THE

CONTROL
OF

BOILERS
2nd Edition

SAM G. DUKELOW
The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader. Because neither
the author nor the publisher has any control over the use of the information by the reader, both the author
and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of such use. The reader is expected
to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information presented in a particular
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Additionally, neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the effect of any patents
on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application. The reader is
responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the information
presented.

Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the author nor the
publisher endorses any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or trade names referenced belong
to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor the publisher makes any
representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial product at any time. The
manufacturer's instructions on use of any commercial product must be followed at all times, even if in
conflict with the information in this publication.

THE CONTROL OF BOILERS

Copyright 0 1991 by ISA - The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society
67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Researc h Triangle Park, NC 27709

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5

ISBN 1-55617-330-X

We would like to thank the many suppliers who provided material for this book, and we regret any we may
have inadvertently failed to credit for an illustration. On notification we shall insert a correction in any
subsequent printings.

Some material herein has previously appeared in Improving Boiler Efficiency by Sam G. Dukelow, produced by
Kansas State University and distributed by ISA.

For information on corporate or group discounts for this book, e -mail: bulksales@ isa.org,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Dukelow, Sam G., 1917 -

The control of boilers/Sam G. Dukelow. - 2""ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-55617-330-X
1. Steam-boilers - Automatic control. I. Title.
TJ288.D78 199 1
621.1'83--dc20 91 -3 1399
CIP
Preface to Second Edition

Five years have passed since the first edition of this book, and I have continued to learn
as I have become older and wiser. In the third paragraph of the preface to the first edition, I
implied that what I have done in this second edition was impossible. I want to eat those words.
The cartoon by Gus Shaw on the opposite page tells the story. During his work with Bailey
Meter Co. (prior to Bailey Controls Co.), Gus made several great cartoons on this theme. A
complete study of The Control of Boilers must include the starting up phase of the
process. One of the purposes of this edition is to include some basic information on that digital
phase of the operation in addition to the modulating on-line operation covered in the orig-
inal edition.
This results in the sections and subsections covering interlocks, burner start-up and man-
agement, and the management of the start-up and operation of pulverizers and other fuel-
burning equipment. Along with this is the recognition of applicable safety codes of the Na-
tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
Another purpose of this edition is the extension of the on-line aspects of boiler control
into the arena of the larger-capacity electric utility boilers. The results of this are new sections
covering the firing rate demand for utility boilers and steam temperature control. The section
covering furnace pressure control has been expanded to include implosion protection. The
section covering the control of pulverized coal firing has been expanded to include cyclone
furnaces and their control and the compartmented windbox boiler and its control.
And, as I said above, I have become older and wiser in the past five years. My ASME
membership card now says 51 years, my ISA membership card says 42 years, and I have had
time to rethink some the things I thought I already knew. In this last five years my work has
taken me to installations involving chain grate stokers, pulverized coal-fired boilers, gas-fired
boilers, the steam power cycle of a nuclear breeder reactor, and process heaters fired with by-
product gas. In the past few months, my work with distributed digital system on an electric
utility unit demonstrated the differences of working with a digital system as compared to an
analog system. Three of the above assignments involved the investigation of furnace explo-
sions that caused major damage. The investigation included considerable dialogue with every-
body involved, as I continued to learn.
In addition, the past five years have brought me approximately 25 teaching assignments
covering boiler control for various types of boilers. This has involved me with approximately
500 students with various industrial and utility boiler backgrounds. In each of these areas, and
i? talking to the people involved, I have gained new insights and thus continued my learning.
So now this second edition of The Control of Boilers. There is less coverage of the field
of start-up and utility boiler control than these subjects deserve, but I believe that the basics
included will help tie the whole subject together. There is still much to be written. It is my
understanding that a much more detailed text in the area of burner start-up and management
is in process. An expansion in the area of utility boiler control directed at cogeneration, coal
gasification combined cycles, low NOx control, flue gas scrubbers, fluidized bed boilers and
their control, expert systems, artificial intelligence, and power plant unit performance analysis
would be welcome. As indicated in the preface to the first edition of this book, the whole field
of energy management for least cost operation of boilers and HVAC should also be given
attention.
The boiler control field, and the rest of the I&C field, has had its revolution. It is now a
distributed digital microprocessor world. But as with all control systems, no matter what
hardware or software is used, the control application of the job to be done must be the major
focus and must be defined. This book is a discussion of that application area. The hardware-
software combination of todays world unleashes the control application engineer from the

xi
bonds of hardware and hardware installation cost contraints. The engineer can now concentrate
on how best to control the boiler and other aspects of the power process.
Again I thank all those who, both knowingly and unknowingly, helped me along the way.
I particularly thank Paul Kenny of Forney Engineering Co.; Ollie Durrant, now retired from
Babcock & Wilcox Co.; and Russ Beal, now retired from Bailey Controls Co., who furnished
me with source documents.
My intent is to emphasize the basic ideas involved in boiler control and thus stimulate the
reader to expand his or her knowledge with more detailed study. If this book provides a jump-
start to beginners in the field of boiler control application, or adds new insights to those ex-
perienced readers, I shall have accomplished my purpose.

