

GM

20log

K2
K1

(10.69)

Where,

tan

&

GA

IN

K1 is the gain of a feedback system at some point on the root-locus

K2 is the gain at which the system becomes unstable
7. Transient Characteristics

BE
A

8. Percentage overshoot

Mp

/ tan

(10.70)

9. Settling time

ts

(10.71)
n

10. Steady-state error is also related to K.

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s )

K s 2 10s 100
s 4 20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500

,H s

(a) Determine the value of gain at which the system will be stable and as well have a maximum
overshoot of 5%.
(b) What is the gain margin at this point?
(c) What is the steady-state error for a unit step excitation at the above point?
Solution:

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tan

Control Systems

ln M p

(b)

1.0487

460
1

(10.72)

0.690

BE
A

&

GA

IN

1 tan 2

(b) GM

20 log

192.2
261

2.65dB

(c) Position error

Ks

lim s
s

K ( s 2 10 s 100)
20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500

100 K
1500

Steady-state error,

1
1
1500
1 K s 1 100 K / 1500 1500 100 K
1500
5.4%
Se ( )
1500 100 261
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1
Se ( )

a.

Root Locus using MATLAB

Program 1:Draw the root locus for the following system

C s
R s

K
s 1 s 2 s 4 s 5

Solution:
>> num=[01]

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IN

40

BE
A

&

GA

num=
0
1
>>q1=[1 1];
>> q2=[1 2];
>> q3=[1 3];
>> q4=[1 4];
>>den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
>> den=conv(den,q4);
den=
1
12
49
78
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
-------------------s^4+12s^3+49s^2+78s+40
>>rlocus(sys)

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11. Frequency Response Analysis

11.1. Frequency Response
This is defined as the steady-state response of a system due to a sinusoidal input.

Here,

C s

G s

N s

N s R s
s a s b s c ...

GA

C s
Let, r t

(11.1)

s a s b s c ...

IN

R s

A sin t , then

R s

&

Using eq (3) in eq (2),

s2

N s

C s

s a

s b

A1

C s

(11.3)

s a s b s c ... s
A1

(11.2)

(11.4)

A1

B1
...
s c
s j

B2
s j

BE
A

In time domain, eq (5) becomes

at

A1e

c t

A2 e

bt

A3e

ct

... B1e

j t

B2 e j

(11.5)

The term with Ai terms are decaying components. So, they tend to zero as time tends to infinity.

Then, eq (5) becomes

Css t

j t

B1e

B2e j

(11.6)

Where,
B1
B2
Since, G j

and

A G s
s

A G s
s

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s j

A
G
2j

j G

(11.7)
A
G j
2j

j G j

G j

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Control Systems

A
G j
2j

c t

c t

c t

A
G j
2j

AG j
c t

Where, B

AG j

j t

ej

(11.8)

(11.9)
(11.10)

sin

sin

e
2j

(11.11)

AG j

Therefore, the steady-state response of the system for a sinusoidal input of magnitude A and
is a sinusoidal output with a magnitude B

The following plots are used in frequency response.

and phase shift

BE
A

&

GA

Polar plot
Bode plot
Magnitude versus phase angle plot
11.2. Definition of frequency domain specifications

, frequency

IN

frequency

(i) Resonant peak M r : Maximum value of M j

(ii) Resonant frequency
(iii) Cut-off frequency

when

is varied from 0 to

: The frequency at which M r occurs

: The frequency at which M j

has a value

1
. It is the frequency
2

at which the magnitude is 3dB below its zero frequency value

(iv) Band-width
system is

: It is the range of frequencies in which the magnitude of a closed-loop

1
times of M r
2

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(v) Phase cross-over frequency: The frequency at which phase plot crosses -1800
(vi) Gain margin (GM): It is the increase in open-loop gain in dB required to drive the closed-loop
system to the verge of instability
(vii) Gain cross-over frequency: The frequency at which gain or magnitude plot crosses 0dB line
(viii)
Phase margin (PM): It is the increase in open-loop phase shift in degree required to
drive the closed-loop system to the verge of instability

11.3. Correlation between time and frequency response

For a second order system
2
n

R s
Putting s

j
2
n

C j
C j

R j

1 u

BE
A

(11.13)

j2

2
n

C j

Now,

&

, then
n

j2

R j

Let, u

GA

2
n

R j

(11.12)

2
n

ns

IN

C s

M j

(11.14)

j2 u

M j

(11.15)

M j

Where,

M j
1 u2
1

tan

2 u

(11.16)

2 u
1 u2

Now,
Mr

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1
2
n

1 2

(11.17)

(11.18)

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Control Systems

1 2

PM
Where,

tan

1800

(11.19)
(11.20)

1 2

BE
A

&

Equation Chapter 12 Section 1

GA

IN

11.4. Advantages
Good accuracy
Possible to test in lab
Can be used to obtain transfer function that is not possible with analytical techniques
Easy to design open-loop transfer function from closed-loop performance in frequency
domain
It is very easy to visualize the effect of disturbance and parameter variations.
11.5. Disadvantages
Applied only to linear systems
Frequency response for existing system is possible to obtain if the time constant is up to few
minutes
Time consuming procedure
Old and back dated method

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20log | G ( j ) H ( j ) | dB

BE
A

Phase plot on a semi-log paper

&

GA

IN

12. Bode Plots

12.1. Magnitude plot and phase plot on a semi-log paper
Magnitude plot on a semi-log paper

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12.2. Magnitude versus phase Bode plot Nichols plot

Laplace term

Frequency response

BE
A

No

Table 12.1 Basic frequency response factors

Type of factor

Constant

Derivative factor

1/s

1/ j

Integral factor

(1+ j

s+1

1/( s+1)

s2

2
n

2
n

2
n

2
n

1
s

First order integral factor

1/(1+ j
ns

First order derivative factor

j2

j2

1
ns

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Second order derivative factor

Second order integral factor

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12.3. Derivative factor: magnitude

M

20 log j
j

20log

20log

dB

20log

(12.1)

900

(12.2)
2

20log

(12.3)

dB/decade

20log10

20 dB/decade

(12.4)

20 log 2 6 dB/octave

(12.5)

10

12

14

16

17

10

18

19

20

BE
A

&

M dB

GA

2
1

IN

Table 12.2 Magnitude variation of a derivative factor for various multiples of the initial
frequency

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IN

12.4. Derivative Factor: (phase)

Table 15.3Derivative factor

BE
A

Magnitude, dB
Phase, degrees

Frequency, rad/s
0.1

10

30

100

-20
90

0
90

20
90

30
90

40
90

12.5. Integral factor: magnitude

1
j

20log
j

20log

20log

20log

dB

(12.6)

270 0

(12.7)

20log

dB/decade

(12.8)

