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Note 23 Level 1

38 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
February 2013 Technical Guidance Note

Introduction to piling
Introduction ICON W Principles of piling
The principle behind piling is to transfer loads of a structure through strata LEGEND
of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata that has a higher
bearing capacity. The loads can be transferred into underlying strata by W Applied practice
either end bearing or friction or a mixture of both. Piles can also be used to
resist uplift and/or horizontal loads.
W Further reading
This Technical Guidance Note describes the different types of piles
that are presently in use, the design concepts that are employed when
determining the size and depth of piles, how they are constructed and what W Web resources
tests are carried out to verify their integrity.

Replacement piles extract the soil to form a Pile type selection

Principles of piling shaft, which is then filled with a material that The selection of pile type is dependent on a
creates the pile. This method of piling does number of factors including:
not generate as much noise or vibration.
The principle behind piling is to transfer More specifically, piling methods can appear • Ground conditions, both geotechnical
loads of a structure through weak soil to in the following forms: and environmental
either a solid strata level and/or to rely on • The loads to be applied
the friction between the long and slender Bored and cast in situ – A shaft is created • Durability requirements
piles and the soil they are embedded into. within the soil, concrete is poured into the • Site environmental constraints
This is illustrated in Figure 1. shaft either during or after boring and a (e.g. noise)
reinforcement cage is cast into it. This can be • Site access
There are several different types of pile done simultaneously via a continuous flight • Construction programme
that all follow the same principle. They auger (CFA) piling rig that places the concrete
can be made from a variety of materials within the pile shaft as it is being dug. For example, a 5 storey building in a
including timber, steel and reinforced residential area that is to be built on a clay
concrete; the last of which being the Driven piles – A pre-assembled pile is driven soil with layers of silt in it will likely have
most common. into the soil. The pile is made up of sections concrete piles placed via a bored process.
and is linked together via couplings. This reduces the risk of piles failing as the
Types of piling soil collapses into the dug shaft, as a result
Piling methods can be placed into two Cast in place – In cohesionless soils a tube of the concrete being installed while the
categories: displacement and replacement. is driven into the soil and the resulting void is pile shaft is excavated. This method does
filled with concrete. For cohesive soils such not generate much in the way of noise or
Displacement piles shift soil away from as clay, the pile shaft is bored and the void is vibration either, which is important for a site
the pile itself and their installation typically filled without the use of a tube. located within a residential area.
generates significant noise and vibration.
The exceptions to this are displacement Jacked piles – Piles that are pressed into Design responsibility
augers and bottom driven steel tubes. the soil via a jack. This is defined within the Institution of
Civil Engineers’ Specification for Piling
and Embedded Retaining Walls (SPERW).
W Figure 1
Principle of piling In summary, the pile design responsibility
can fall into either the designer of the
structure’s remit or to a specialist contractor.
In the case of the former, all of the design
information is fed directly to the specialist
contractor who does not take on any of the
design responsibility of the piles.

End bearing pile Friction pile The other scenario places the onus of
design in the hands of the specialist
contractor. The amount of information
provided to the specialist in order for them
to carry out the pile design can vary in terms
of comprehensiveness.