S.G. Dukelow
Hutchinson, Kansas

xii
Contents

Chapter Page

Section 1 Introduction ......................................................................... 1

1-1 Content and Objectives ...................................................... 1
1-2 Boiler Control Objectives ................................................... 2
1-3 Control System Diagramming .............................................. 3
1-4 Boiler Control Application in Historical Perspective ................... 4

Section 2 Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process ....................................... 15

2-1 The Basic Steaming Process ................................................ 15
2-2 The Basic Boiler .............................................................. 15
2-3 Heat Recovery from the Flue Gases ....................................... 17
2-4 Boiler Types and Classifications ........................................... 21
2-5 Firetube Boilers ............................................................... 22
2-6 Watertube Drum Boilers ..................................................... 26
2-7 Watertube Once-Through Boilers .......................................... 32

Section 3 Performance and Input-Output Relationships ............................... 35

3-1 Capacity and Performance .................................................. 35
3-2 Input Related to Output ...................................................... 35
3-3 Mass and Energy Balances Involved ...................................... 36
3-4 Efficiency Calculation Methods ............................................ 38
3-5 Boiler Control - The Process of Managing the Energy and Mass
Balances ........................................................................ 39

Section 4 Basic Control Loops and Their System Interconnection .................. 41

4-1 Simple Feedback Control ................................................... 41
4-2 Feedforward-Plus-Feedback Control ...................................... 44
4-3 Cascade Control .............................................................. 46
4-4 Ratio Control .................................................................. 46
4-5 Some Fundamentals of Control System Application and Design ..... 47
4-6 Process Dynamics - Control Response .................................. 48
4-7 Process Factors That Affect the Control System or Loop
Application .................................................................... 48

Section 5 Combustion of Fuels. Excess Air. and Products of Combustion ........ 49

5-1 Gaseous Fuels-Their Handling and Preparation ........................ 49
5-2 Liquid Fuels-Their Handling and Preparation .......................... 50
5-3 Solid Fuels-Their Handling and Preparation for Firing ............... 55
5-4 Handling and Delivery of Solid Fuels ..................................... 56
5-5 Fuel Mixtures-Coal.Oi1. Coal-Water .................................... 58
5-6 Physical Combustion Requirements ....................................... 59
5-7 Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion ................... 61
5-8 Theoretical Air Requirements and Relationship to Heat of
Combustion .................................................................... 65
5-9 The Requirement for Excess Combustion Air ........................... 67

Section 6 Efficiency Calculations ............................................................ 73

6-1 Input-Output or Direct Method ............................................. 73
6-2 Heat Loss or Indirect Method .............................................. 75
V
Chapter Page

Section 7 The Steam Supply System ........................................................ 87

7-1 Saturated Steam Moisture Elimination .................................... 87
7-2 Steam Supply Systems ....................................................... 88
7-3 Heat Energy and Water Storage ............................................ 89

Section 8 Firing Rate Demand for Industrial Boilers ................................... 93

8-1 Relationships .................................................................. 93
8-2 Linking the Steam Pressure Change to Changes in Firing Rate ...... 93
8-3 Steam Presssure or Steam Flow Feedback Control ..................... 96
8-4 Feedforward-plus-Feedback-Steam Flow plus Steam Pressure ...... 99
8-5 Load Sharing of Multiple Boilers .......................................... 103
8-6 Automatic Compensation for the Number and Size of Boilers
Participating ................................................................... 104
8-7 Preallocation of Boiler Load Based on Test Results .................... 107
8-8 Energy Management by Boiler Load Allocation on a Least Cost
Basis ............................................................................ 107
8-9 Energy Management Involving Cogeneration Networks ............... 109

Section 9 Firing Rate Demand for Utility Boilers ....................................... 115

9-1 Matching Firing Rate Demand to Electrical Load (Boiler-Turbine
Coordination) .................................................................. 116
9-2 Boiler Load Measurement ................................................... 118
9-3 Unit Load Demand Development .......................................... 121
9-4 Boiler Following-Firing Rate Demand Development ................. 123
9-5 Turbine Following-Throttle Pressure Control with the Turbine
Valves .......................................................................... 129
9-6 Boiler-Turbine Coordinated Control ....................................... 133
9-7 Sliding or Variable Pressure Control ...................................... 136
9-8 Heat Rate Optimization with Sliding Pressure Control ................. 137
9-9 Digital Interlock and Tracking Control Modes .......................... 137

Section 10 Main Steam and Reheat Steam Temperature Control ..................... 139
139
10-1 Temperature vs . Boiler Load ..............................................
10-2 Mechanisms for Control of Superheat Temperature ................... 139
10-3 Basic Steam Temperature Control Strategies ........................... 144
10-4 Steam Temperature and Reheat Temperature Control Strategies .... 147
10-5 A Reheat Temperature Control Arrangement for a Combustion
Engineering Boiler .......................................................... 149
10-6 The Corresponding Superheat Temperature Control for the
Combustion Engineering Boiler .......................................... 152
10-7 Spray Water Sources-Steam and Water Flow Measurements....... 154
10-8 Interactions ................................................................... 156
10-9 Pumping and Firing Rate for Once-Through Boilers .................. 156
10-10 Steam Temperature Control for Once-Through Boilers ............... 160

Section 11 Boiler and Unit Interlocks ....................................................... 165

11.1 Applicable Codes ........................................................... 165
11-2 Logic Diagramming for Motor Starting and Trip Protection ......... 165
11-3 Digital Interlocks within the Control System ........................... 173
11-4 Classification of Trip Interlocks Relative to Potential Consequence 174
11-5 Limits and Runbacks ....................................................... 176

vi
Chapter Page

Section 12 Feedwater Supply and Boiler Water Circulation Systems .............. 177
12-1 The Basic System ......................................................... 177
12-2 Heating and Deaeration .................................................. 177
12-3 The Boiler Feedwater Pump ............................................. 180
12-4 The Flow Regulation System ........................................... 181
12-5 Shrink and Swell and Boiler Water Circulation ...................... 183
12-6 Feedwater Chemical Balance and Control of Boiler Blowdown ... 187