M
M

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20log10

20 dB/decade

20log 2

6 dB/octave

(12.9)
(12.10)

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Table 12.4Magnitude variation of an integral factor for various multiples of the initial frequency
2

-16

-17

-18

-19

10

M , dB

-6

-10

-12

-14

-20

BE
A

12.6. Integral factor: phase

&

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Table 12.5Bode magnitude and phase of an integral factor

Frequency, rad/s
0.1

10

20

100

Magnitude, dB

20

-20

-26

-40

Phase, degrees

270 270 270 270 270

12.7. First-order derivative factor: magnitude

j

20 log 1

20log( 1

For << , M
c

For >> ,
c

20log

(12.11)

dB

GA

dB

IN

(12.12)

Here,

=1/ = corner frequency

c

For >
c

20log

20log

&

20log10

20log

(12.13)

(12.14)

20 dB/decade

(12.15)

20 log 2 6 dB/octave

BE
A

Table 12.6Magnitude variation of a first-order derivative factor for various multiples of the corner
frequency

10

10

12

14

16

17

18

19

20

M,

dB

12.8. First-order derivative factor: phase

1

;w

0
450 1 log

;
c

90

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(12.16)

arctan

wc
10

wc
10
w 10 wc

(12.17)

; w 10 wc

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Table 12.7Phase angles of a first-order derivative factor around the corner frequency

10

45

59

66

72

76

80

83

86

88

90

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

10

14

18

24

31

45

, deg
c

, deg

12.9. First-order derivative factor

For
1
Table 15.8Bode magnitude and phase

0.1 1

Phase, degrees

10 20 100

14 20 26 40

GA

Magnitude, dB 0

IN

Frequency, rad/s

45 76 90 90 90

BE
A

&

First-order derivative factor: magnitude (3 dB correction at the corner frequency)

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IN

First-order derivative Factor: phase

12.10. First-order integral factor: magnitude

1
j

20log

BE
A

20log

1
0,
dB

20log

wc

wc

dB

(12.18)

(12.19)

20log

20log

20log

dB/decade

(12.20)

20log 2

(12.21)

6 dB/octave

Table 12.9Magnitude variation of a first-order integral factor for various multiples of the corner
frequency

10

-10

-12

-14

-16

-17

-18

-19

-20

M,
dB

-6

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Table 12.10Phase angles of a first-order integral factor around the corner frequency
1

301

294

288

284

280

277

274

272

10

deg

315
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

270
1

360

358

356

353

350

First-order integral factor: phase

=360, <

342

336

329

315

/10

360 450 1 log

346

c/10<

<10

360 450 1 log

GA

=270, >10

IN

deg

&

Table 12.11Bode magnitude and phase of a first-order integral factor

Frequency, rad/s

0.01 0.1

0.7

10

20

100

-2

-3

-17

-20

-26

-40

Phase, degrees

360 322 315 277 270 270 270

Magnitude, dB 0

BE
A

360

First-order integral factor: magnitude

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BE
A

&

GA

First-order integral factor: phase

12.12. Second-order derivative factor: magnitude

20 log |

2
n

20 log

2
n

j2
2

n
2

2
n

For w

wn

20log (2zwn ), w
M

40 logw, w

(12.22)

M 40logwn , w
2

wn

(12.23)

wn

wn

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40log

40 log

40log

(12.24)

dB/decade

40log10

(12.25)

40 dB/decade

(12.26)

40log 2 12 dB/octave

Magnitude variation of a second-order derivative factor for various multiples of the resonant
frequency
1

10

12

20

24

28

32

34

36

38

40

M dB

IN

Second-order derivative factor: phase

2
n

j2

n
2

| arctan

00 ,

900 ,

(12.27)

2
n

GA

wn
10
w wn

(12.28)

&

180 , w 10 wn

Bode magnitude and phase

n

0.01

0.1

0.7

10

100

Magnitude, dB

-4

-4

18

40

80

Phase, degrees

39

90

167

180

180

BE
A

Frequency, rad/s

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BE
A

&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

Second-order integral factor

20 log

2
n

dB

j2

2
n

M - 40log

n,

M=-20log (2

<<
2

40log

40log

2
n

dB

(12.29)

2
n

), =

M= - 40 log , >>

20 log

40log

dB / decade

(12.30)

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40log10dB

40dB

(12.31)

Magnitude variation of a second-order integral factor for various multiples of the resonant frequency

10

-12

-20

-24

-28

-32

-34

-36

-38

-40

M
, dB

1
n

=0, <

=1800, >

Bode magnitude and phase

2
n

0.1

0.7

10

100

-18

-40

-80

360

360

321

270

193

180

180

BE
A

Magnitude plot

(12.32)

Phase, degrees

&

Magnitude, dB

0.01

=2700, =

Frequency, rad/s

n
2

360 arctan

j2

IN

GA

2
n

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IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

&

Phase plot

Example 14.1
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

G (s) H (s)

1
s( s 1)

Solution
Applying s

j ,

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G( j )H ( j )

Control Systems

1
j (j

1)

The above frequency response function has two factors: (1) Integral factor and (2) First order integral
factor with a corner frequency of 1 rad/s
Bode magnitude of the transfer function
Frequency, radians/s

20log

1
dB
j
1
j

dB

10

100

40

20

-20

-40

-3

-20

-40

40

20

-3

-40

-80

= 100 rad/s

&

GA

Magnitude, dB

0.1

IN

20log

0.01

Frequency, rad/s

0.1

10

100

270

270

270

270

270

360

360

315

270

270

270

270

225

180

180

0.01

BE
A

1
degrees
j
1

degrees

Bode phase, degrees

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BE
A

&

GA

IN

GM=80 dB

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Example 14.2
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?
G (s) H (s)

1
s ( s 2) s

4)

Solution
1
j
j
8j
1
1
2
4
The corner frequencies corresponding to first order integral factors are 2 rad/s and 4 rad/s. Minimum
frequency is chosen as 0.01 rad/s and maximum frequency 100 rad/s.
G( j )H ( j )

