Fault within local substation: only the neutral of the substation is grounded

and the fault current flows from the fault point through the metal path
composed of the grounding grid. There is no current flowing into the earth.

Fault within local substation: the neutral is only grounded remotely and all
the fault current flows from the fault point through the substation grounding
grid into the earth.

Substation Ground Fault Current 38

Fault within local substation: when the power system is grounded inside
and outside the substation to form a multi-point grounded system, the fault
current through the substation grounding grid returns to the neutral of the
substation, as well as through the earth returns to the remote neutral. This is
the part of the fault current which generates a dangerous ground potential rise.

Substation Ground Fault Current 39

Fault at transmission line outside substation: when the power system is
grounded inside and outside the substation to form a multi-point grounded
system, the fault current returning to the substation grounding grid from the
earth depends on the shunt of the remote grounding device.

Substation Ground Fault Current 40

Maximum Ground Fault Current :

It refers to the maximum fault current flowing into the earth through the
grounding grid under the fault conditions within the substation, or flowing into
the grounding grid from the earth when fault occurs outside the substation.

No simple rule can be used to determine which fault and location will lead to
the maximum grounding grid current flowing into the earth from the grounding
grid, or flowing into the grounding grid from the earth.

Because this current is proportional to the fault current division factor,

which has almost nothing to do with the fault type, the most serious fault type
can be defined as the fault which results in the largest zero sequence current
or ground fault current flowing into the earth from the grounding grid.

41
Maximum Ground Fault Current :

The fault current division factor is a factor representing the inverse of a

ratio of the symmetrical fault current to that portion of the current that flows
between the grounding grid and the surrounding earth. The design value of
the maximum grounding grid current is defined as:

rms symmetrical grounding fault current

rms symmetrical ground grid current
decrement factor of the fault duration

42
Maximum Ground Fault Current :
Decrement factor

43
Maximum Ground Fault Current :
Decrement factor

44
Grounding System Design Example
 Field Data Grid Resistance

Modify Design
Conductor Size Grid Current

Yes
Touch & Step
Criteria No
No Yes
Mesh & Step Voltages
No
Initial Design
Yes
Detail Design

Substation Design Flowchart 46

 Step 1 - Parameters

Ground fault current to the grid on bus = .

Fault duration
Soil resistivity
Wet crushed rock resistivity
Thickness of crushed rock
Depth of grid burial
Available grounding area
Area occupied be the grid
Current deviation factor

47
Step 1 - Parameters

48
 Step 2 – Fault Current & Conductor Size

Ignoring the station resistance, the symmetrical ground fault current on 115 kV

E
I0 
3  R f  ( R1  R 2  R 0 )  j ( X 1  X 2  X 0 )

3I 0 

(3) 115 ,000 3   3180 A
30   4 .0  4 .0  10 .0   j 10 .0  10 .0  40 .0 

49
 Step 2 – Fault Current & Conductor Size

The symmetrical ground fault current on 13 kV

 4 .0  j10 .0   0 .034  j1 .014  0 .085  j1 .142 

 13 
2

Z1  
 115 

Z 0  0 .034  j1 .014 

I f  3I 0 

(3) 13 ,000 3   6,814 Amps
3( 0 )  0 .085  0 .085  0 .034   j 1 .142  1 .142  1 .014 

Conductor size

Amm 2  I  K f t c / 1973 .52

Amm 2  ( 6 .814 )( 7 .06 ) 0 .5 /(1973 .52 )  17 .24

50
 Step 3 – Step and Touch Potentials
Touch Voltage Step Voltage

 1000  1 .5C s   s   1000  6 C s   s 

0 .116 0 .116
E touch 50 E step 50
ts ts

 1000  1 .5C s   s  E step 70  1000  6 C s   s 

0 .157 0 .157
E touch 70
ts ts
 
0.09 1  
 s
Cs surface layer rerating factor Cs  1 
2 hs  0.09
hs thickness of the surface material
s resistivity of the surface material in -m
ts duration of shock current in seconds

51
C-Curves (Cs versus hs) 52
 Step 3 – Step and Touch Potentials

For 0.1 m (4 in) layer of surface material, with a wet resistivity of

2500 Ω·m, and for an earth with resistivity of 400 Ω·m.
  
0 .09  1   0 .09  1  400 
Reduction factor
 s   2500 
Cs  1    0 .74
2 h s  0 .09 2 ( 0 .102 )  0 .09

E step 70  1000  6C s  s 0.157 / ts

 1000  6 0 .74 2500 0 .157 0 .5  2686 .6

E touch 70  1000  1 .5C s  s 0 .157 / t s

 1000  1 .50 .74 2500 0 .157 0 .5  838 .2

53
 Step 4 – Initial Design
Assume a preliminary layout of grid with equally spaced
conductors, with spacing , grid burial depth , and no
ground rods. The total length of buried conductor,
.

