GENERATION OF ALTERNATING EMF

A VOLTAGE CAN BE DEVELOPED IN A COIL OF WIRE IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS

1. Changing the flux through the coil – (transformer action)

2. Moving the coil through a magnetic field so that flux cutting results – (generator action)
3. By altering the direction if the flux with respect to the coil – (generator action)

dφ
𝑒= 𝑁 ∗ 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
dt

where: N = no. of turns

dφ/dt = rate at which the flux changes through the coil

𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 ∗ 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

where: B = flux density, lines/ square inch

l = length of wire in that is moved relative to the flux
v = velocity of the wire in/sec with respect the flux

e = EmsinӨ

Deg (Ө) Voltage

0 0
15 0.259 Em
30 0.5 Em
45 0.707 Em
60 0.866 Em
75 0.966 Em
90 1 Em
Example 1 : (Prob. 1/page 291 Ch. 10)

Calculate the average voltage induced in a coil of 300 turns through which the flux changes from
250,000 to 20,000 maxwells in 0.15 sec.

Given :
N = 300 turns
Φ = 250,000 - 20,000
t = 0.15 sec

dφ
𝑒= 𝑁 ∗ 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
dt

250,000 − 20,000 φ
𝑒 = 300 ∗ ∗ 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
0.15

e = 4.6 Volts

Example 2 : (Prob. 3/page 291 Ch. 10)

A square coil, 2 inch on one side, has 240 turns of wire and is placed between the poles of a
magnet that are slightly more than 2 inch apart. If the horizontally directed field has a uniform flux
density of 11,180 maxwells per sq. in and the coil is rotated from a vertical plane to a horizontal plane in
0.05 sec, calculate the average voltage.

Given :
v = 1in/0.05sec = 20in/sec
N = 240 turns
𝐵 = 11180 mx/square inch
𝑙 = 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2 = 4 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 ∗ 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

max
𝑒 = (11,180 in. ∗ 4 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 20 𝑖𝑛/ sec ∗ 10−8 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
sq

e = 2.15v
Sinusoidal Wave

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Example: (Prob. 4/page 291 Ch. 10)

A voltage wave has the equation

𝑒 = 170𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Calculate the instantaneous value of voltage for the following angles : 30o , 60o , 75o, 105o, 135o, 180o,
270o, 330o

Solution :
𝑒 = 170sin𝛼 volts

@ 30 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170sin(30𝑜 ) volts = 85 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

@ 60 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170sin(60𝑜 ) volts = 147.2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
@ 75 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170sin(75𝑜 ) volts = 164.2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
@ 105 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170sin(105𝑜 ) volts = 164.2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
@ 135 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170sin(135𝑜 ) volts = 120.2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
@ 180 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170sin(180𝑜 ) volts = 0 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
@ 270 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170 sin(270𝑜 ) volts = −170 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
@ 330 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠, 𝑒 = 170 sin(330𝑜 ) volts = −85 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Example: (Prob. 5/page 291 Ch. 10)

A current wave has the equation 𝑖 = 21.2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼. At what angles will the instantaneous
values of current be the following : 7.25 A, 15 A, 19.9 A, 13.6 A, -19.9 A, -12.2 A?

Solution :

𝑖 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = 7.25 𝐴 7.25 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts 𝛼 = 20𝑜 ; 𝛼 = 180𝑜 − 20𝑜 = 160𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = 15 𝐴 15 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts 𝛼 = 45𝑜 ; 𝛼 = 180𝑜 − 45𝑜 = 135𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = 19.9 𝐴 19.9 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts 𝛼 = 69.83𝑜 ; 𝛼 = 180𝑜 − 69.83𝑜 = 110.17𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = 13.6 𝐴 13.6 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts 𝛼 = 39.9𝑜 ; 𝛼 = 180𝑜 − 39.92𝑜 140.08𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = −19.9 𝐴 − 19.9 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts 𝛼 = 180 + 69.83𝑜 = 249.83𝑜 ; 360 − 69.83
𝑜
= 290.17
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = −12.2 𝐴 − 12.2 = 21.2 sin𝛼 volts 𝛼 = 35.13𝑜 + 180 = 215.13 ; 𝛼
= 360 − 35.13𝑜 = 324.87𝑂
𝑜

Frequency & Electrical Degrees

 An AC generator having 2 Poles will develop one cycle of voltage per revolution.
 If rotation occurs at one revolution per second, than the wave is said to have a
frequency of one cycle per second (cps, hz)
 In a multipolar generator it will generate [P/2 * rps] cycles per second; [rps=RPM/60]

f = P/2 * RPM/60

where P = no. of poles

f = P * RPM / 120

Example: (Prob. 6/page 291 Ch. 10)

An alternator has 8 poles. At what speed must it be to develop 60Hz? 25Hz?