IN

Table 14.1 Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order

1
2
x2
4
-6

x1
2
0

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB

x1
2
0

x10
20
-20

x2
20
-20

x1
10
-14

x1
20
-20

GA

term

x2
40
-26

x1
10
-14

x10
100
-34

Table 14.2 Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order

1
4
x1
4
0

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB

x10
40
-20

x2
40
-20

&

term

x1
20
-14

x2
20
-14

x1
10
-8

x1
10
-8

x10
100
-28

Factor

0.1

BE
A

0.01

Table 12.3 Bode magnitude

20 log

1
8

20 log

20 log

20log

1
j

j
2

Frequency, rad/s
0.2

0.4

10

20

40

100

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

40

20

14

-6

-12

-20

-26

-32

-40

-1

-3

-6

-14

-20

-26

-34

-1

-3

-8

-14

-20

-28

22

-4

-10

-18

-28

-39

-60

-78

-96

-120

1
j
4

Bode
magnitude,

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dB

GA

IN

Bode magnitude

&

Bode phase

Frequency, rad/s

0.1

0.2

0.4

10

20

40

100

1
8

1
j

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

360

360

360

346

328

315

301

284

270

270

270

360

360

360

360

342

326

315

297

285

270

270

270

270

270

256

220

191

166

131

105

90

90

BE
A

0.01

Factor

j
2

j
4
Phase
degrees

Phase plot

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A

&

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IN

BEAM & GAIN

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&

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IN

Bode plot

Example 12.1
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

BE
A

G ( s) H ( s)

1
s ( s 1)
2

Solution

G ( j )H ( j )

1
( j )( j )( j

1)

There are two integral factors and an integral first-order term with a corner frequency of 1 rad/s
Bode magnitude
Frequency, rad/s
0.01

0.1

10

100

20log

1
dB
j

40

20

-20

-40

20log

1
dB
j

40

20

-20

-40

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Control Systems

20log

1
j

dB

Bode magnitude, dB

-3

-20

-40

80

40

-3

-60

-120

Example 12.2
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?
G (s) H (s)

1
s

5s

8s 2

IN

Solution

1
s(s

G( j )H ( j )

2s 2)(s 3)
1
( j )2

2( j ) 2 (( j ) 3)
1
3

G( j )H ( j )
j

2 and

&

j2

1
.
2

j2 ) 2 ( j

1)
3
Comparing the second order term with a standard second order term,
2
n

(2

GA

G (s )H (s)

6s

BE
A

For the first order integral factor,

c=3

rad/s

For > 0.5, the response at resonance is less than theresponse at frequencies less than the resonant
frequencies
Table Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral second-order term
x1

x10

x1

x2

x3

x1

x1

x10

x3

x1

Frequency, rad/s

1.4

14

14

30

30

10

10

100

30

Magnitude, dB

-6

-46

-46

-58

58

38

-38

-78

-58

-18

Table Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order term

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB

x1
3
0

x3
30
-20

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

x2
30
-20

x1
14
-14

x3
30
-20

x1
10
-10

x1
10
-10

x10
100
-30

148

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Control Systems

Bode magnitude
Frequency, rad/s
n

0.1

0.14

0.3

10

14

30

100

20 log

1
3

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

20log

1
j

40

20

17

10

-3

-10

-20

-23

-30

-40

-6

-6

-6

-6

-6

-9

-18

-38

-46

-58

-78

IN

0.01

-1

-3

-10

-14

-20

-30

24

-23

-93

-118

-158

1
(2

j (2 )

20log
j

GA

-6

-16

-41

-78

BE
A

Bode magnitude, dB

&

20log

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Control Systems

Bode phase
Frequency, rad/s
n

0.1

0.14

0.3

1
3

1
degrees
j

270

270

270

270

360

360

360

360

360

360

270

270

250

1
2

(2

10

14

30

100

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

343

297

270

221

192

180

180

180

360

336

330

315

291

285

270

270

253

183

150

86

33

15

j (2 )

1
j

, degrees

BE
A

&

Bode phase, degrees

GA

degrees

IN

0.01

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Control Systems

GA

IN

Nichols plot

13. Polar Plots

It is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control systems by using the polar plot of
their open-loop transfer functions.

&

Example 13.1
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer functionfor

Frequency response

G (s) H ( s)

G( j )H ( j )

BE
A

Magnitude

K
s ( s 1)
K
j (j

(14.33)

(14.34)

1)

G( j )H ( )

(14.35)

Angle

G( j ) H ( j )
270 0

tan

(14.36)

G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0

(14.37)

Magnitude and phaseof the open-loopfrequency transfer function

No.

Frequency,
rad/s

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Magnitude

Phase,
degrees
270

151

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

0.2

4.9029

259

0.4

2.3212

248

0.8

0.9761

231

0.7071

225

0.0606

194

10

0.01

186

50

0.0004

181

100

0.0001

10

200

GA

181

K
and K=1
s s 1

BE
A

&

Polar plot of the transfer function

IN

=0.2
Example 14.2
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer functionfor K=1, 10, 25, 55
K
GH
s ( s 2)( s 4)
Solution
Frequency response

G( j )H ( j )

j (j

K
2)( j

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4)

152

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Control Systems

Magnitude

G( j )H ( j )

16

Angle

G( j ) H ( j )

tan

tan

4
G( j )H ( j )

The lies in II and III quadrants as 90

270 0
Magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequencytransfer function (K=1)
Frequency,
rad/s

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

0.1

1.2481

266

0.2

0.6211

261

0.4

0.3049

0.8

0.1423

10

50

IN

No.

253

GA

237
229

0.0099

162

0.0009

123

97

&

0.1085

K
for K=1, 10, 25, 55
s( s 2)( s 4)

BE
A

Polar plot of the transfer function GH

Example 14.3
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer function G ( s ) H ( s )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

K
s ( s 1)
2

153

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

Solution
Frequency response

G( j )H ( j )

K
( j )2 ( j

1)

Magnitude

G( j )H ( j )

K
2

Angle

tan 1
The lies in II quadrant only as 90 0
G( j )H ( j )

180 0

G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0
Magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequency transfer function (K=1)
Frequency,
rad/s

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

0.4

5.803

158

0.5

0.8

GA

153

1.2201

141

0.7071

135

0.1118

117

0.0351

108

3.5777

&

IN

No.

0.0152

104

0.0078

101

BE
A

Polar plot of the transfer function GH

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

K
for K=1, 10, 25, 55
s( s 2)( s 4)

154

Control Systems

&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

Bode plot using MATLAB

C s

40
.
R s
s s 1 s 4
Determine the gain margin, phase margin, gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency.
Solution:
>> num=[0 40]
num=
0
40
>> q1=[1 0];
>> q2=[1 1];
>> q3=[1 4];
>> den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
den=
1
9
24
16
0
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
-------------------s^4+9s^3+24s^2+16s
>>bode(sys)
>>margin(sys)

BE
A

Program 1: Sketch the bode plot for the open loop transfer function

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Control Systems

14. Nyquist plot

14.1.Definition
Nyquist criterion is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control systems
by using the Nyquist plot of their open-loop transfer functions.
14.2.Theory
Feedback transfer function

C ( s)
R(s)

G ( s)
1 G (s )H (s)

(14.1)

Poles and zeros of theopen-loop transfer function

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
G (s) H (s)
( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )
(s

p1 )( s

p 2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )

IN

1 G (s) H (s)

(14.2)

