Downloadble Science Notes

Imagine trying to find a book in a library if all the books were unorganized.
Books are organized in a library to help you easily find the information you need.
The periodic table is like a library of information about all chemical elements. The
periodic table has more than 100 blocks-one for each known element. Each block
on the periodic table includes basic properties of each element, such as the
element's state of matter at room temperature and its atomic number. The atomic
number is the number of protons in each atom of the element. Each block also lists
an element's atomic mass or the average mass of all different isotopes of that
element.
Downloadable Science Notes

USLS-IS
Grade 9
You can learn about some properties of an element from its position on the
periodic table. Elements are organized in periods (rows) and groups (columns).
The periodic: table lists elements in order of atomic number. The atomic number
increases from left to right as you move across a period. Elements in each group
have similar chemical properties and react with other elements in similar ways. In
this lesson, you will read more about how an element's position on the periodic
table can be used to predict its properties.
Dry ice and table salt are two common substances that are very much different
from each other. Analyzing closely, dry ice is chemically carbon dioxide (CO2). It
is made up of one carbon atom covalently bonded with 2 oxygen atoms. Also,
carbon dioxide is a poisonous colorless gas. Dry ice is the solid form of carbon
dioxide. Table salt is sodium chloride (NaCI) made up of one sodium atom and one
chloride atom combined by an ionic bond. NaCl is a white crystalline edible solid
with very high melting and boiling points. We can see that NaCl and CO2, differ in
many ways physically and chemically. In this lesson, we will explore why
compounds differ in terms of their chemical structures.
The physical and chemical properties of compounds differ not only because of
their composition but also of the type of bonding of each of the atoms in the
compounds. Compounds are formed by the force of attraction between atoms
called chemical bonds.
The bonding force between atoms is the electrostatic force of attraction between
the negative valence electron (electrons involved in the reaction) and the positive
charge proton in the nucleus of any one of the bonding atoms.
Forces between atoms within a molecule are called intramolecular forces

Forces between molecules are called intermolecular forces. These forces
determine the kind of chemical bond whether strong or weak bonds.
Intramolecular forces are usually strong than intermolecular forces. These

forces hold atoms together. The stronger the forces are, the harder the substances.
The crystalline structure of the substance is formed because of its intramolecular
forces. One type of
these intramolecular forces also determine the conductivity and luster of a
substance.
Intermolecular forces are the forces that hold molecules together. This
determines some physical properties like melting and boling points of a substance.
Chemical bonds are either strong bonds or weak bonds. Strong chemical bonds are
the intramolecular forces among the atoms in a molecule. A strong chemical bond
is formed either by the transfer or sharing of electrons between atoms.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
The type of strong bond is due to the difference in electronegativity of the
involved elements. Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.
High electronegativity difference means the stronger its force of attraction of
electrons. The electronegativity of an element can be found in some periodic
tables. Some types of strong chemical bonds are ionic, covalent, and metallic
bonds.
References: Angeles, D., Crisostomo, L., Quinsaat, D., & Toledo, S. (2013).
Science Vistas 9. Makati City: Don Bosco Press.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS
You have read that electrons farthest from their nucleus are easily attracted to
the nuclei of nearby atoms. These outermost electrons are the only electrons
involved in chemical bonding. Even atoms that have only a few electrons, such as
hydrogen or lithium, can form chemical bonds.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
VALENCE (from valentia, means "strength, capacity")
This is because these electrons are still the outermost electrons and are
exposed to the nuclei of other atoms, A valence electron is an outermost electron of
an atom that participates in chemical bonding. Valence electrons have the most
energy of all electrons in an atom.
The number of valence electrons in each atom of an element can help determine
the type and the number of bonds it can form. How do you know how many valence
electrons an atom has? The periodic table can tell you. Except for helium, elements
in certain groups have the same number of valence electrons.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
The figure above illustrates how to use the periodic table to determine the
number of valence electrons in the atoms of groups 1, 2, and 13-18. Determining
the number of valence electrons for elements in groups 3-12 is more complicated.
You will learn about these groups in later chemistry courses.
In addition, you may use the table below as reference.
The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic

table group (vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the
exception of groups 3–12 (the transition metals), the units digit of the group
number identifies how many valence electrons are associated with a neutral atom
of an element listed under that particular column.
Note: * The general method for counting valence electrons is generally not useful
for transition metals. Instead the modified d electron count method is used. **
Except for helium, which has only two valence electrons.
Rerefences: Faraon, G., & Hagad, H. (2012). Integrated Science. Quezon City:
McGrawhill Publishing House and Phoenix Publishing House.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
In 1916, an American Chemist named Gilbert Lewis developed a method to
show an element's valence electrons. He devel-
oped the electron dot diagram, a model that represents valence electrons in an
atom as dots around the element's chemical symbol.
Electron dot diagrams can help you predict how an atom will bond with other
atoms. Dots, representing valence electrons, are placed one-by-one on each side
of an element's chemical symbol until all the dots are used. Some dots will be
paired up, others will not.
The number of unpaired dots is often the number of bonds an atom can form.
Recall that each element in a group has the same number of valence electrons.
As a result, every element in a group has the same number of dots in its electron
dot diagram.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Notice that an argon atom, Ar, has eight valence electrons, or four pairs of
Lots, in the diagram. There are no unpaired dots. Atoms with eight valence
electrons do not easily react with other atoms. They are chemically stable. Atoms
that have between one and seven valence electrons are reactive, or chemically
unstable. These atoms easily bond with other atoms and form chemically stable
compounds. Atoms of hydrogen and helium have only one energy level. These
atoms are chemically stable with two valence electrons.
The elements in Group 18 are called noble gases. With the exception of
helium, noble gases have eight valence electrons and are chemically stable,
Chemically stable atoms do not easily react, or form bonds, with other
atoms. Notice that all dots are paired in the dot diagrams of these atoms.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Atoms with unpaired dots in their electron dot diagrams are reactive, or
chemically unstable. For example, nitrogen, above, has three unpaired dots in its
electron dot diagram, and it is reactive. Nitrogen, like many other atoms, becomes
more stable by forming chemical bonds with other atoms. When an atom forms a
bond, it gains, loses, or shares valence electrons with other atoms. By forming
bonds, atoms become more chemically stable. Recall that atoms are most stable
with eight valence electrons.
Therefore, atoms with less than eight valence electrons form chemical bonds and
become stable.
References: Faraon, G., & Hagad, H. (2012). Integrated Science. Quezon City:
McGrawhill Publishing House and Phoenix Publishing House.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
In human relations, people or groups who have formed a bond often give each
other something. whether a gift for a special occasion, an assistant for an
important task, or a supportive gesture. This kind of interaction can also occur
within the chemical structure of matter, specifically when they are forming an ionic
bond.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
An ionic bond is a bond formed when metal and nonmetal atoms combine
chemically. As discussed previously, electrons in the outermost shell can transfer
to other atoms. This process results in the formation of lONS, which are
electrically charged atomic particles formed when an atom or a group of atoms
loses or gains an electron in the valence shell.
The atoms that undergo ionic bonding are said to be unstable because they lack
electrons in their valence shells. According to the octet rule, in order to make
atoms stable, they must have a total of eight valence electrons.
Between metals and nonmetals, which do you think is likely to gain an electron?
In the periodic table, the alkali and alkaline earth metals in groups 1 and 2 have
low ionization energies and often very few electrons in their outermost shell,
making their atoms prone to
lose
electrons to nonmetals.
Oppositely nonmetal halogens (group 17) and chalcogens (group 16) have atoms
with high ionization energies and often contain six or seven valence electrons. This
makes them prone to gain or receive one or two electrons from a metal atom when
they undergo ionic bonding.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
There are two classifications of ions: cations and anions. In the process of
electron transfer, the two atoms involved both obtain a net charge. Since electrons
are negatively-charged particles, the nonmetal atoms accept valence electrons and
gain a net negative charge; thus, becoming an anion. On the other hand, the metal
atoms lose electrons and gain a net positive charge, becoming a cation.
Therefore. ionic bonding, the metal atoms serve as electron-donors, and the
nonmetal atoms serve as electron-acceptors.
Cations and anions are oppositely-charged ions that bond chemically because they
are attracted to each other. When a cation and an anion undergo ionic bonds they
form ionic compounds.
References:Dona, R., Espinosa, J., Gaviola, J., & Rosas, R. (2019). Science in
Everday Living 9. Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing House.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
An ionic compound can be determined by its physical and chemical properties.
These are
A. Compounds of this kind form ions when dissolved in water. The solution
formed by an ionic compound produces an electrolyte solution. Electrolytes allow
electricity to pass through them. Ionic bonding is common in metal salts like
sodium chloride.
B. Ionic compounds tend to have high melting and boiling points. This is
because is difficult to break the attraction of the positive and negative charges.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
C. Ionic compounds have larger crystals, Take a closer look at a small grain of
rock salt. You will see a distinguished pattern of crystal.
D. These compounds are hard but brittle. The distinct crystal pattern of the
ionic compound is difficult to break However, between boundaries of distinct
crystal shape they have less attraction making an ionic compound brittle.
References: Angeles, D., Crisostomo, L., Quinsaat, D., & Toledo, S.