@ 60Hz f = P x RPM / 120

60 = 8 x RPM / 120
RPM = 900

@ 25Hz 25 = 8 x RPM / 120

RPM = 375
e = Emsin(ωt)

e = Emsin (2πf)t
where : ω = 2πf

Example: (Prob. 7/page 291 Ch. 10)

What are the frequencies of the following sinusoidal waves

a) e = Emsin 377t
b) i = Emsin 157
c) e = Emsin 314t

Solution:
a) 2πf = 377
f = 60Hz (or cycles per second)
b) 2πf = 157
f = 25Hz
c) 2πf = 314
f = 50Hz

Example: (Prob. 8/page 291 Ch. 10)

A 25 cycle sinusoidal emf wave has a maximum value of 340 v. Determine the instantaneous
value of emf.
(a) 0.0007s after the wave passes through zero in the positive direction
(b) 0.01s after the wave passes through the negative direction

Solution:
e = Emsin 2πft

a) e = 340 sin2π(25)(0.0007)
e = 303 v

b) e = -340 sin2π(25)(0.01)
e = -340 v
RMS (ROOT MEAN SQUARED) OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF SINUSOIDAL CURRENT.

Since the heat produced in the resistor R is proportional to

the square of the current and the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous values of current over one complete cycle is,

Therefore the RMS value of the altenating current is,

IRMS

Since,

IRMS =
 IRMS =

The RMS value of the current (or voltage) is 70.7 % of the maximum value.

Example: (Prob. 9/page 291 Ch. 10)

Calculate the effective current (or RMS) in circuits in which the maximum values of the
sinusoidal current waves are 8.4 amps, 22.8 amps, 65 mA.

𝐸𝑚
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝐸𝐹𝐹 =
√2

For the Imax = 8.4 A,

8.4
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝐸𝐹𝐹 = = 5.94 𝐴
√2
For the Imax = 22.8 A,
22.8
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝐸𝐹𝐹 = = 16.12 𝐴
√2
For the Imax = 65 mA,
65
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝐸𝐹𝐹 = = 45.96 𝑚𝐴
√2

Example: (Prob. 10/page 291 Ch. 10)

The rms value of the voltage in a 60-cycle circuit is 115 volts. Write the equation for the
sinusoidal wave.

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

𝐸𝑚 = √2 𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √2 ∗ 115 = 162.63 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑒 = 162.63𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋(60)𝑡

𝑒 = 162.63𝑠𝑖𝑛 377𝑡 Volts

IN-PHASE, LEADING AND LAGGING SINUSOIDAL WAVES. VECTORS (PHASORS) REPRESENTING
SINUSOIDAL WAVES.

IN-PHASE SINUSOIDAL WAVES IN VECTOR FORM,

IN VECTOR FORM,
CURRENT LAGGING BY AN ANGLE ф=30O

VOLTAGE LEADING BY ф= 90O IN VECTOR FORM,

IN-PHASE, LEADING AND LAGGING SINUSOIDAL WAVES. VECTORS (PHASORS) REPRESENTING
SINUSOIDAL WAVES.

IN-PHASE SINUSOIDAL WAVES

CURRENT LAGGING BY AN ANGLE ф=30O

CURRENT LEADING BY ф= 90O

EXAMPLE : (Problem 15/page 292 Ch 10)

Two loads are connected in parallel to an a-c source and take currents of 10 and 40 amp, respectively. If
the sinusoidal waves of the component currents are our of phase by 30 electrical degrees, calculate the
resulting currents.