(14.3)

Number of closed-loop poles - Number of zeros of 1+GH = N umber of open-loop poles

(s

zc1 )(s

zc2 )( s

z cn )

GA

1 G ( s ) H ( s)

(s

zc1 , zc2 ... zc = zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)

n

p1 )( s

p 2 )...( s

pn )

(14.4)

&

These are also poles of the close-loop transfer function

Magnitude

Angle

1 G( s) H (s )

(s

p1 ) ( s

p 2 ) ... ( s

pn ) .

s zc1 s zc2 s zcn

(s

p1 ) ( s

p 2 ) (s

pn )

(14.5)

(14.6)

BE
A

1 G ( s ) H (s )

s zc1 s zc2 ... s zcn

The s-plane to 1+GH plane mappingphase angle of the 1+G(s)H(s) vector, corresponding to a point on
the s-plane is the difference between the sum of the phase of all vectors drawn from zeros of
1+GH(close loop poles) and open loops on the s plane. If this point s is moved along a closed contour
enclosing any or all of theabove zeros and poles, only the phase of the vector of each of the enclosed
zeros or open-loop poles will change by 3600. The directionwill be in the same sense of the contour
enclosing zeros and in the opposite sense for the contour enclosing open-loop poles.

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Control Systems

&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

14.3.Principle of argument

When a closed contour in the s-plane encloses a certain number of poles and zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) in
the clockwise direction, the number ofencirclements of the origin by the corresponding contour in the
G(s)H(s)plane will encircle the point (-1,0) a number of times given by thedifference between the
number of its zeros and poles of 1+G(s)H(s) it enclosed on the s-plane.

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BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems

GH from the polar plot

Magnitude zero since n >m

IN

GH from the mirror image of the

polar plot

ej

BE
A

&

GA

Modified contour on the s-plane forchecking the existence of closed-looppoles

Magnitude of GH remains the same alongthe contourPhase of changes from 270 to 90 degrees

14.4.Gain Margin and Phase Margin

Phase crossover frequency p is the frequency at which the open-loop transfer function has a phase of

1800. The gain crossover frequency

is the frequency at whichthe open-loop transfer function has a

unit gain
Gain margin

20log G ( j

)H ( j

(14.7)

) 180o

(14.8)

Phase margin

G( j

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)H ( j

158

Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

14.5.Procedure
(1) Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane
(2) Draw the closed contour and avoid open-loop poles on the imaginary axis
(3) Count the number of open-loop poles enclosed in the above contour of step 2, say P
(4) Plot G(j )H(j ) and its reflection on the GH plane and map part of the small semi-circle
detour on the s-plane around poles (if any) on the imaginary axis.
(5) Once the entire s-plane contour is mapped on to the GH plane, count the number of
encirclements of the point (-1,0) and its direction. Clockwise encirclement is considered
positive, say N.
(6) The number of closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane is given by Z=N+P. if Z >0, the
system is unstable.
(7) Determine gain margin, phase margin, and critical value of open-loop gain.

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Control Systems

Example 14.1
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systemwhose open-loop transfer
function is given by

G (s) H ( s)

K
s ( s 1)

&

GA

IN

Solution
Step 1Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane. Open-loop poles are at s=0 and 1. Let K=1
Step 2 Draw the closed contour on the s-plane to check the existenceof closed-loop poles in the righthalf s-plane.
Open-loop poles and s-plane contour

G ( j )H ( )

tan

BE
A

G( j ) H ( j )

No.

Frequency,
rad/s

0.2

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

4.9029

259

270

101

0.4

2.3212

248

280

91

0.8

0.9761

231

290

80

0.7071

225

300

69

0.0606

194

310

58

10

0.01

186

320

46

50

0.0004

181

330

35

100

0.0001

181

340

23

Positive
frequencies

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

, GH plane,
, s-plane, deg deg

160

BEAM & GAIN

Control Systems
1

200

10

-200

11

180

350

12

180

-100

0.0001

179

10

348

12

-50

0.0004

179

20

337

13

-10

0.01

174

30

325

14

-4

0.0606

166

40

314

15

-1

0.7071

135

50

302

16

-0.8

0.9761

129

60

291

17

-0.4

2.3212

112

70

280

18

-0.2

4.9029

101

80

269

BE
A

&

GA

Negative
frequencies

IN

The above system is stable. Here, phase crossover frequency is very large (infinity) and gain
crossover frequency 0.786 rad/s. Phase angle corresponding to gain crossover frequency= 2320and
o
Phase margin is 52
Example 14.2.
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systemwhose open-loop transfer
function is given by

G( s) H ( s)

55
s ( s 2)(s 4)

Solution
Step 1Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane. Open-loop poles are at s=0, -2 and 4. Let K=1
Step 2 Draw the closed contour on the s-plane to check the existenceof closed-loop poles in the righthalf s-plane.
Open-loop poles and s-plane contour

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Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

The number of open-loop pole enclosed, P is zero

G( j ) H ( j )

tan

16

tan

No.

Magnitude

, s-plane,
deg

213

270

2.1741

198

280

1.4568

187

290

2.83

1.1446

180

300

1.017

177

310

2.5

BE
A

1.5

Positive
frequencies

Phase,
degrees

3.4332

&

Frequency

GA

G( j )H ( j )

3.5

0.7334

169

320

4.5

0.4122

156

330

0.319

150

340

5.5

0.2513

146

350

10

0.201

142

11

0.1339

136

10

12

0.0932

131

20

13

0.0673

126

30

14

-9

0.0673

234

40

15

-8

0.0932

229

50

16

-7

0.1339

224

60

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Negative
frequencies

162

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Control Systems

-6

0.201

218

70

18

-5.5

0.2513

214

80

19

-5

0.319

210

90

20

-4.5

0.4122

204

21

-3.5

0.7334

191

343

22

-3

1.017

183

326

23

-2.83

1.1446

180

309

24

-2.5

1.4568

173

292

25

-2

2.1741

162

276

26

-1.5

3.4332

147

259

BE
A

&

GA

IN

17

Here, Z=N+P=2.
Hence, the above system is unstable.
Again,
Phase crossover frequency 2.83 rad/s
The gain at which the system becomes marginally stable, K *
Gain margin

20 log G ( j

20log 1.1446

)H ( j

55 / 1.1446 48

1.17 dB
o

Gain crossover frequency =3 rad/s and the corresponding angle of GH=177

o
Phase margin=177-180=-3

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Control Systems

Nyquist plot using MATLAB

Program 1:Sketch the nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function

R s

40
.
s s 1 s 4

GA

IN

BE
A

&

Solution:
>> num=[040]
num=
0
40
>> q1=[1 0];
>> q2=[1 1];
>> q3=[1 4];
>> den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
den=
1
9
24
16
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
-------------------s^4+9s^3+24s^2+16s
>>nyquist(sys)