54
 Step 5 -Determination of Grid Resistance

For , and grid area , the resistance is

 1 1  1 
Rg     1  
 LT 20 A  1  h 20 / A  

 1 1  1 
R g  400   1     2.78 ohms

20  4900  1  0.5 20 4900  
 1540

55
 Step 6 - Maximum grid current Ig

Given Df = 1.0, and Sf = 0.6

Ig  S f  I f

Though the bus fault value of is greater than the

bus fault value of , The Y-grounded transformer
winding is a “local” source of fault current and does not contribute to
the GPR. Thus, the maximum grid current is based on .
IG  D f  S f  3  I0

I G  10 .6 3180   1908 A

56
 Step 7 - Ground Potential Rise GPR

Now it is necessary to compare the product of and , or , to the

tolerable touch voltage, 70

GPR  I G  R g
GPR  (1908 )( 2 .78 )  5304

Since far exceeds =

(determined in
Step 3) as the safe value, additional design evaluations are necessary.

57
 Step 8 – Mesh Voltage
1 1 h 0 .5
2   0 .57  1  1 .225
2  n  n 2  11 
K ii  Kh  1
2 11
h0 1 .0


1   D2
  ln  
 D  2  h
2

h  K ii  8 
  ln 
  2  n  1  
Km  
2    16  h  d 8D d 4  d  Kh

Km 
1   72

7  2  0 .5 
2

0 .5  0 .57  8 
   0 .89
4  0 .01  1 .225   2  11  1  
 ln  ln  
2   16  0 .5  0 .01 8  7  0 .01

2  LC 2  1540 Lp
na    11 nb  1
Lp 280 4 A
K i  0 .644  0 .148  n  0 .644  0 .148  11  2 .272
  IG  Km  Ki 400  1908  0 .89  2 .272
Em    1002 .1
LC  LR 1540

58
 Step 9 - vs.

The mesh voltage 1002.1 V is higher than the tolerable touch voltage
838.2 V. The grid design must be modified.
There are two approaches to modifying the grid design to meet the
tolerable touch voltage requirements:

59
 Modified Design
In this example, the preliminary design will be modified to include 20
ground rods, each 7.5 m (24.6 ft) long, around the perimeter of the grid.

60
 Repeating Step 5

Using Equation for LT = 1540 + 20 • 7.5 = 1690 m, and A = 4900 m2

yields the following value of grid resistance Rg:

 1 1  1 
Rg     1   
 LT 20 A  1  h 20 / A  
 1 1  1 
 400    1    2 .75 ohms
 1690 20  4900  1  0 .5 20 4900  

Steps 6 and 7. The revised GPR is (1908)(2.75) = 5247 V, which is still

much greater than 838.2 V.

61
 Repeating Step 8


1   D2
  ln  
 D  2  h
2

h  K ii  8 
  ln 
  
Km
2    16  h  d 8  D  d 4  d  K h   2  n  1  

h 0 .5
Kii = 1.0 with rods Kh  1  1  1 .225
h0 1 .0


1   72

7  2  0 .5 
2

0 .5  1 .0  8 
 ln     0 .77
4  0 .01  1 .225   2  11  1  
Km ln  
2   16  0 .5  0 .01 8  7  0 .01

  I  Km  Ki 400  1908  0 .77  2 .272

Em    747 .4
    
G

 7 .5
L C  1 .55  1 .22  
Lr   L 1540  1 .55  1 .22   150
    70  70  
 L2x  L2y  
2 2

  
R

62
 Final Design

Ks 
1 1

1

  2  h D  h D
1
1  0 . 
5 n2
  1  2 10.5  7 10.5  17 1  0.5   0.406
11  2

  

  IG  K s  Ki 400  1908  0 .406  2 .272

Es    548 .9 volts
0 .75  L C  0 .85  L R 0 .75  1540  0 .85  150

Step 9: Em vs. Etouch. Now the calculated corner mesh voltage is lower than the tolerable
touch voltage (747.4 V versus 838.2 V), and we are ready to proceed to Step 10.
Step 10: Es vs. Estep. The computed Es is well below the tolerable step voltage determined
in Step 3 of the initial design. That is, 548.9 V is much less than 2686.6 V.
Step 12: Modify design. Not necessary for this example.

63
Four Point Method
Or
Wenner’s Method

Resistivity measurement 64
From the indicated resistance value RE, the
soil resistivity is calculated according to the
equation :
4aR
  2aR
2a a
1 
a  4l
2 2
a2  l 2

 mean value of soil resistivity (.m)

R measured resistance ()
a probe distance (m)

Resistivity measurement 65
 Fall of Potential Method

2lR 2lR
 
8l 2l
ln( )  1 ln( )
d a

Resistance measurement 66
Resistance measurement 67
For zero error:

Resistivity measurement 68
The 62% rule is a guide to how far away the P2 and C2 stakes should be
placed from the electrode under test. The distances are nominally based on
the depth of the electrode.

Depth of Electrode Distance from E to Distance from E to

under Test (E) Potential Stake (P2) Current Stake (C2)
6 50 82
8 62 100
20 81 131
30 100 161

Resistance measurement 69