Solution :
 Using the component method of determining the resultant of vectors, the horizontal
component of the resultant vector is equal to the summation of the horizontal components of the
component vectors and the vertical component of the resultant vector is the summation of the vertical
component of the component vectors [Considering the signs of the vectors : going right and up are
positive (+) and going left and down are negative (-) ]

𝐼𝑡ℎ = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 cos 30𝑜 = 10 + 40 cos 30𝑜 = 44.64 𝐴

𝐼𝑡𝑣 = 𝐼2 sin 30𝑜 = 40 sin 30𝑜 = 20 𝐴

𝐼𝑡 = √𝐼𝑡ℎ 2 + 𝐼𝑡𝑣 2 = √44.642 + 202 = 48.92 𝐴

EXAMPLE : (Problem 20/page 292 Ch 10)

The following information is given in connection with an ac source that delivers current to three
loads in parallel : IA = 20 amp; IB = 12 amp and lags behind Ia by 30 elect. Degrees; IC=32 amp and leads IA
by 60 elect deg. Using IA as the reference phasor, determine the resultant current and the angle
between it and IA.

Solution :

𝐼𝑇ℎ = ∑ 𝐼ℎ = 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 + 𝐼𝐶 cos 60𝑜

𝐼𝑇ℎ = 20 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 + 32 cos 60𝑜 = 46.39 𝐴

𝐼𝑇𝑣 = ∑ 𝐼𝑣 = 0 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 + 𝐼𝐶 sin 60𝑜

𝐼𝑇𝑣 = 0 − 12𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 + 32 sin 60𝑜 = 21.71 𝐴

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝑇ℎ 2 + 𝐼𝑇𝑉 2 = √(46.39)2 + (21.71) 2 = 51.22 𝐴

𝐼𝑇𝑣 21.71
Tan θ = =
𝐼𝑇ℎ 51.22

θ = 22.97 𝑂

Homework : Problem 25/page 292 Ch 10

 RESISTANCE (R), INDUCTANCE (L) AND CAPACITANCE (C) IN AC CIRCUITS

1. THE R - CIRCUIT

The behavior of a pure resistor in ac is

exactly similar to that in d-c circuit. The laws
governing resistors in d-c systems may therefore
be applied to a-c circuits, assuming that RMS
values of voltage and currents are used.

𝑒 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)
𝑖= = = 𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)
𝑅 𝑅

𝑝 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡) ∗ 𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝐼(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝐼 − 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡

** Note that the power equation is made up of two components and that its frequency of the power
wave is twice the frequency of the voltage and current waves.

1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑤𝑡 = ∫ 𝐸𝐼(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡)𝑑𝑤𝑡
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸𝐼

Example : (problem 1/page 321 ch 11)

A large room is illuminated by twenty 150-watt lamps and thirty 100-watt lamps. If the circuit
voltage is 116 Volts, calculate the total current.
Solution :

Total power = 20*150 + 30 *100 = 6000 W

Power = E * I
6000 = 116/I
I = 51.72 Amps

Example : (problem 3/page 321 ch 11)

How much power is represented by a circuit in which the voltage and current equations are
e = 160 sin 314t and i = 42.5 sin 314t ?

𝑝 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡) ∗ 𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝐼(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝐼 − 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡

𝐸𝑚 160
𝐸= = = 113.14 𝑉
√2 √2

𝐼𝑚 42.5
𝐼= = = 30.05 𝐴
√2 √2

𝑝 = 𝐸𝐼 − 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡 = (113.14)(30.05) − (113.14)(30.05) cos(2) (314𝑡)

𝑝 = 3400 − 3400 𝑐𝑜𝑠628𝑡

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸𝐼 = (113.14)(30.05) = 3400 𝑊

2. THE L - CIRCUIT
A pure inductor in a-c circuit takes a current that lags behind
the impressed emf by exactly 90 elec degrees. Storing and releasing
equal amounts of electromagnetic energy during successive quarter
cycles so that the average energy/power delivered to an inductor is
zero.
 𝑑𝑖
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡) = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
where:
L = inductance of the coil in Henrys
di/dt = rate at which the current is changing
𝐸𝑚
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝐸𝑚
𝑖=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡)
𝑤𝐿
𝜋
But : 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡) = sin ( − 𝑤𝑡)
2

𝑬𝒎 𝝅
𝒊= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒘𝒕 − )
𝒘𝑳 𝟐

This equation of the current implies that it is out-of-phase with the voltage by 90 electrical
𝜋
degrees ( 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) and the negative sign means it is lagging.
2

𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐸
= 𝐼𝑚 ; 𝑤𝐿 = =
𝑤𝐿 𝐼𝑚 𝐼
𝐸 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
The ration of = must be equal to ohms
𝐼 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

Therefore, 𝑤𝐿 must be in ohm units.