C s

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Control Systems

IN

BEAM & GAIN

BE
A

&

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

GA

MODULE#4

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Control Systems

15. CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

15.1. Peak Magnitude

Mr

20 log

C( j )
dB
R( j )

(16.1)

3 dB is considered good
15.2. Constant M-circles for unity feedback systems
G( j )
M(j )
1 G( j )
x

x2

M(j )

y2

2M 2 x

M2

M2
M2
x
1 M2
1 M2

&

M2
Adding
1 M2

x2

y2

GA

M 2 y2

x 2 (1 M 2 ) (1 M 2 ) y 2

y2

y2

(1 x) 2

M 2 (1 x) 2

x2

(16.3)

jy

IN

G( j )

(16.2)

(16.4)

(16.5)
(16.6)
(16.7)

in both sides, we get

M2
x
1 M2

M
1 M2

BE
A

The above equation represents a family of circles with its center at

(16.8)

M
M2
,0 and radius
.
2
1 M2
1 M

15.3. Family of M-circles

Family of M-circles corresponding to the closeloop magnitudes (M) of aunit feedback system
Constant M-circles for unityfeedback systems

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Control Systems

15.4. Constant N-circles

G( j )
1 G( j )

(16.9)

y
1 x

(16.10)

y
x

tan

&

tan

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

tan tan

BE
A

Here, tan( )=N

tan( A B )

N
1
2

y
x

y
1 x

(16.11)

tan A tan B
1 tan A tan B

(16.12)

1
2N

tan

y
x

(16.13)

y2
2

1
4

1
2N

The above equation represents a family of circles with its center at (

1
4

1
2N

(16.14)

1 1
,
) and radius
2 2N

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Control Systems

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

Example 15.1.
Determine the closed-loop magnitude ratio and bandwidth of the feedback system whose forward

using M and N circles.

10
and H(s)=1, by (1) direct computation and (2)
s ( s 2)( s 4)

&

transfer function is given by G ( s )

BE
A

Solution

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Control Systems

Closed-loop
Magnitude
ratio

Closed-loop
Phase angle, deg

0.1

1.0

355

0.5

1.1

335

0.8

1.2

316

1.2

308

1.2

300

1.1

1.3

290

1.2

1.3

280

1.3

1.2

269

1.4

1.2

258

1.5

1.1

248

1.6

1.0

238

1.7

0.9

230

1.8

0.8

222

1.9

0.7

216

2.0

0.6

210

BE
A

1.0

&

0.9

GA

Frequency,
rad/s

Closed-loopmagnitude and phase values

IN

BEAM & GAIN

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A

&

GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

15.5. Nichols chart for closed-loop response

C( j )
R( j )

Mr

G( j )
1 G( j )H ( j )

20 log

C( j )
dB
R( j )

C( j )
R( j )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

(16.15)

(16.16)

(16.17)

170

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Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

Closed-loopconstant magnitude (dB)and phase angle(degrees)lines of a unity feedbackfunction

Example 15.2.
Determine the closed-loop magnitude ratio and bandwidth of the feedback system whose forward
transfer function is given by G ( s )

10
and H(s)=1, by (1) direct computation and (2)
s ( s 2)( s 4)

using Nichols chart.

Solution

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GA

IN

BEAM & GAIN

Closed-loop magnitude and phase values

Closed-loop Phase
angle, deg

0.02

355

0.2

0.10

351

0.3

0.22

346

0.4

0.38

341

0.5

0.59

335

0.6

0.84

330

0.7

1.11

323

0.8

1.39

316

0.9

1.66

308

1.0

1.87

300

1.1

1.99

290

1.2

1.95

280

BE
A

0.1

&

Closed-loop Magnitude
ratio, dB

Frequency, rad/s

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Control Systems

1.72

269

1.4

1.27

258

1.5

0.62

248

1.6

-0.19

238

1.7

-1.12

230

1.8

-2.11

222

1.9

-3.13

216

2.0

-4.15

210

IN

1.3

Open-loop magnitude and phase values

open-loop
magnitude, dB

open-loop phase
angle, deg

0.1

22

266

0.2

16

0.3

GA

Frequency,
rad/s

&

261

12

257

10

253

0.5

249

0.6

245

0.7

241

0.8

237

0.9

233

1.0

229

1.1

226

1.2

-1

222

1.3

-2

219

1.4

-3

216

1.5

-4

213

1.6

-5

210

BE
A

0.4

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Control Systems

-6

207

1.8

-7

204

1.9

-7

201

2.0

-8

198

2.1

-9

196

2.2

-10

193

2.3

-10

191

2.4

-11

189

IN

1.7

BE
A

&

GA

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

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Control Systems

16. Controllers
16.1. Basic Control Action and response of Control systems
An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the reference input
(desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will reduce the
deviation to zero or to a small value. The manner in which the automatic controller produces the
control signal is called the control action. Fig.1 is a block diagram of an industrial control
system, which consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant and a sensor (measuring
element). The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a low power level,
and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level. The output of the controller is fed to an actuator
such as pneumatic motor or valve, hydraulic motor or electric motor. The actuator is the device
that produces the input to the plant according to the control signal so that the output signal will
approach the reference input signal.

GA

IN

The sensor or measuring element is device that converts the output variable into another
suitable variable such as a displacement, pressure or voltage that can be used to compare the
output to the reference input signal. This element is in the feedback path of the closed-loop
system. The set point of the controller must be converted to a reference input with the same
units as feedback signal from sensor.

Error Detector

Amplifier

Actuator

Plant

Output

&

Ref I/P

Sensor

BE
A

Fig.16.1. Basic Control Action and response of Control systems

16.2. APPLICATION OF CONTROL THEORY TO NON-ENGINEERING FIELDS

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and forces of
nature for the benefit of human kind. Control system engineers are concerned with
understanding and controlling segments of their environment often termed SYSTEMS to
provide useful economic products for society. There has been considerable interest recently in
applying the feedback control concepts to processes prevalent in the social, economic and
political spheres. Some of the examples with block diagram models are discussed.

16.3. ECONOMIC INFLATION PROBLEM

A model of the vicious price-wage inflationary cycle, assuming simple relationship between
wages, product costs and cost living is shown in Fig.1. The economic system depicted in this
figure is found to be a positive feedback system.