Section 13 Feedwater Control Systems .................................................... 189

13-1 Measurement and Indication of Boiler Drum Level .................. 189
13-2 Feedwater Control Objectives ........................................... 191
13-3 Single-Element Feedwater Control ..................................... 194
13-4 Two-Element Feedwater Control ....................................... 198
13-5 Three-Element Feedwater Control ...................................... 202
13-6 Control Refinements and Special Control Problems ................. 204
13-7 Control of Feedwater for Once-Through Boilers ..................... 207

Section 14 Boiler Draft Systems ............................................................. 211

14-1 Draft Losses in Boilers ................................................... 211
14-2 Natural Draft and Forced Draft ......................................... 212
14-3 Pressure-Fired Boilers .................................................... 213
14-4 Balanced Draft Boilers .................................................... 215
14-5 Dampers and Damper Control Devices ................................ 216
14-6 Draft and Air Flow Control Using Variable-Speed Fan ............. 221
14-7 Minimum Air Flow ....................................................... 224

Section 15 Measurement and Control of Furnace Draft ............................... 227

15-1 Measurement of Furnace Draft .......................................... 229
15-2 Furnace Draft Control Using Simple Feedback Control ............ 229
15-3 Furnace Draft Control Using Feedforward-plus-Feedback
Control ...................................................................... 230
15-4 Furnace Draft Control Using Push-Pull
Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control ................................... 231
15-5 Protection Against Implosion ............................................ 233

Section 16 Measurement and Control of Combustion Air Flow plus Related

Functions ........................................................................... 239
16-1 Differential Pressure Measurement of Air Flow ...................... 239
16-2 Non-Inferential Measurement of Air Flow ............................ 244
16-3 Control of Air Flow ....................................................... 246
16-4 Flue Gas Dew Point Control ............................................. 249
16-5 Soot Blowing ............................................................... 253

Section 17 Flue Gas Analysis Trimming of Combustion Control Systems ......... 255
17-1 Useful Flue Gas Analyses ................................................ 255
17-2 Methods of Flue Gas Analysis .......................................... 256
17-3 Pros and Cons of Measurement Methods and Gases Selected
for Measurement ........................................................... 260
17-4 Flue Gas Analysis vs . Boiler Load ..................................... 262
17-5 PPM CO vs . PPM Total Combustible Gases ......................... 264
17-6 Control Applications Used for Flue Gas Analysis Trimming ...... 265
17-7 Limiting Factors in Reducing Excess Air ............................. 272

vii
Chapter Page

Section 18 Fluid Fuel Burners for Gas. Oil. and Coal ................................. 275
18-1 Burners for Gaseous Fuel ................................................ 275
18-2 Pulverized Coal Burners .................................................. 279
18-3 Fuel Oil Burners ........................................................... 282

Section 19 Solid Fuel Burning Systems .................................................... 291

19-1 Types and Classification of Stokers .................................... 291
19-2 Special Stoker Control Problems ........................................ 297

Section 20 Burner Management and Flame Safety Interlocks for Gas- and
Fluid-Fired Boilers ............................................................... 299
20-1 Basic Cause of Furnace Explosions .................................... 299
20-2 Boiler Purge Logic ........................................................ 301
20-3 Ignitor Header Valve Management ..................................... 303
20-4 Main Gas Header Valve Management ................................. 303
20-5 Gas Burner Management Logic ......................................... 304
20-6 Main Fuel Trip ............................................................. 307
20-7 Degree of Burner Automation ........................................... 308
20-8 Reliability of Interlock Circuitry ........................................ 308

Section 21 Combustion Control for Liquid and Gaseous Fuel Boilers ............. 311
21-1 Single-Point Positioning Control ........................................ 311
21-2 Parallel Positioning Control .............................................. 315
21-3 Metering Control Systems ................................................ 317
2 1-4 Effects of Fuel Btu Variation ............................................ 328

Section 22 Pulverized Coal and Cyclone Coal Burning Systems ..................... 333
22-1 The Coal Feeder ........................................................... 333
22-2 The Pulverizer and Classifier ............................................ 336
22-3 The Primary Air Fan or Exhauster Fan and the Coal Drying
System ....................................................................... 338
22-4 Pulverizer Control Systems .............................................. 341
22-5 Compartmented Windbox Pulverized Coal Boilers .................. 350
22-6 Start-up and Management of Pulverizers and Their Burners ....... 352
22-7 The Cyclone Furnace ............................... 355
22-8 Start-up and Management of Cyclone Furnaces ..................... 358

Section 23 Combustion Control for Cyclone and Pulverized Coal-Fired

Boilers ............................................................................... 359
23-1 Coal Btu Compensation .................................................. 359
23-2 The Use of Multiple Pulverizers ........................................ 362
23-3 The Combustion Control System for Pulverized Coal as a Single
Fuel .......................................................................... 363
23-4 Pulverized Coal in Combination with Liquid or Gaseous Fuels ... 364
23-5 Compartmented Windbox Pulverized Coal Control Systems ....... 367
23-6 Control Systems for Cyclone Furnace Boilers ........................ 369

Section 24 Combustion Control for Stoker-Fired Boilers ............................. 373

