Embedded Systems Design Course

Applying the mbed microcontroller

Analog input and output

These course notes are written by R.Toulson (Anglia Ruskin University) and T.Wilmshurst
(University of Derby). (c) ARM 2012

These course notes accompany the textbook “Fast and effective embedded system design :
Applying the ARM mbed”

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 Analog input and output
• Introduction to analog signals and data
• Concepts of analog-to-digital conversion
• Analog inputs on the mbed
• Reading and logging data from analog inputs
• Concepts of digital-to-analog conversion
• Analog output with the mbed
• Generating output waveforms

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 Introduction to analog data
• Microcontrollers are often required to interface with analog
signals

• They must be able to convert input analog signals, for example

from microphone or temperature sensor, to digital data

• They must also be able to convert digital signals to analog form,

for example if driving a loudspeaker or dc motor

• We will first consider conversion from analog-to-digital, before

later looking at digital-to-analog conversion

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 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
• An analog-to-digital convertor (ADC) is an electronic circuit
whose digital output is proportional to its analog input

• Effectively it "measures" the input voltage, and gives a binary

output number proportional to its size

• The input range of the ADC is usually determined by the value

of a voltage reference

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 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
• The conversion is started
Voltage Reference
by a digital input, called
here SC +

• It takes finite time, and + Analogue

Analogue Digital
the ADC signals with the to Digital
Input Output
EOC line when the - Converter (n bits)
conversion is complete
SC EOC OE
• The resulting data can (Start (End of (Output Enable)
Convert) Conversion)
then be enabled onto a Example Control Lines
data bus using the OE line

5
 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
• The `staircase’ visible in a 3-bit ADC
Digital
Output
111

110

101

100

011

010

001

000
Analogue
0 Vmax
Input

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 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
Resolution and quantisation
• By converting an analog signal to digital, we are effectively
approximating it, as any one digital output value has to represent a
very small range of analog input voltages, i.e. the width of any of
the steps on the “staircase” n.
• If we want to convert an analog signal that has a range 0-3.3 V to an
8-bit digital signal, then there are 256 (i.e. 28) distinct output values.
Each step has a width of 3.3/256 = 12.89 mV, and the worst case
quantisation error is 6.45mV.
• The mbed uses a 12-bit ADC. This leads to a step width of 3.3/212,
or 0.8 mV; the worst case quantisation error is therefore 0.4 mV.

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 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
Sampling frequency

• When converting an analog signal to digital, we repeatedly

take a ‘sample’ and quantise this to the accuracy defined by
the resolution of our ADC.

• The more samples taken, the more accurate the digital data
will be. Samples are normally taken at fixed periods (i.e.,
every 0.2ms) and define the rate of sampling by the sampling
frequency (the number of samples taken per second).

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 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
Sampling frequency

• The sample frequency needs to be chosen with respect to the

rate of which the sampled data is changing. If the sample
frequency is too low then rapid changes in the analog signal
may not be obvious in the resulting digital data.

• For this reason the Nyquist sampling criterion states that the
sampling frequency must be at least double that of the
highest frequency of interest.

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 Concepts of analog-to-digital
conversion
Digital sampling of an analog signal

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 Analog inputs on the mbed
• The mbed has up to six analog inputs, on pins 15 to 20

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 Analog-to-digital conversion on the
mbed
The library functions are shown in the table below
AnalogIn An analog input, used for reading the voltage on a pin

Functions Usage
AnalogIn Create an AnalogIn, connected to the specified pin
read Read the input voltage, represented as a float in the range
[0.0, 1.0]
read_u16 Read the input voltage, represented as an unsigned short in
the range [0x0, 0xFFFF]
operator float operator float An operator shorthand for read()

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 Reading and logging data from analog
inputs
• Exercise 1: Attach a potentiometer output to mbed pin 20.
– Start a new mbed project and enter the code below.
– This code will continuously display the analog input value when used
with a host PC terminal application.