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Control Systems

Present
wages
Initial
wages

Product
cost

Industry
K1

K2

Cost of
living

Wages
increment
Dissatisfactionf
actor

16.4. POLLUTION CONTROL IN AUTO ENGINE

IN

Fig.16.2. ECONOMIC INFLATION DYNAMICS

GA

To meet the emission standards for automobiles, Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon monoxide (CO), and
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions can be controlled by employing a three way catalyst in conjunction
with a closed loop engine control system as shown in Fig.2. The exhaust gas sensor gives an
indication of a rich or lean exhaust and compares it to a reference. The difference signal is processed
by the controller, and the output of the controller modulates the vacuum level in the carburetor to
achieve the best air-fuel ratio for proper operation of the catalytic converter.

&

Reference

Controller

Carburetor

Engine

Sensor

Three
way
catalytic
converter

Exhaust

BE
A

Fig.16.3

16.5. CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE WITH ANESTHESIA

Anesthesia is used in surgery to induce unconsciousness. One problem with drug-induced
unconsciousness is large differences in patient responsiveness. Furthermore the patient
response changes during an operation. A model of drug induced Anesthesia Control is shown
in Fig.3. The proxy for unconsciousness is arterial blood pressure.

Desired
blood
pressure

Body dynamics
Controller
2(s+5)

2e sT
s

Actual
blood
pressu

Sensor

2
s 2
Fig.16.4
16.6. Types of Controllers

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(i) P-controller
(ii) PI-controller
(iii) PD-controller
(iv) PID-controller
P-controller

GA

IN

(a)

&

(b)

Fig.16.5

BE
A

Control system with P-controller with inertia load

Fig.16.6

For this system, closed-loop response is

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Control Systems

Kp
C (s)
R( s )

Js 2
Kp

Kp
Js

Kp
Kp

J (s

2
n

(16.1)

Js 2
C ( s)

Kp
J (s

2
n

R(s )

(16.2)

1
s

For step-input, R s
Step response becomes

Kp
n

(16.3)

BE
A

&

GA

Where,

IN

c ( t ) 1 cos

Fig.16.7

Solved problem

1. Consider the unity feedback system of Fig. 16.8. Let Kp=20 and J=50. Determine the equation of
response for a unit step input and determine the steady-state error.

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Fig.16.8

Solution

KP
Js 2
Kp
1
Js 2

Kp

Kp

2
n

(1 cos

1 cos

t)

2
t
5

1 cos

2
t
5

cos

2
t
5

se ( t ) 1

GA

2
rad/s
5

J
Kp

2
n

IN

J s

c(t )

Js

Kp

C ( s)
R (s )

c(t )

Kp
2

&

C ( s)
R (s )

BE
A

2. Find the step response of the system shown inFig.16.9.

Fig.16.9

Solution

G1

Kp
s 1

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E1 ( s )
R( s)

1
1 G1 ( s )

E1 ( s )

Control Systems

s 1
s 2

1
R( s )
1 G1 ( s )

s 1
R(s)
s 2

Step response is

s 1
s s 2

E1 ( s )
U1 ( s )
R( s )

K p ( s 1)

C1 ( s )
R( s )

1
s 1 Kp

c1 (t )

1
1 e 2t
2

s 2

GA

1
1 e 2t
2

BE
A

&

e1 (t )

IN

( s 2)

Fig.16.10

I-controller

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Control Systems

(a)

C2
R1
-

eo

GA

IN

ei

(b)

Ki
s ( s 1)

E2 ( s )
R( s )

s( s 1)
s2 s 1

1
Ki
1
s ( s 1)

1
1 G2 (s )

BE
A

G2

&

Fig.16.11

K i ( s 1)

U 2 (s)
R(s )

s2

C2 ( s )
R( s )

e2 (t )

0.5 t

c2 (t ) 1 e

s 1

1
s Ki
cos

0.5t

1
s 1

3
t
2

3
3
t cos
t
2
2

sin

sin

3
t
2

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Control Systems

IN

Fig.16.12

GA

PD-controller

&

(a)

R2

ei

R1

BE
A

eo

(b)
Fig.16.13

Control system with P-controller with inertia load

Fig.16.14

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Control Systems

For this system, closed-loop response is

K p (1 Td s)
C ( s)
R( s )

K p (1 Td s)

Js 2
K p (1 Td s)

Js

K p (1 Td s)
K pTd
Kp
J s2
s
J
J

K p (1 Td s)

Js 2

K p (1 Td s )
R( s )
K pTd
Kp
2
J s
s
J
J

C ( s)

Kp
2
n

1 e

K pTd
J

1
1

cos

t
1

sin

nt

sin

(16.6)

&

Kp

nt

GA

c (t )

IN

Step response becomes

(16.5)

1
s

For step-input, R s

Where,

(16.4)

Solved problem

BE
A

3. Consider the unity feedback system of Figure 3. Let K p=20 and J=50. Determine the equation of
response for a unit step input and determine the steady-state error. Here, Kp =20, Td =1 and J=50.

Fig.16.14

Solution

C ( s)
R( s)

20( s 1)
50 s 2 20 s 20

20(1 s)
50( s 2 n s
2

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n

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c(t )

Kp

nt

1 e

2
n

Control Systems

K pTd
J

c( )

1
1

Kp
2
n

cos

1
nt

sin

sin

Only PD control
No system damping
35.09
unsatisfactory
3.15
5.24

IN

Transient characteristic
Maximum overshoot, %

GA

Rise time tr, sec

Peak time tp, sec

Settling time ts , sec (5% criterion)

(a)

BE
A

&

PI-controller

15

(b)
Fig.16.15

Control system with PI-controller with inertia load

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Control Systems

Fig.16.16

For this system, closed-loop response is

E (s)
R( s )

u (t ) 1
e

s ( s 1)

s ( s 1)
s (1 K p ) K i

(s 1)( sK p
s

s (1 K p ) Ki

( sK p

Ki )

s (1 K p ) K i

&

Ki )

(s 1)

(16.7)

(16.8)

(16.9)

(16.10)

BE
A

e (t )

Ki

Step response

s 1

1
1 G1 ( s )

U (s)
R ( s)
C ( s)
R(s)

sK p

IN

Ki
s

Kp

GA

c (t )

1 e t

Fig.16.17

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Control Systems

BE
A

PID-controller

&

GA

IN

Fig.16.18

Fig.16.19

(a)

(b)

Fig.16.20

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Here, transfer function of PID-controller,

Kd s

Gc s

Kp

Gc s

K p 1 Td s

Ki
s

(16.11)

Ti
s

(16.12)

Where,

Ki
Kp

Td

Kd
Kp

GA

Tuning of PID-controller

(16.13)

IN

Ti

A. First Method (Ziegler and Nichols)

BE
A

&

The Setup for obtaining system parameters for PID tuning

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL

Fig.16.21

C (s)
U (s )

C ( s)

Ke Ls
1 Ts

(16.14)

Ke Ls
U ( s)
1 Ts

(16.15)

187

Control Systems

Fig.16.22

IN

BEAM & GAIN

Type of controller
P

Kp

T
L
0.9T
L
T
1.2
L

&

PI

Ki
0

Kd
0

L
0.3

2L

0.5L

PID

1
Td s
Ti s

Kp 1

BE
A

Gc ( s )

GA

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules based on step response

1.2T
1
1
2 Ls
L
s

Gc ( s)

0.6T

1
L
s

0.5 Ls

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule based on critical gain Kcr and critical period Pcr.