24-1 Parallel Positioning Control System for Stoker-Fired Boilers ...... 373
24-2 Inferential Measurement of Combustion Conditions in Boilers .... 375
24-3 Parallel Positioning Control System with Steam Flow/
Air Flow Readjustment ................................................... 376
24-4 Series Ratio Control Systems for Stoker-Fired Boilers .............. 379
...
Vlll
Chapter Page

24-5 Applying Flue Gas Analysis Trim Control to Stoker-Fired

Boilers ....................................................................... 381
24-6 Combustion Control for Combination of Stoker and Liquid or
Gaseous Fuel Firing ....................................................... 383
24-7 NFPA Purging and Interlock Requirements for Stoker-Fired
Boilers ....................................................................... 386

Section 25 Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Boilers ........................................... 389

25-1 Bubbling Bed Fluidized-Bed Boilers ................................... 390
25-2 Circulating Bed Fluidized-Bed Boilers ................................. 392
25-3 NFPA Requirements for Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Combustion
System Boilers ............................................................. 395

Section 26 Control System Complexity and Future Directions for Boiler

Control .............................................................................. 397
26-1 Complex Control Systems for Electric Utility Boilers Using
Embedded Process Models ............................................... 397
26-2 Improving Control Precision and Stability without Process
Modeling .................................................................... 398
26-3 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems ............................. 402
26-4 A General Observation Relative to Boiler Modeling ................ 402
26-5 General Observations Relative to Boiler Control Application ...... 404

Index ........................................................................................ 407

ix
X
Section 2
Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process

2-1 The Basic Steaming Process

In the conversion of water from its liquid phase to steam (its vapor phase), heat is added
to initially increase the water temperature to the boiling point temperature. This heat that raises
the temperature of the water is known as sensible heat. The boiling point temperature is 212F
at atmospheric pressure and rises as the pressure in the system is increased. The boiling point
temperature is also known as the saturation temperature of the steam that is produced. The
relationships between the saturation temperatures and pressures of steam are fixed thermody-
namic properties of steam.
As the conversion from the liquid phase (water) to the vapor phase (steam) begins, the
temperature no longer changes with the addition of heat. The fluid exists at the saturation
temperature-pressure relationship during the entire conversion of the water to steam. The heat
that is added in converting from the liquid to the vapor phase at constant temperature is called
the latent heat of evaporation. Steam that is fully vaporized but has not been heated to a
temperature above the saturation temperature is called dry saturated steam. Steam that is not
fully vaporized is called wet steam. The percentage by weight of the water droplets in the
wet steam is known as the % moisture. The % quality of wet steam is obtained by subtracting
the % moisture from 100.
The total amount of heat in a quantity of dry saturated steam includes the amount of
sensible heat above 32F and the latent heat of evaporation. Generally, as the pressure of dry
saturated steam increases, the amount of sensible heat increases and the amount of latent heat
decreases. The relationships between the various thermodynamic steam properties are shown
in Tables 2-1 and 2-2.
By adding additional sensible heat to dry saturated steam, the temperature can be increased
above the saturation temperature. Steam that is heated above the saturation temperature is
called superheated steam. The effect on the thermodynamic properties by superheating steam
is shown in Table 2-3. Note that superheating increases the total heat or enthalpy ( h ) of the
steam. Superheating also causes the steam to expand, increasing its specific volume (ftAb).

2-2 The Basic Boiler

- A basic diagram of a boiler is shown in Figure 2-1. This diagram shows that a boiler
comprises two separate systems. One system is the steam-water system, which is also called
the water side of the boiler. Into this system water is introduced and, upon receiving heat that
is transferred through a solid metal barrier, is heated, converted to steam, and leaves the
system in the form of steam.
The other system of a boiler is the fuel-air-flue gas system, which is also called the fire
side of the boiler. This system provides the heat that is transferred to the water. The inputs to
this system are fuel and the necessary air required to burn the fuel.
In this system the fuel and air are thoroughly mixed and ignited in a furnace. The resulting
combustion converts the chemical energy of the fuel to thermal or heat energy. The furnace
is usually lined with heat transfer surface in the form of water-steam circulating tubes. These
tubes receive heat radiating from the flame and transfer it to the water-side system. The gases
resulting from the combustion, known as the flue gases, are cooled by the transfer of their
heat by what is known as the radiant heat transfer surface. The gases leave the furnace and
pass through additional heating surface that is in the form of water-steam circulating tubes. In
this area the surfaces cannot see the flame, and the heat is transferred by convection. Also
16 The Control of Boilers