Representing 𝑤𝐿 by the symbol 𝑋𝐿  INDUCTIVE REACTANCE,

𝑿𝑳 = 𝒘𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔

POWER IN A PURE L CIRCUIT

𝑝 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 ∗ (−𝐼𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡) = −𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡)

Since :
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡) =
2

Therefore :
−𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝= 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡 = − ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡 = −𝐸𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
√2 √2

** Note that the power equation is made up of two components and that its frequency of the power
wave is twice the frequency of the voltage and current waves.
 3. THE C – CIRCUIT

A pure capacitor in an a-c circuit takes a current that leads the

impressed emf by exactly 90 electrical degrees. Storing and releasing
equal amounts of electrostatic energy during successive quarter
cycles. The average energy/power delivered to a capacitor is zero.

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡)

𝑑𝑞
𝑖= = 𝑤𝐶𝐸𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝜋
cos(𝑤𝑡) = sin (𝑤𝑡 + )
2

𝝅
𝒊 = 𝒘𝑪𝑬𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒘𝒕 + )
𝟐

This equation of the current implies that it is out-of-phase with the voltage by 90 electrical
𝜋
degrees (2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) and the positive sign means it is leading.
 1 𝐸𝑚 𝐸
𝑤𝐶𝐸𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 ; = =
𝑤𝐶 𝐼𝑚 𝐼
𝐸 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
The ration of = must be equal to ohms
𝐼 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

1
Therefore, 𝑤𝐶
must be in ohm units.

1
Representing 𝑤𝐶
by the symbol 𝑋𝐶  CAPACITIVE REACTANCE,

𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝑪 = = 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝒘𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

POWER IN A PURE C CIRCUIT

𝑝 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑖 = 𝐸𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 ∗ (𝐼𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡)

Since :
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡) =
2

Therefore :
𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝= 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡 = ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
√2 √2

** Note that the power equation is made up of two components and that its frequency of the power
wave is twice the frequency of the voltage and current waves.

Example : (Problem 4/page 321 Ch. 11)

A coil of wire having negligible resistance and an inductance of 0.248 henry is connected to a
117-volt 50-cycle source. Calculate (a) the inductive reactance, (b) the current (c) the maximum power
delivered to the inductor or returned to the source, (d) the average power. Write the equations for the
(e) the current and (f) the power.

Solution :
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋(50)(0.248) = 77.91 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝐸 117
𝐼= = = 1.5 𝐴
𝑋𝐿 77.91

−𝐸𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡 = − ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡 = −𝐸𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑤𝑡
2 √2 √2
 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝐼 = 117 ∗ 1.5 = 175.7 𝑊

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0

𝑬𝒎 𝝅 √𝟐(𝟏𝟏𝟕) 𝝅 𝝅
𝒊= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒘𝒕 − ) = [𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅(𝟓𝟎)𝒕 − ] = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟑𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟔𝒕 − )
𝒘𝑳 𝟐 𝟐𝝅(𝟓𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟖) 𝟐 𝟐

𝒑 = −𝑬𝑰 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕 = −𝟏𝟏𝟕 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧[𝟐 ∗ 𝟐𝝅(𝟓𝟎)𝒕] = 𝟏𝟕𝟓. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝒕

Example : (Problem 8/page 321 Ch. 11)

A 45 uF capacitor is connected to a 118-volt 60-cycle source. Calculate (a) the capacitive

reactance, (b) the current, (c) the maximum power delivered to the capacitor or returned to the source,
(d) the average power. Write the equations for (e) the current and (f) the power.

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 58.95 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋(60)(45 ∗ 10−6 )

𝐸 118
𝐼= = =2𝐴
𝑋𝐶 58.95

𝑃𝑚 = 𝐸𝐼 = (118)(2) = 236 𝑊

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0

𝒑 = 𝑬𝑰 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖 ∗ 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧[𝟐 ∗ 𝟐𝝅(𝟔𝟎)𝒕] = 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕𝟓𝟒𝒕

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒘𝒕 + ) = 𝟐√𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟕𝟓𝟒𝒕 + ) = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟕𝟓𝟒𝒕 + )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
THE R-L CIRCUIT

𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰 𝑹 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑿𝑳 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 ∶ 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳

Z is called the circuit impedance (INDUCTIVE), the opposition to the flow of alternating current
measured in ohms.