Type of controller
P
PI
PID

Kp
0.5 Kcr
0.45 Kcr
0.6 Kcr

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Ki
0
1/1.2 Pcr
1/0.5Pcr

Kd
0
0
0.125 Pcr

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Control Systems

Where, Kcr proportional constant of a switched-off integral and derivative controls at which sustained
oscillations of period P cr occur.

Second Method

Kp 1

Ti
s

0.6 K cr

1
1
0.5 Pcr s

Td s
(16.16)

s
0.075 K cr Pcr

4
Pcr
s

(16.17)

BE
A

&

GA

Gc ( s )

0.125 Pcr s

IN

Gc ( s )

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17. Components
17.1. AC SERVOMOTORS
A two phase servomotor (Induction Motor) (A few watts to hundred watts) is commonly used
in feedback control systems. In servo applications, an induction motor is required to produce
rapid accelerations from standstill.

GA

IN

Schematic Diagram

&

Constructional features
Squirrel Cage rotor with Cu or Al conductor
High Rotor resistance
Small diameter to length ratio to minimize inertia
Two stator windings in space quadrature(One called reference winding and the other Control
winding)
The two voltages to stator windings must derived from same source(Or they must be in
synchronism)

BE
A

Principle of Operation
(i) The two applied AC voltage to stators with a phase difference produce a rotating flux.
(ii) As this moving flux sweeps over the rotor conductors, small emf is induced in rotor. Rotor being
short circuited, currents will flow and this current interacts with rotating flux to produce a torque
in the rotor. This torque causes the rotor to turn so that it chases the rotating magnetic flux.

Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomotor

For induction motor in high power applications, rotor resistance is low in order to obtain maximum
torque. Positive slope part of the characteristics is not suitable to control applications as this results
instability.

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Control Systems

GA

IN

In AC servomotor high resistance rotor results in negative torque-speed characteristics.This

characteristic is needed for positive damping and good stability. The rotor has a small diameter tolength ratio to minimize the moment of inertia and to give a good accelerating characteristic.
However, more rotor resistance results more loss and less efficiency.

Transfer Function
The torque developed is a function of shaft angular position ( ) and control voltage Ec.
s
Ec s

Js

Ds

Km
s Js D

K
s Tm s 1

Km
= motor gain constant, Tm
D

Where, K

Km
2

&

G s

J
= motor time constant
D

Merits of AC Servomotors

BE
A

(i) Lower cost,

(ii) less weight and inertia,
(iii) higher efficiency and
(iv) fewer maintenance requirements(since no commutator or brush)

Demerits of AC Servomotors

(i) Nonlinear characteristics,

(ii) Used for low power applications(e.g. instrument servo),
(iii) Difficult for speed control and positioning

17.2. Synchros
It is also known as selsyn. It is a self-synchronizing device widely used in servomechanisms as
a position indicator.
Important synchro systems are
Synchro system with transmitter and control transformer
Synchro system with synchro transmitter and motor
Synchro system with transmitter, differential and motor

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Control Systems

General Constructional features of Synchro

(i) The construction of synchro transmiiter, motor and transformer are almost same.
(ii) Stator laminated silicon steel, slotted to house distributed 3- ,Y-connected
windings with axes 1200 apart.
(iii) Stator not directly connected to supply
(iv) Rotor is 2-pole (dumb-bell shaped for synchro transmitter and cylindrical shape for
control transformer) with single winding connected to AC source. The magnetic
field in excited rotor induces voltages in stator coils. The magnitude of voltage
induced in any stator coil depends on the angular position of coils axis with respect
to rotor axis.
(v) Synchro control transformer has cylindrical shape rotor so that air gap flux is
uniformly distributed around the rotor.

&

GA

IN

Constructional features

BE
A

(a) Constructional features

(b) Electrical Circuit

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IN

BEAM & GAIN

(c) Schematic Symbol

GA

Fig. Synchro Transmitter

&

Synchro transmitter
It is not a three phase machine. It is a single phase machine. Here, input is angular position of
its rotor shaft.Output is a set of three stator coil-to-coil voltages. Common connection
between the stator coils is not accessible.

BE
A

Synchro system with transmitter and control transformer

A synchro error detector system may consist of synchro transmitter and synchro control
transformer.
It compares two angular displacements and the output voltage is approximately linear
with angular difference or misalignment between shafts of transmitter & Control
transformer.
Usedas error detector in feedback systems.
Synchro system with synchro transmitter and synchro motor
The rotors of both the synchro devices are connected to same AC source. Figure (b) shows a
circuit configuration, using two synchros, for maintaining synchronism between two shafts.
When rotor windings are excited, emfs are induced by transformer action in the stator windings
of transmitter and motor. If the two shafts are in similar positions (relative to that of the stator
windings), then there are two emfs of equal value are induced in the two stator windings.Also
no circulating current exists and hence no torque is produced. If the two shaft positions do not
match, the emfs are unequal and result circulating current to flow. The circulating current in
conjunction with air gap magnetic field produce torque which tend to align the shafts.
Synchro system with transmitter, differential and motor
The function of this system is to permit the rotation of a shaft to be a function of sum or
difference of the rotations of two other shafts. The differential has 3-phase distributed windings
on both stator and rotor. The voltages impressed on its stator windings induce corresponding
voltages in its rotor windings.
r=Displacement

of receiver shaft

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Control Systems

s=Displacement

of transmitter shaft

d=Displacement

of differential shaft

Then,

dt

If the phase sequence of stator and rotor windings of differential are reversed then
r
t
dt

17.3. TACHOGENERATOR OR TACHOMETER

IN

In many control systems, it is necessary to feedback a voltage proportional to speed of shaft.

Tachogenerator serves the purpose.
17.3.1. DC Tachometer

BE
A

&

GA

It is a permanent magnet DC generator. It resembles a small DC machine having a PM

stator, rotating armature, brush and commutator assembly. The rotor is connected to the
shaft to be measured. The output voltage is proportional to the angular velocity of the
shaft. The direction of rotation decides the polarity of the voltage.

DC tachogenerator suffers from the drawback of output in ripple, commutator &

brush problem.
A DC tachometer can be used in AC servomechanism by converting the DC output
voltage to an AC voltage by using a rectifier circuit.