Table 2-1
Saturation: TemPeratures

Abs Press. Specific Volume Enthalp'Y Enlropy

Temp -
Lb sot. sot. sot. sot. sot. SOP. Temp
F Sq In. Liquid Evop Vopor Liquid Evop Vopor Liquid Evop Vopor F
r P *I Vl. V, hr hrs h, $1 *l# 5. #
32 0.08854 0.01602 3306 3306 0.00 1075.6 1075.8 0.0000 2.1877 2.1677 32
35 0.09995 0.01602 2947 2947 3.02 1074.1 1077.1 0.0061 2.1709 2.1770 35
40 0.12170 0.01602 2444 2444 8.05 1071.3 1079.3 0.0162 2.1433: 2.1597 40
45 0.14752 0.01602 2036.4 2036.4 13.06 1068.4 1061.5 0.0262 2.1167 2.1429 45
50 0.17611 0.01603 1703.2 1703.2 16.07 1065.6 1083.7 0.0361 2.0903 2.1264 50
60 0.2563 0.01604 1206.6 1206.7 28.06 1059.9 1086.0 0.0555 2.0393 2.0948 60
70 0.3631 0.01606 667.8 867.9 38.01 1054.3 1092.3 0.0745 1.9902 2.0647 70
80 0.5069 0.01608 633.1 633.1 48.02 1048.6 1096.6 n.0932 1.9428 2.0360 80
90 0.6982 0.01610 468.0 466.0 57.99 1042.9 1100.9 J.1115 1.8972 2.0067 90
100 0.9492 0.01613 350.3 350.4 07.97 1037.2 1103.2 0.1295 1.6531 1.9626 100
110 19748 0.01617 265.3 265.4 77.94 1031.6 1109.3 0.1471 1.8106 1.9577 110
140 1.6924 0.01620 203.25 203.27 87.92 1025.8 1113.7 0.1645 1.7694 1.9339 120
130 2.2% 0.01695 157.32 157.31 97.90 1020.0 1117.9 0.1616 1.7296 1.9112 130
2.10 2.8886 0.01629 122.99 123.01 107.89 1014.1 1122.0 0.1964 1.6910 1.8894 140
150 3.716 0.01634 97.06 97.07 117.69 1006.2 1126.1 0.2149 1.6537 1.6665 150
160 4.74 1 0.01639 77.27 77.29 127.69 1002.3 1130;2 0.2311 1.6174 1.8465 160
170 5.992 0.01645 62.01 62.06 137.90 996.3 1134.2 0.2472 1.5822 1.6293 170
IS0 7.510 0.01631 50.21 50.23 147.92 990.2 1135.1 0.2630 1.5480 1.8109 150
190 9.339 0.01657 40.94 40.96 157.95 9s4.l 1142.0 0.2785 1.5147 1.7932 190
?OO 11.526 0.01663 33.62 33.64 167.99 977.9 114.5.9 0.2938 1.4624 1.7762 200
21 0 11.123 0.01670 27.80 27.62 178.03 971.6 1149.7 0.3090 1.4508 1.7596 210
212 14.696 0.01672 20.76 2620 180.07 970.3 1150.4 0.3120 1.4446 1.7566 212
220 17.160 0.01677 23.13 23.15 186.13 965.2 1153.4 0.3239 1.4201 1.7440 220
230 20.780 0.01684 19.363 19.362 198.23 956.8 1157.0 0.3387 1.3901 1.7266 230
210 24.969 0.01693 16.306 16.323 206.34 952.2 11603 0.3.531 1.3609 1.7140 240
230 29.825 0.01500 13.601 13.631 218.46 945.5 1164.0 0.3675 1.3323 1.6998 250
260 35.429 0.01709 11.746 11.763 226.61 936.7 1167.3 0.3617 1.3043 1.6860 260
250 41.533 0.01717 10.044 10.061 236.64 931.6 1170.0 0.3956 1.2769 1.6727 270
2so 49.203 0.01726 8.828 8.645 249.06 924.7 1173.S 0.4096 1.2.501 1.6597 280
m 67.556 0.01733: 7.444 7.461 259.31 917.5 1176.8 0.4234 1.2238 1.6472 290
300 67.013 0.01545 6.449 6.466 269.59 910.1 1179.7 0.43G9 1.1980 1.6350 300
3-w S9.66 o.nim 4.S96 4.914 29028 694.0 1165.2 0.4637 1.1476 1.6115 320
340 116.01 0.01567 3.770 3.5SS 311.13 679.0 1190.1 0.4900 1.0992 1.5891 3-40
360 153.04 0.01s11 2.939 2.957 332.1s 882.2 1194.4 0.515s 1.0519 1.5677 360
3SO 10.5.77 0.01636 2.317 2.335 353.45 684.6 119s.1 0.5413 1.0059 1.5471 380
400 2-17.31 0.01661 1.6447 1.6633 374.97 626.0 1201.0 0.5664 0.9608 1.5272 400
420 30S.63 0.01694 1.4611 1.5000 396.77 SOG.3 1203.1 0.5912 0.9160 1.5016 420
440 361.59 0.0193; 1.1979 1.2171 416.90 765.4 1204.3 0.6138 0.6730 1.1667 440
460 466.9 0.019G 0.974s 0.9944 441.4 763.2 1204.6 0.6402 0.629s 1.4700 460
480 566.1 0.0200 0.7972 0.6172 464.4 739.4 1203.i 0.6615 0.7668 1.4513 480
500 6S0.6 0.0204 0.6545 0.6749 487.8 713.9 1201.7 0.6667 0.7438 1.4325 500
520 812.4 0.0209 0.5385 0..%94 511.9 666.4 1198.2 0.7130 0.7006 1.4136 520
5-10 9625 0.0213 0.4434 0.4649 536.6 656.6 1193.2 0.7374 0.6568 1.3942 540
560 11.33.1 0.0221 0.3647 0.3668 562.2 624.2 1166.4 0.7621 0.6131 1.3742 560
5SO 133.5.8 0.0228 0.2969 0.3317 568.9 56u.4 1177.3 0.7872 0.5659 1.3532 580
600 132.9 0.0238 0.2432 0266S 617.0 548.5 1165.5 0.8131 0.5176 1.3307 600
620 156G.G 0.0247 0.1955 0.2201 646.7 503.6 1150.3 0.8306 0.4664 1.3062 620
6JO 20.59.7 0.0260 0.1536 0.1798 678.6 452.0 1130.5 0.6679 0.4110 1.2789 640
660 2065.4 0.0278 0.1163 0.1443 7142 390.2 1104.4 0.8987 0.3465 1.2472 6c0
6S0 2705.1 0.030.5 0.0810 0.1115 757.3 309.9 1067.2 0.9351 0.2719 1.2071 650
700 3093.7 0.0369 0.0392 0.0761 823.3 172.1 993.4 0.9903 0.1484 1.1089 700
105.4 3206.2 0.0503 0 0.0503 902.7 0 902.7 1.0580 0 1.0560 705.4

