Central university of Punjab

Bhatinda
Term paper on

Digital to analog data converters

Department of physical sciences

(session 2019-2020)

Subject: -electronics

Submitted to: - submitted by-

Dr. Achchhelal Sharma Ashok Singh

 Reg.no. -19mscphy07

A study of digital to analog data converter

By (Ashok Singh)

Central university of Punjab

2019

Abstract
The objective of this term paper is to accommodate basic and essential knowledge of
digital to analog convertors in this paper I shall try to abridge theory and digital circuitry
based on digital to analog data converters and also how these converters are essential

The use of digital to analog convertors is very wide and particularly used in data exchange
and communication system where we need to convert a value represented in digital code
such as straight binary or BCD into a voltage or current which is proportional to the digital
value

After studying this paper, we will be able to understand

1.what is digital to analog convertors

2.history of digital to analog convertors

3.how digital to analog conversion and working of digital to analog data convertor

4.Application and advantage of digital to analog convertors

 Table of content

1) Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2) DAC types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3) DAC Presented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3.1) Blocks of the DAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3.2) Binary weighted ladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3.3) OP-AMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.4) Open Loop Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.5) Gain Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4) Circuit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.1) Biasing Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

4.2) First Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.3) Second Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.4) DAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5) Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6) Layout Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7) Final simulation result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

8) References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1) INTRODUCTION
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D-to-A) is a device for converting a digital (usually
binary) code to an analog signal (current, voltage or charges). Digital-to -Analog Converters
are the interface between the abstract digital world and the analog real life. Simple switches,
a network of resistors, current sources or capacitors may implement this conversion.

A DAC inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or current signal. In block
diagram form, it looks like this:

A digital quantity takes only discrete value. the value is expressed in digital code such as
binary or BCD number When a physical process is monitored or controlled by a by digital
system such as a digital computer, the physical variables first converted into electrical signals
using transducers and then these electrical signals are converted into digital signal using
analog to digital converters(adcs). These digital signals are processed by a digital computer
and the output of digital computer is converted into analog signals using digital to analog
convertors (DACs). the output of DAC is modified by an actuator and the output of the
actuator is applied as the control variable
 Fig; Interfacing a digital computer to analog world

PARAMETERS OF DAC

RESOLUTION (STEP SIZE)

THE resolution of dac is defined as the smallest change that can occurs in an analog output
as a result of a change in the digital output the full resolution of a DAC is also defined as the
reciprocal of the number of discrete steps in the full-scale output of the DAC. the resolution
is always equal to the LSB and is also referred as the step size .the resolution or step size is
the size of the jumps in the staircase waveform .the step size is the amount by which Vout
will change as the digital input value is changed from one value to the next .For the waveform
,THE RESOLUTION size or step size is = 1 v .the step size of the DACs the same as the
proportionality factor in the DAC input output relationship .

Resolution can be expressed as the amount of voltage or current per step, it is also useful
to express it in as a percentage of the full-scale output as

% resolution = (step size \full scale) * 100%

Full scale =number of steps step size resolution can be expressed as

% resolution = (1/total no of steps) *100%

In general, for an N bit DAC the of different levels will be 2n and the no of steps will be 2n-1.
the greater the no of bits, the greater will be the step size and therefore the finer will be the
resolution. The cost of DAC increases with no of input bits

ACCURACY

THE accuracy of a DAC is usually specified in terms of its full scale error and linearity error ,
which are normally expressed as percentage of the converters full scale output .the full scale
error is the maximum deviation of the DAC output from its expected (IDEAL) value ,
expressed as a percentage 0f the full scale .the linearity error is the maximum deviation of
the analog output from ideal output .the accuracy and resolution must be compatible .
SETTING TIME

The operating speed of DAC is usually specified by giving its settling time .It is defined as
total time between the instant when the digital input changes and the that the output
enters a specified error for the last time ,usually +1\2 and -1\2 LSB around the final value
after the change in digital input . It is measured as the time for the DAC output to settle
within +1/2and -1/2 step size of its final value generally, DACs with a current output will
have shorter settling times than those with voltage outputs

OFFSET VOLTAGE

It is defined as the output of DAC should be zero when the binary input is zero. there is very
small output voltage under this situation called as the it OFFSET VOLTAGE if is not
corrected, will be added to the expected DAC output for all input cases

MONOTONICITY

A DAC is said to monotonic if its output increases as the binary input is incremented from
one value to the next. This means that the staircase output will be have no downward steps
as the binary input is incremented from 0 to full scale value the DACs is said to nonmonotonic,
if its output decreases when the binary input is incremented.