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Control Systems

BE
A

&

GA

IN

17.3.2. AC Tachometer
Used in AC servomechanism. It resembles 2-phase AC induction motor.
It comprises two stator windings arranged in space quadrature and a rotor which is
not conductively connected to external circuit.
One stator phase winding is excited by a suitable AC voltage of constant
magnitude and frequency. A voltage of the same frequency is generated across the
other winding known as control winding.
It is necessary that the voltage developed across the control winding is linearly
proportional to shaft speed and the phase of this voltage be fixed with respect to
voltage applied to reference winding.
The output voltage is connected to high impedance circuit of amplifier so that the
winding is considered open circuit.
An AC tacogenerator should have low inertia when rapid speed variations are
encountered. The drag cup construction gives low inertia and is used many times

17.4. HYDRAULIC OPERATED DEVICES IN FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

Hydraulic systems must be stable and satisfactory under all operating conditions. Hydraulic
output devices are generally of two types.
A. Hydraulic linear actuator(Produce linear motion)
B. Hydraulic motors(rotary motion)

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17.5.1

Control Systems

Hydraulic Linear Actuator(Hydraulic Servomotor)

Hydraulic linear actuator consists of pilot valve and a power cylinder. The piston inside
the power cylinder divides the cylinder into two chambers. The pilot valve is known as
spool valve because of its shape control the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid to the power
cylinder. It is a four port valves. It is connected to fluid supply at constant pressure. The
two ports connected to each chamber of power cylinder. One drain port is connected to
reservoir.
Principle of Operation

BE
A

&

GA

IN

If input x moves the pilot valve to the right, port II is uncovered, and so high pressure oil
enters the right side of the power piston. Since port I is connected to the drain port, the
oil in the left side of the power piston is returned to the drain. The oil flowing into the
power cylinder is at high pressure; the oil flowing out from the power cylinder into the
drain is at low pressure. The resulting difference in pressure on both sides of the power
piston will cause it to move to the left.

Transfer Function

Rate of flow of fluid Q(kg/sec) time dt(sec) is equal to the power piston displacement
dy(m) times the piston area A(sq.m) times the density of fluid P (kg/m3 ).Fluid flow rate
is proportional to pilot valve displacement x. So,
Q

x
Q

Kx

where K is a positive constant.

Q

AP

AP

dy
dt

dy
dt

Kx

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Control Systems

APsY s

Y s
X s

KX s

K
APs

Advantages

IN

(i) Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and heat transfer medium

(ii) Comparatively small size hydraulic actuators can develop large forces or torques
(iii) Fast start, stop, and speed reversals(Faster response)
(iv) Hydraulic actuators can be operated under any type of load (i.e. continuous,
intermittent, reversing or stalled loads)
(v) Availability of linear and rotary actuators(e.g. motors)
(vi) Better speed regulation.

Disadvantages

17.5.2

&

GA

(i) Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and heat transfer medium

(ii) Like electric power, hydraulic source not readily available
(iii) Presence of dirt contaminate the hydraulic fluid
(iv) Fire and explosion hazards exist
(v) For a similar function, cost of hydraulic system may be higher compared to
electrical system.

DC and AC Motors in Control Systems to Position an Inertia Load

The load may be massive (e.g. radar antenna) or light weight precision
instrument.
ii. The actuator should have
Desired dynamic response
Desired cost, size, and weight
iii. Electric power is readily available, cleaner and quieter and easier to transmit.
So electric motors is mostly preferable compared to hydraulic and pneumatic actuation)

BE
A

i.

Merits of DC motor

(i) Linear characteristics,

(ii) Used for large power applications,
(iii) Easier control
Demerits of DC motor
(i) Lower torque to volume and
(ii) Lower torque to inertia ratio.
Future developments
(i) Development of rare earth magnet results in DC motor high torque to volume ratio.
(ii) Advances in brush commutator technology make trouble free maintenance.
(iii) Development of brushless DC motors.

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SUMMARY
CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

IN

3.0 Introduction to Control system

3.1 Scope of Control System Engineer
3.2 Classification of Control System
3.3 Historical development of Control system
3.4 Analogus systems
3.5 Transfer function of Systems
3.6 Block diagram representation
3.7 Signal Flow Graph(SFG)
4.0 Feedback Characteristics of Control systems and sensitivity measures
4.1 The Concept of Feedback and Closed loop control
4.2 Merits of using Feedback control system
4.3 Regenerative Feedback
3.0Control System Components

3.2 DC and AC Servomotors

3.3 Tachometers
3.4 Amplidyne

GA

3.1 Potentiometers

3.6 Pneumatic systems

3.7 Stepper Motors

&

3.5 Hydralulic systems

4.0 Time Domain Performance Analysis of Linear Control Systems

BE
A

4.1 Standard Test Signals

4.2 Time response of 1st order Systems

4.3 Unit step response of a prototype 2nd order system
4.4 Unit Ramp response of a second order system
4.4 Performance Specification of Linear System in Time domain
4.5 The Steady State Errors and Error Constants
4.6 Effect of P, PI, PD and PID Controller
4.7 Effect of Adding a zero to a system
4.8 Performance Indices(ISE,ITSE,IAE, ITAE)
4.9 Approximations of Higher order Systems by Lower order Problems

5.0 The Stability of Linear Control Systems

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Control Systems

5.1 The Concept of Stability

5.2 The Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion
5.3 Relative stability analysis
6.0 Root Locus Technique
6.1 Angle and Magnitude Criterion
6.2 Properties of Root Loci
6.3 Step by Step Procedure to Draw Root Locus Diagram

IN

6.4 Closed Loop Transfer Fuction and Time Doamin response

6.5 Determination of Damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus
6.6 Root Locus for System with transportation Lag.

7.0 Frequency Domain Analysis.

GA

6.7 Sensitivity of Roots of the Characteristic Equation.

7.1 Correlation between Time and frequency response

&

7.2 Frequency Domain Specifications

7.3 Polar Plots and inverse Polar plots
7.4 Bode Diagrams

7.4.1 Principal factors of Transfer function

BE
A

7.4.2 Procedure for manual plotting of Bode Diagram

7.4.3 Relative stability Analysis
7.4.4 Minimum Phase, Nonminimum phase and All pass systems

7.5 Log Magnitude vs Phase plots.

7.6 Nyquist Criterion

7.6.1 Mapping Contour and Principle of Argument

7.6.2 Nyquist path and nyquist Plot
7.6.3 Nyquist stability criterion
7.6.4 Relative Stability: Gain Margin, and Phase Margin

7.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response

7.7.1 Gain Phase Plot

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Control Systems

7.7.1.1 Constant Gain(M)-circles

7.7.1.2 Constant Phase (N) Circles
7.7.1.3 Nichols Chart

BE
A

&

GA

IN

7.8 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain

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