in this area, known as the convection heating surface, additional amounts of heat are trans-
ferred to the water side of the boiler. This heat transfer further cools the flue gases, which
then leave the boiler.
Since heat transfer depends upon a temperature difference as a "driving force," with the
simple boiler described the flue gases can be cooled only to a temperature that is at some level
above the temperature of the steam-water system. The temperature of the flue gases determines
the amount of heat remaining in these gases, so the heat loss in the boiler flue gases is deter-
mined to some extent by the saturation temperature in the steam-water system.
The process of adding heat to convert water to steam has a time constant that depends
upon the specific characteristics of the installation. The factors affecting this time constant
Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process 17

Table 2-2
Saturation: Pressures
A h Prerr. Specific Volume Entholpy Entropy Internal Energy Abs PWS.
-
Lb Temp Sot. Sot. Sol. Sol. Sat. sot. sat. Sat. fi
Sqln, F Liquid Vopor liquid Evop Vapor Liquid Evop Vapor Liquid Evop Vapor Sqln.
P t *I VY hr hrr he SI sro 51 VI ur# P
1.0 101.74 0.01614 333.6 69.70 1036.3 1106.0 0.1326 1.8136 1.9762 69.70 974.6 1044.3 1.0
2.0 126.08 0.01@23 1i3.73 93.99 1022.2 1116.2 0.1749 1.7451 1.9200 93.9s 957.9 1051.9 20
3.0 141.48 0.01630 118.71 100.37 1013.2 1122.6 0.2005 1.GSJJ 1.8863 109.36 917.3 1056.7 3.0
4.0 152.97 0.01636 90.63 120.86 100G.4 1127.3 0.2195 1.6427 l.EG25 120.85 939.3 1060.2 4.0
5.0 1G224 0.01640 73.52 130.13 1001.0 1131.1 0.2347 1.6094 1.8441 130.12 933.0 1063.1 5.0
6.0 170.06 0.01645 01.98 137.96 99G.2 1134.2 0.2472 1.5620 1.8292 137.94 927.5 1065.4 6.0
7.0 176.85 0.01619 53.64 144.76 992.1 1136.9 0.2581 1.5386 1.8167 144.74 922.7 1007.4 7.0
8.0 162.86 0.01653 47.34 150.79 988.5 1139.3 0.2674 1.5383 1.8057 150.77 918.4 1009.2 8.0
9.0 188.28 0.01656 42.40 156.22 985.2 1141.4 0.2759 1.5203 1.7062 156.19 914.6 1070.8 9.0
10 193.21 0.01650 38.42 161.17 952.1 1143.3 0.2835 1.5041 1.7876 161.14 911.1 1072.2 10
14.696 212.00 0.01672 26.80 180.07 970.3 1150.4 0.3120 1.4446 1.7566 180.02 897.5 1077.5 14.696
15 213.03 0.01672 26.29 181.11 969.7 1150.8 0.3135 1.4415 1.7.549 151.00 890.7 1077.8 15
20 227.96 0.01683 20.089 196.16 960.1 1156.3 0.3356 1.3962 1.7319 196.10 855.8 1081.9 20
30 250.33 0.01701 13.746 218.62 94.5.3 1161.1 0.3680 1.3313 1.6993 218.73 669.1 1087.8 30
40 267.24 0.01715 10.498 236.03 933.7 1169.7 0.3919 1.2844 1.6763 235.90 850.1 1092.0 40
50 281.01 0.01727 8.515 250.09 924.0 1174.1 0.4110 1.2474 l.65&5 249.93 845.4 1095.3 60
60 202.71 0.01738 7.175 262.09 915.5 1177.6 0.4270 1.2168 1.0435 2Gl.W 830.0 1097.9 60