General description of digital to analog conversion

Digital to analog conversion is the process of converting a value represented in digital code
like binary or BCD into voltage or current which will be proportional to digital value.

Fig. Four-bit DAC with voltage output.

The digital inputs D, C, B, and A are usually derived from the output register of a digital
system. The 24 = 16 different binary numbers represented by these 4 bits for each input
number, the D/A converter output voltage is a unique value. In fact, for this case, the analog
output voltage Vout is equal in volts to the binary number.

In general, Analog output = K × digital input

where K is the proportionality factor and it is constant value for a given DAC. The analog
output can of course be a voltage or current. When it is a voltage, K will be in voltage units,
and when the output is current, K will be in current units. For the DAC of K=1 V, so that

VOUT = (1 V) × digital input

We can use this to calculate VOUT for any value of digital input. For example, with a digital
input of 11002 = 1210, we obtain

Vout =1Vx12=12V

FIG: - OUTPUT WAVE FORM OF DAC FED BY BINARY COUNTER

BINARY WEIGHTED DACs

The Binary Weighted DAC, which contains one resistor or current source for each bit of the
DAC connected to a summing point. These precise voltages or currents sum to the correct
output value. This is one of the fastest conversion methods but suffers from poor accuracy
because of the high precision required for each individual voltage or current. Such high-
precision resistors and current sources are expensive, so this type of converter is usually
limited to 8-bit resolution or less.
The inputs A, B, C, and Dare binary inputs which are assumed to have values of either 0 V or
5 V. The operational amplifier is employed as a summing amplifier, which produces

The weighted sum of these input voltage. The summing amplifier multiplies each input
voltage by the ratio of the feedback resistor RF to the corresponding input resistor RIN. In
this circuit RF RIN 1kΩ and the input resistors range from 1 to 8 KΩ. The D input has RIN =
1KΩ, so the summing amplifier passes the voltage at D with no attenuation. The C input has
RIN = 2 kΩ, so that it will be attenuated by. Similarly, the B input will be attenuated by ¼ and
the A input by 1/8. The amplifier output can thus be expressed as

VOUT = - (VD +1/2 VC + ¼ VB + 1/8 VA)

The negative sign is present because the summing amplifier is a polarity inverting amplifier,
but it will but concern us here.

Clearly, the summing amplifier output is an analog voltage which represents a weighted sum
of the digital inputs. The output is evaluated for any input condition by setting the
appropriate inputs to either 0 V or 5 V. For example, if the digital input is 1010, then VD = VB
= 5V and VC = VA = 0V. Thus, using equation

VOUT = - (5V +OV + ¼ × 5V + O V) = - 6.25V

The resolution of this D/A converter is equal to the weighting of the LSB, which is 1/8 × 5V =
0.625 V. The analog output increases by 0.625 V as the binary input number advances one
step.

DAC using BCD input code

Here we will discuss about DAC using BCD input code, where 4-bit codes are used for each
decimal digit. Each f4 bit code group range from 0000 to 1001 ,so the BCD inputs can
represent decimal number 00 to 99.within each code group ,the weights of each code group
are different bits are in the normal binary proportion (1,2,3,4) ,but the relative weights of
each code group are different by factor of 10 .the bits that make up the BCD code for the
most significant digit (MSD) have a relative weight that is 10 times that of the corresponding
bits of the LSD.

BIPOLAR DACs
Bipolar DACs are designed to have to produce both positive and negative values .This is
generally done by using the binary inputs as a signed number with the MSB as the sign bit (0
for + and 1 for -).The negative values are represented in 2s complement form ,although the
true magnitude form is also used by some DACs.

FOR example:

We have a 6 bit bipolar DAC that uses the 2s complement system and has a resolution of 0.2
V .The binary input values ranges from 10000(-32) to 011111 (+31) to produce analog output
in the ranges from -6.4 V to +6.2 V .There are 63 steps(2n-1) 0f 0.2 between these negative
and positive limits .

The Pulse Width Modulator the simplest DAC type. A stable current (electricity) or
voltage is switched into a low pass analog filter with a duration determined by the digital
input code. This technique is often used for electric motor speed control, and is now
becoming common in high-fidelity audio.