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In some instances a pile layout along with can be tested via two methods. One is the has been mooted by some that this test can
loads to each pile is defined and a limit on constant rate penetration test (CRP). This be used instead of a load test, but its results
settlement provided. At other times it is sees a force placed upon the pile that is slowly can be inaccurate.
only the loads from the super-structure that increased until the pile fails as it penetrates the
are explained and it is up to the specialist soil. The other method is the maintained load Dynamic response test – This testing
contractor to develop the layout of the piles (ML) test. This has a pile loaded to up to twice method subjects the pile to a continuous
and their loading. In both cases the loads the design load and a time vs. settlement chart stream of vibrations across a broad set
specified must be both unfactored and is plotted every time the load is applied to the of bandwidths. The method by which
permanent in nature. test pile and removed. the integrity of the pile is determined is
somewhat similar to seismic test methods,
This latter approach places a great deal CRP testing is destructive and is therefore although the magnitude of the force being
of design responsibility onto the specialist reserved for piles that are installed for that applied to the pile is much less.
contractor, but it does afford them the purpose only. ML testing on the other hand
opportunity to exercise skills and expertise can be carried out on piles that will ultimately Electrical test – These tests measure the
that the designer of the super-structure form part of the foundations, although it is electric potential within the pile and the soil
is unlikely to have. This can in theory lead possible to test piles to destruction in this it is inserted into. The results from these
to more economical designs over those of manner. measurements are then used to determine
a designer, with less of a focus on sub- the integrity of the pile.
structure design, which would typically be Integrity testing
the responsibility of the engineer overseeing Integrity tests are typically not destructive Eurocode 0.
the super-structure. and set out to determine the overall quality Applied practice
of the pile along its length. Six of the most
Pile testing commonly used testing methods are
Clause 7.5 in BS EN 1997-1 defines which summarised here: BS EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical
pile load tests need to be carried out on Design – Part 1-1 General Rules
all forms of piling. Specifically, pile tests Acoustic test – A tube (or sometimes a pair
need to be carried out when the following of tubes) is cast into the pile and the integrity
conditions arise: checked using a sonde, which has an acoustic
Glossary and
transmitter and receiver at both ends. This is
further reading
• A method of pile installation and/or type dropped into the hole(s), which is filled with
of pile is being used where there is no a liquid (water or possibly something more Friction based pile – The strength of
experience of it being employed viscous) in order to attain the best signal from the pile is based on the shear interaction
• Where the piles have not been tested in the sonde. The sonde is dropped to the base between pile and soil.
similar soil and loading conditions of the pile and the time it takes for the sounds
• When piles are subjected to loading, being emitted from it and received back are End bearing pile – The strength of the
that theory and experience do not give recorded. Short time periods mean the pile is pile is based on the bearing of the pile into
confidence in the pile design. Load testing sound, long periods indicate cracks and voids a stiff strata.
will simulate the design loading condition are present within the pile.
• During installation the behaviour of the Further Reading
piles is different from what was expected, Radiometric test – This test detects flaws in Tomlinson M. and Woodward J. (2007) Pile
i.e. from the assumptions made from the soil the pile by measuring the radiation within it. Design and Construction Practice 5th ed.
property data gleaned from the earlier site Like acoustic tests, a tube is cast into the pile Oxford, UK: Taylor and Francis Group
investigations and a sensor is placed within the tube. Rather
than sound, radiation is measured which is Fleming K. et al. (2008) Pile Engineering 3rd
In addition to mandatory testing, specific used to determine the integrity of the pile. ed. Oxford, UK: Taylor and Francis Group
tests may form part of the pile design and
installation process. Testing can inform the Seismic test – This is based on measuring Tomlinson M.J (2001) Foundation Design and
suitability of the chosen pile type, how the the effect of a hammer blow at the top of the Construction 7th ed. London, UK: Prentice Hall
soil is interacting with the pile and the overall pile. An accelerometer is installed at the top
design of the sub-structure. of the pile to measure the Rayleigh waves The Federation of Piling Specialists (in
that travel through the pile. The time it takes association with BGA and ICE) (2007)
The extent of testing does have an impact for the waves to travel through the pile is ICE Specification for Piling and Embedded
on the design factor of safety of the piles. measured, from which the soundness of the Retaining Walls 2nd ed. London: Thomas
If a significant amount of testing is to be pile can be determined. Telford
carried out during construction, then the
factor of safety can be reduced, while the Stress wave test – This testing method is Eurocode 0.
opposite is also true. based on a dynamic pulse that is emitted Web resources
through the pile via a repeatedly dropped
There are two forms of testing: Load and mass applied to the top of pile. The mass
Integrity. must be large enough to induce a deflection Federation of Piling Specialists:
in the pile in order for the test to be valid. www.fps.org.uk
Load testing The application of the load creates a stress
With respect to load testing; piles that are wave within the pile that is measured. This The Institution of Structural Engineers library:
primarily subjected to axial compressive loads then determines the integrity of the pile. It www.istructe.org/resources-centre/library

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