70 302.02 0.01748 6.206 272.61 907.9 1180.6 0.4409 1.1906 1.6315 272.38 827.8 1100.2 70
SO 312.03 0.01757 5.472 262.02 901.1 1183.1 0.4531 1.1676 1.6207 281.76 820.3 1102.1. 80
90 320.27 0.01766 4.896 290.56 891.7 115.5.3 0.4641 1.1471 1.6112 290.27 813.4 1103.7 90
100 327.81 0.01774 4.432 298.40 888.8 1187.2 0.4740 1.1286 1.6026 298.08 807.1 1105.2 100
I20 341.25 0.01789 3.723 312.41 877.9 119i;. : 0.4916 1.0962 1.5378 312.05 795.6 1107.0 120
140 353.02 0.01~02 3220 324.82 86S.2 ll9J.O 0.5069 1.0682 1.5751 324.33 785.2 1109.8 140
160 3K53 0.01815 2.834 335.93 859.2 1195.1 0.5204 1.0436 1.5640 335.39 775.8 1111.2 160
180 373.06 0.01827 2.632 340.03 8.50.8 1196.9 0.5325 1.0217 1.5542 345.42 767.1 1112.5 180
200 381.79 0.01839 2.288 355.36 843.0 1198.4 0.5435 1.0018 1.5453 354.68 759.0 1113.7 200
250 400.95 0.01865 1.8435 376.00 825.1 1201.1 0.5675 0.9.588 1.5263 375.14 740.7 iir5.s 2.50
300 417.33 0.01690 1.5433 393.84 sn0.o 1203.8 0.5S79 0.022.5 1.5104 392.79 724.3 1117.1 300
350 431.72 0.01913 1.3260 409.69 791.2 1203.9 0.6056 0.8910 1.4966 408.45 709.0 1118.0 350
400 444.59 0.0193 1.1613 424.0 780.5 1201.5 0.6214 0.8630 1.4S1,i 422.0 695.9 1118.5 400
450 456.28 0.0195 1.0320 437.2 767.4 1204.6 0.6356 0.8378 1.473 t 435.5 683.2 1118.7 450
500 467.01 0.0197 0.9278 449.4 75.5.0 1204.4 0.6487 0.8147 1.4634 447.6 6 7 1 ~ ) 1118.0 600
550 476.93 0.0199 0.8422 460.8 743.1 1203.9 0.GGOS 0.7934 1.4542 458.8 65 : 1118.2 550
600 486.21 0.0201 0.769s 471.6 731.6 1203.2 0.6720 0.7731 1.4454 469.4 048 5 1117.7 600
700 503.10 0.0205 0.6584 491.5 709.7 1201.2 0.6925 0.7371 1.4296 488.8 027.8 1110.3 700
800 518.23 0.0209 O.BGS7 509.7 GhS.9 119S.G 0.7108 0.7045 1.4153 506.0 607.8 1114.4 800
900 531.98 0.0912 0.5006 526.6 GGSB 1195.4 0.7275 0.6744 1.4020 523.1 589.0 1112.1 900
1000 514.61 0.0216 0.4456 542.4 619.4 1191.8 0.7430 0.6467 1.3897 535.4 571.0 1109.4 1000
1100 556.31 0.0220 0.4001 557.4 630.4 1187.8 0.7575 0.620.5 1.3780 552.9 553.5 1106.4 1100
1200 567.22 0.0223 0.3619 571.7 6 l l . i 1183.4 0.7711 0.59.56 1.3607 5GG.7 530.3 1103.0 1200
1300 577.46 0.0227 0.3293 585.4 593.2 1178.6 0.7840 0.5719 1.3.559 580.0 519.4 1099.4 1300
1400 587.10 0.0131 0.3012 598.7 574.7 1173.4 0.7963 0.5191 1.3454 592.7 502.7 1095.4 1400
1500 596.23 0.0235 0.1765 611.6 556.3 1167.9 o.sos2 0.5209 1.3351 005.1 480.1 1001.2 1500
2000 035.62 0.0257 0.1878 671.7 463.4 1135.1 0.8610 0.4230 1.9 w2.2 403.4 1OG5.6 2000
2500 668.13 0.0287 0.1307 730.6 3G0.5 1091.1 0.9120 0.3197 1.2322 717.3 313.3 1030.0 2500
3900 695.36 0.0340 0.0858 802.5 217.8 1020.3 0.9731 0.1883 1.1615 783.4 189.3 972.7 3000
3206.2 705.40 0.0503 0.0503 902.7 0 902.7 1.0580 0 1.0580 872.9 0 872.9 32062