Oversampling DACs such as the Delta-Sigma DAC, a pulse density conversion technique.
The oversampling technique allows for the use of a lower resolution DAC internally. A simple
1-bit DAC is often chosen, as it is inherently linear. The DAC is driven with a pulse density
modulated signal, created through negative feedback. The negative feedback will act as a
high pass filter for the quantization (signal processing) noise, thus pushing this noise out of
the pass-band. Most very high-resolution DACs (greater than 16 bits) are of this type due to
its high linearity and low cost. Speeds of greater than 100 thousand samples per second and
resolutions of 24 bits are attainable with Delta-Sigma DACs. Simple first order Delta-Sigma
modulators or higher order topologies such as MASH - 'Multi stage' noise Shaping can be
used to generate the pulse density signal. Higher oversampling rates relax the specifications
of the output Low-pass filter and enable further suppression of quantization noise.

• Hybrid DACs which use a combination of the above techniques in a single converter.
Most DAC integrated circuits are of this type due to the difficulty of getting low cost, high
speed and high precision in one device.

R2R LADDER TYPE DAC

The R2R Ladder type DAC is most popular DAC. It uses a ladder network congaing series and
parallel combination of two resistors of value R and 2R the operational amplifier with voltage
follower configuration is used to prevent loading. When a digital signal D3D2D1D0 is applied
at the input terminal of the DACs, an equivalent analog signal is produced at the output
terminal. It is a binary weighted DAC that creates each value with a repeating structure of 2
resistor values, R and R times two. This improves DAC precision due to the ease of producing
many equal matched values of resistors or current sources, but lowers conversion speed due
to parasitic capacitance.

THE SWITCHED CURRENT -SOURCE TYPE DAC

It is a current switching type DAC .It is more useful than voltage switching type DAC(like R-
2R ladder type, weighted register DAC because current can be switched in and out of the
circuit faster than voltage .In this current are weighted according to the bit position they
represent and are summed up in an operational amplifier.
 The 4-bit switched current source DAC

WORKING

In general, the current in that flows in each 2R resistor is given by, I(n)=Eref/R) x (1/2) *N-n
where n = 0,1,2,3 …. N-1

N is total no of inputs .so each current is weighted by the bit position it represent .Eref is an
externally variable voltage , the product of DAC is proportional to the product of the variable
Eref and the variable digital input .in this case it is called as multiplying DACs and the output
represent the product of analog input Eref and digital input .

THE SWITCHED CAPACITOR TYPE DAC

It is special type DAC which uses weighted capacitors instead of weighted resistors .here the
charge capacitors form a capacitive voltage divider whose output is proportional the sum of
the binary inputs .it should be keep in mind that the capacitance value have binary weights
.here in this two phase clock are used to control switching of capacitor .

When Φ1 goes HIGH, all capacitors are switched to ground and discharged. when Φ2 goes
HIGH, only the capacitor where the digital inputs are HIGH are switched to Eref and those
whose inputs are LOW remain grounded.

The capacitors whose digital inputs are a 1 are in parallel and capacitors whose digital inputs
are in a 0 are in parallel with c/8.

The output of capacitor voltage divider is

Vout = (13/16) *Eref

The analog output is proportional to the digital input. When the input is 0000 the positive
terminal of Eref is effectively open circuited, so the output is zero

The switched capacitor technology has been developed for implementing analog functions
in integrated circuits particularly MOS circuits.

IT is used to construct FILTER, AMPLIFIER. It helps in constructing small capacitance

capacitors pf picofarad range in ICs to perform the function of the much larger capacitors
that are normally needed in low frequency analog circuits.

DIGITAL TO ANALOG DATA CONVERTORS APPLICATION

DACs are used when the output of a digital circuit has to provide an analog voltage or current
to drive an analog voltage device.

CONTROL
The digital output from a computer can be converted to an analog control signal to adjust
the speed of a motor or the temperature of a furnace to control almost any physical variable.

AUTOMATIC TESTING
Computer can be programmed to generate the analog signals (through a DAC 0 is needed to
test analog circuitry. The test circuits analog output response will be converted to a digital
value by an ADC and fed into the computer to be stored displayed and sometimes analysed.

SIGNAL RECOSTRUCTION
In a large number of applications ,an analog signal is digitized ,meaning that successive points
on the signal are converted to their digital equivalent and stored in memory .this conversion
is performed by analog to digital convertor (ADC) .A DAC can then be used to convert the
stored digitized data back to analog -one point at a time – there by reconstructing the original
signal. The combination of digitizing and reconstruction is used in digital storage oscilloscope
audio compact disk system and digital audio and video recording.
Reference
1. Fundamental of digital circuits by A. Anand Kumar
2. Electronic tutorial