//Reads input through the ADC, and transfers to PC terminal

#include "mbed.h"

Serial pc(USBTX, USBRX);

AnalogIn Ain(p20);
float ADCdata;

int main() {
pc.printf("ADC Data Values... \n\r");
while (1) {
ADCdata=Ain;
pc.printf("%f \n\r",ADCdata);
wait (0.5);
}
}

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 Reading data from analog inputs

• Exercise 2: Using the four onboard mbed LEDs, write a

program that will use a potentiometer input on pin 20 to
continuously control how many LEDs are on. Use the following
chart to define the LED control:

Analog input value x LED1 LED2 LED3 LED4

x <= 0.2 0 0 0 0

0.2 < x <= 0.4 1 0 0 0

0.4 < x <= 0.6 1 1 0 0

0.6 < x <= 0.8 1 1 1 0

0.8 < x <= 1.0 1 1 1 1

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 Concepts of digital-to-analog
conversion
• We can represent the digital-to-analog convertor (DAC) as a block diagram
with a digital input, D, and an analog output, vo

• The output range of the DAC, vr , is the difference between the maximum
and minimum output voltages, i.e.
vr = vmax - vmin

• The particular output range is usually defined by a fixed voltage reference

supplied to the DAC

• Digital control lines allow a microcontroller to setup and communicate with

the DAC

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 Concepts of digital-to-analog
conversion
Voltage Reference
+ For each digital
value input to the
DAC, there is a
corresponding
Digital to +
analog output
D Analogue VO value given by
(n-bit Digital Converter - (Analog
input) Output)

Control Lines

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 Concepts of digital-to-analog
conversion

• The mbed’s LPC1768 chip has a 10-bit DAC (i.e. n=10)

• The mbed uses its own 3.3 V power supply as voltage

reference

• There will therefore be 2n steps in the mbed DAC output

characteristic, i.e. 1024

• The step size, or resolution, is therefore be 3.3/1024, i.e.

3.2mV per bit

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 Digital-to-analog conversion on the
mbed
• The mbed has a single analog
output on pin 18

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 Digital to analog conversion on the
mbed
The library functions are shown in the table below

AnalogOut An analog output, used for setting the voltage on a pin

Functions Usage
AnalogOut Create an AnalogOut connected to the specified pin

write Set the output voltage, specified as a percentage (float)

Set the output voltage, represented as an unsigned short in

write_u16
the range [0x0, 0xFFFF]
Return the current output voltage setting, measured as a
read
percentage (float)
operator= An operator shorthand for write()
operator float() An operator shorthand for read()

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 Analog output with the mbed

• The mbed analog output on pin 18 is configured by the

following declaration:

AnalogOut Aout(p18);

• By default, the analog object takes a floating point number

between 0.0 and 1.0 and outputs this to pin 18

• The actual output voltage on pin 18 is between 0V and 3.3V,

so the floating point number that is output as a voltage is
scaled by a factor of 3.3

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 Analog output with the mbed

• Exercise 3: compile the program shown below and, using an

oscilloscope, familiarise yourself with the analog output.

#include "mbed.h"
int main() {
AnalogOut Aout(p18);
while(1) {
Aout=0.25; // 0.25*3.3V = 0.825V
wait(1);
Aout=0.5; // 0.5*3.3V = 1.65V
wait(1);
Aout=0.75; // 0.75*3.3V = 2.475V
wait(1);
}
}

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 Analog output with the mbed
• Exercise 4: Now make a sawtooth wave and view it on an
oscilloscope.
• Create a new program and enter the following code
//Sawtooth waveform on DAC output to view on oscilloscope
#include "mbed.h"
AnalogOut Aout(p18);
float i;
int main() {
while(1)
{
for (i=0;i<1;i=i+0.1)
{
Aout=i;
wait(0.001);
}
}
}

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 Analog output with the mbed
• Exercise 5: Modify your code to create a smoother sawtooth wave,
by implementing finer steps in the for loop:

• Exercise 6: Create a smooth triangular wave by implementing a

second loop to count down also:

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 Summary
• Introduction to analog signals and data
• Concepts of analog-to-digital conversion
• Analog inputs on the mbed
• Reading and logging data from analog inputs
• Concepts of digital-to-analog conversion
• Analog output with the mbed
• Generating output waveforms

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