Phase Angle (Power Factor angle)

In R-L series circuit the current lags the voltage by an angle known as phase angle. It is given by the
equation :

𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑿𝑳 𝑿𝑳
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 = = =
𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝑹

𝑿𝑳
𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑹
Power in R- L Series Circuit

If the alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation:

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕 −→ (𝟏)

The equation of current I is given as:

𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒘𝒕 − 𝝋) −→ (𝟐)

Then the instantaneous power is given by the equation:

𝒑=𝒆𝒊 −→ (𝟑)

Putting the value of e and i from the equation (1) and (2) in the equation (3) we
will get :

𝒑 = [𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕][𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒘𝒕 − 𝝋)]

𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒘𝒕 − 𝝋)]

 𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋)

𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒘𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋)

𝟏 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕
𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 [( − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎
𝒑= [(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋]
𝟐

𝒑 = 𝑬𝑰(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋)

The average power can be calculated using calculus,

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = ∫ 𝒑 𝒅𝒘𝒕
𝟐𝝅 𝟎

The term 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 would become zero.

Therefore,

𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑬𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋

Where cosϕ is called the power factor of the circuit.

THE R-C CIRCUIT

𝟐
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰 𝑹 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑰𝑿𝑪 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 ∶ 𝑿𝑪 =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

Z is called the circuit impedance (CAPACITIVE), the opposition to the flow of alternating
current measured in ohms.
Power in RC Series Circuit

If the alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the equation

Then the equation of the current is,

Therefore, the instantaneous power is given by p = e * i

Putting the value of e and i from the equation (1) and (2) in p = e*i

𝒑 = [𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕][𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒘𝒕 − 𝝋)]

𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒘𝒕 + 𝝋)]

 𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋)

𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒘𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋)

𝟏 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕
𝒑 = 𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎 [( − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑬𝒎𝑰𝒎
𝒑= [(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋]
𝟐

𝒑 = 𝑬𝑰(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋)

The average power can be calculated using calculus,

𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = ∫ 𝒑 𝒅𝒘𝒕
𝟐𝝅 𝟎

The term 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 would become zero.

Therefore,

𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑬𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋

Where cosϕ is called the power factor of the circuit.

Example : (Prob. 20/page 322 Ch. 11)

A small a-c motor used in washing machine is,

in effect, an R-L circuit. If the machine takes 311
watts and 4.5 amps from a 115-volt source when
operating normally, calculate its power factor.

Example : (Prob. 21/page 322 Ch. 11)

In an A-C circuit the sinusoidal voltage and

current waves have the following eqations : e-
170sin314t, i=28.4sin(314t-π/3). Calculate the
following :
(a) effective voltage and current
(b) frequency
(c) power factor
(d) power
Example : (Prob. 27/page 322 Ch. 11)

An R-L circuit takes a current of 7 amp

that lags behind the 231-volt source by 35
electrical degrees. Calculate the power factor,
power, impedance, resistance and inductive
reactance of the circuit.

Example : (Prob. 28/page 322 Ch. 11)

A resistor, in series with a 138 uF capacitor, is

connected to a 60-cycle source. If the voltage drop
across the capacitor is 115 volts and the power taken
by the circuit is 922 watts, calculate
(a) the circuit current
(b) the ohmic value of the resistor
(c) the line voltage
(d) the circuit power factor
Example : (Prob. 30/page 322 Ch. 11)

What should be the capacitance of a capacitor,

in series with a 250-ohm resistor, that will limit the
current to 1.2 amp when the circuit is connected to a
600-volt 60-cycle source? Also calculate the power and
power factor under this condition.
Example : (Prob. 14/page 322 Ch. 11)

A series circuit consisting of a 30 uF capacitor and a

0.155-H inductor is connected to a 120-volt 60 cycle
source. Calculate the circuit current and indicate
whether it lags behind or leads the voltge.

Example : (Prob. 32/page 323 Ch. 11)

A series R-L-C circuit consists of a 25 ohm

resistor, a 0.221 henry inductor, and a 66.3 uF
capacitor. For what 60-cycle impressed voltage
will the current be 2.5 amp?