include the system heat storage, the heat transfer coefficients in different parts of the system,
the masses of metal and refractory and their configuration, and various other factors. For the
purpose of control, it is generally enough to understand that the complete time constant is a
matter of minutes. Viewing the system as achieving 63 percent of total response in one fifth
of the total time constant (a first-order system) is sufficient for most boiler control analysis
procedures.

2-3 Heat Recovery from the Flue Gases

If the heat losses in the boiler flue gases are to be reduced, separate heat exchangers must
be added to the simple boiler to recover more of the heat and further cool the flue gases. The
combustion air preheater is one form of such an added heat exchanger. The application of an
air preheater is shown in Figure 2-2. The flue gas leaves the boiler and passes through the
18 Tne Control of Boilers

Table 2-3
Superheated Vapor

Abs Press.
Lb/Sq In. Temperature, F
(Sol. Temp) 200 300 400 ' 500 600 700 800 900 lo00 1200 1400 1600
V 392.6 452.3 512.0 571.6 631.2 690.8 750.4 809.9 869.5 988.7 1107.8 1227.0
1 h 1150.4 1195.8 1241.7 1288.3 1335.7 1383.8 1432.8 1482.7 1533.5 1637.7 1745.7 1857.5
(101.74) s 2.0512 2.1153 2.1720 2.2233 2.2702 2.3137 2.3542 2.3923 2.4283 2.4952 2.5566 2.6137
V 78.16 90.25 102.26 114.22 126.16 138.10 150.03 161.95 173.87 197.71 221.6 245.4
5 h 1148.8 1195.0 1241.2 1288.0 1335.4 1383.6 1432.7 1482.6 1533.4 1637.7 1745.7 1857.4
(162.24) s 1.8718 1.9370 1.9942 2.0456 2.0927 2.1361 2.1767 2.2148 2.2509 2.3178 2.3792 2.4363
V 38.85 45.00 51.04 57.05 63.03 69.01 74.98 80.95 86.92 98.84 110.77 122.69
10 h 1146.6 1193.9 1240.6 1287.5 1335.1 1383.4 1432.5 1482.4 1533.2 1637.6 1745.6 1857.3
(193.21) s 1.7927 1.8595 1.9172 1.9689 2.0160 2.0596 2.1002 2.1383 2.1744 2.2413 2.3028 2.3598
V 30.53 34.68 38.78 42.86 46.94 51.00 55.07 59.13 67.25 75.37 83.48
14.696 h 1192.8 1239.9 1287.1 1334.8 1383.2 1432.3 1482.3 1533.1 1637.5 1745.5 1857.3
(212.00) s 1.8160 1.8743 1.9261 1.9734 2.0170 2.0576 2.0958 2.1319 2.1989 2.2603 2.3174
V 22.36 25.43 28.46 31.47 34.47 37.46 40.45 43.44 49.41 55.37 61.34
2 0 h 1191.6 1239.2 1286.6 1334.4 1382.9 1432.1 1482.1 1533.0 1637.4 1745.4 1857.2
(227.96) s 1.7808 1.8396 1.8918 1.9392 1.9829 2.0235 2.0618 2.0978 2.1648 2.2263 2.2834
V 11.040 12.628 14.168 15.688 17.198 18.702 20.20 21.70 24.69 27.68 30.66
40 h 1186.8 1236.5 1284.8 1333.1 1381.9 1431.3 1481.4 1532.4 1637.0 1745.1 1857.0
(267.25) s 1.6994 1.7608 1.8140 1.8619 1.9058 1.9467 1.9850 2.0212 2.0883 2.1498 2.2069
V 7.250 8.357 9.403 10.427 11.441 12.449 13.452 14.454 16.451 18.446 20.44
6 0 h 1181.6 1233.6 1283.0 1331.8 1380.9 1430.5 1480.8 1531.9 1636.6 1744.8 1856.7
292.71) s 1.6492 1.7135 1.7678 1.8162 1.8605 1.9015 1.9400 1.9762 2.0434 2.1049 2.1621
V 6.220 7.020 7.797 8.562 9.322 10.077 10.830 12.332 13.830 15.325
8 h 0 1230.7 1281.1 1330.5 1379.9 1429.7 1480.1 1531.3 1636.2 1744.5 1856.5
312.03) s 1.6791 1.7346 1.7836 1.8281 1.8694 1.9079 1.9442 2.0115 2.0731 2.1303
V 4.937 5.589 6.218 6.835 7.446 8.052 8.656 9.860 11.060 12.258
100 h 1227.6 1279.1 1329.1 1378.9 1428.9 1479.5 1.530.8 1635.7 1744.2 18.56.2
327.81) I 1,6518 1.7085 1.7581 1.8029 1.8443 1.8829 1.9103 1.9867 2.0484 2.1056
V 4.081 4.636 5.165 5.683 6.195 6.702 7.207 8.212 9.214 10.213
120 h 1224.4 1277.2 1327.7 1377.8 1428.1 1478.8 1530.2 1635.3 1743.9 1856.0
(341.25) s 1.6287 1.6869 1.7370 1.7822 1.8237 1.862.5 1.8990 1.9664 2.0281 2 .OR S4
V 3.468 3.954 4.413 4.861 ,5.301 5.738 6.172 7.035 7.895 8.752
140 h 1221.1 1275.2 1326.4 1376.8 1427.3 1478.2 1.529.7 1604.9 1743.5 1855.7
(353.02) s 1.6087 1.6683 1.7190 1.7645 1.8063 1.8451 1.8817 1.9493 2.0110 2.0683
V 3.008 3.443 3.849 4.244 4.631 5.015 5.396 6.152 6 . 0 6 7.656
160 h 1217.6 1273.1 1325.0 1375.7 1426.4 1477.5 1529.1 1634.5 1743.2 18.55.5
(363.53) I 1,5908 1.6519 1.7033 1.7491 1.7911 1.8301 1.8667 1.9344 1.9962 2.0535
V 2.649 3.044 3.411 3.764 4.110 4.4S2 4.792 5.466 6.136 6.804
180 h 1214.0 1271.0 1323.5 1374.7 1475.fi I17(i 8 1.528.fi I K 3 4 . l 1747.9 1855.?
(373.06) s 1,5745 1.6073 1.6894 1.7355 1.7776 1.8167 1.8534 1.0212 1.9831 2.0404
V 2.361 2.726 3.060 3.380 0.693 4.002 4.309 4.917 5 . ~ 2 1 6.123
2 0 0 h 1210.3 1268.9 1322.1 1373.6 1424.8 1476.2 1528.0 1633.7 1742.8 185.5.0
(381.79) I 1.5594 1,6240 1.6767 1.7232 1.7655 1.8048 1.841.5 1.9094 1.9713 2.0287
V 2.125 2.465 2.772 3.066 3.352 3.634 3.913 4.467 5.017 5.585
220 h 1206.5 1266.7 1320.7 1372.6 1424.0 1475.5 1.527.5 1633.3 1742.3 1854.7
(389.88) I 1.5453 1.6117 1.6652 1.7120 1.7545 1.7939 1.8308 1.8987 1.9607 2.0181
V 1.9276 2.247 2.53 2,804 3.088 3.327 3.584 4.093 4.597 5.100
240 h 1202.5 1264.5 1 3 1 9 j 1371.5 1423.2 1474.8 1526.9 1632.9 1742.0 18.54.5
(397.37) a 1.5319 1.8003 1.8548 1.7017 1.7444 1.7839 1.8209 1.8889 1.9510 2.0084

v-Specific Volume (cu. ft./lb.)

h-Total Heat (BTU/lb.)
+Entropy