(2013). Science Vistas 9. Makati City: Don Bosco Press.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
1.) Determine whether or not the compound is ionic.
How do you know the compound is ionic in the first place?
a.) If the compound contains a metal, then it is most likely an ionic compound.
Metals readily lose electrons to form positive ions, called cations. Ionic
compounds almost always contain a metal as a cation and a nonmetal as an
anion.
b.) However, not all ionic compounds will contain a metal cation. The cation
could be a polyatomic ions, such as NH+4.
2.) Determine whether there is only one type of cation possible (Type I) or
whether there are several cations possible (Type II).
a.) If the cation is a polyatomic ion (e.g.. ammonium, NH+4,), then there is only one
possible charge and so it is a type I compound.
USLS-IS
Grade 9
b) If the cation is a metal, determine if it forms only one type of cation.
Alkali metals (Group 14) +1 cation

Alkaline earth metals (Group
+2 cation
2A)
Transition metals (Group 1- often form more than one type
8B) of cation.
1.) The cation is named first and the anion is named second.
2.) The name of the cation is the same as the name of the element. So both the
element Mg and the cation Mg are called magnesium.
(Note: For polyatomic cations, you must memorize the names.)
3.) The anion is named by taking the root name of the element and adding the
suffix -ide. For example, Fis an atom of fluorine and F -is the anion fluoride.
(Note: For polyatomic anions, you must memorize the names.)

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Symbol Element Anion Element + Ide
Cl Chlorine Cl- Chloride
I Iodine I- Iodide
Br Bromine Br- Bromide
With Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions then resemble molecules in that they contain at least two atoms
bound together in a definite arrangement.
The steps for naming compounds with polyatomic ions:

1.) The cation is listed first and the anion second.
2.) The polyatomic ion names must be memorized.
3.) No extra prefixes or suffixes are added.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
4.) Use a roman numeral after the cation to indicate the charge of that cation. So

USLS-IS
Grade 9
FeO would be called iron(II) oxide since the cation
are Fe2+ and Fe2O3,would be iron(III) oxide since the cation is Fe3+ .
5.) Alternatively, when using traditional names atoms whose valence numbers
vary, you add the suffix -ous to the one with the lower valence state and -ic to the
one with the higher valence state. So FeO would be called ferrous oxide since the
cation is Fe2+ and Fe2O3, would be ferric oxide since the cation is Fe3+.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
The second major type of atomic bonding occurs when atoms share electrons.
As opposed to ionic bonding, where a complete transfer of electrons occurs,
covalent bonding occurs when two or more elements share electrons. Covalent
bonding occurs because the atoms in the compound have a similar tendency to
gain electrons.
This most commonly occurs when two nonmetals bond together. Because both
of the nonmetals want to gain electrons, the elements involved will share electrons
to fill their valence shells. Electrons never interact with each other in the sense
that they never really touch because the charges keep them at a distance,

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Unlike ionic compounds, covalent molecules exist as true molecules. Because
electrons are shared in covalent molecules, no full ionic charges are formed. Thus,
covalent molecules are not strongly attracted to one another. As a result, covalent
molecules move about freely and tend to exist as liquids or gases at room
temperature.
A good example of a covalent bond is that which occurs between two hydrogen
atoms. Atoms of hydrogen have one valence electron in their first electron shell.
Since this shell's capacity is two electrons, each hydrogen atom will 'want to pick
up a second electron. To pick up a second electron, hydrogen atoms will react with
nearby hydrogen (H) atoms to form the compound H,
Because the hydrogen compound is a combination of equally matched atoms,

the atoms will share each other's single electron, forming one čovalent bond. In
this way, both atoms share the stability of a full valence shell.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
A fluorine atom (Group VIl A) has seven valence electrons. Two fluorine atoms
form a covalent bond by sharing two electrons, one from each fluorine. Each
fluorine bolds six electrons to itself; each atom achieves an octet of valence
electrons by also having access to the two electrons in the bond.
Single Covalent Bond

A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between
two atoms. Each atom provides one electron. It is illustrated as a short line ( -)
Double Covalent Bond
A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of twơpairs of electrons

between two atoms. It is illustrated as a double short line ( =).
Triple Covalent Bond

USLS-IS
Grade 9
A triple covalent bond is formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons between
two atoms. It is illustrated as a triple short line.
Polar Molecules
One atom can attract the shared electrons in a covalent bond more strongly
than the other atom can. Think about the valence electrons shared between oxygen
and hydrogen atoms in a water molecule. The oxygen atom attracts the shared
electrons more strongly than each hydrogen atom does.
As a result, the shared electrons are pulled closer to the oxygen atom. Since
electrons have a negative charge, the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge.
The hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge. A molecule that has a partially
positive end and a partial negative end because of unequal sharing of electrons is
a polar molecule.
The charges on a polar molecule affect its properties. Sugar, for example,
dissolves easily in water because both sugar and water are polar. The negative end
of a water molecule pulls on the positive end of a sugar molecule. Also, the positive
end of a water molecule pulls on the negative end of a sugar molecule. This causes

USLS-IS
Grade 9
the sugar molecules to separate from one another
and mix with the watér molecules.
Nonpolar Molecules
A hydrogen molecule, H2, is a nonpolar molecule. Because the two hydrogen

atoms are identical, their attraction for the shared electrons is equal. A nonpolar
compound will not easily dissolve in a polar compound, but it will dissolve in other
nonpolar compounds. Oil is an example of a nonpolar compound. It will not
dissolve in water. Have you ever heard someone say "like dissolves like"? This
means that polar compounds can dissolve in other polar compounds. Similarly,
non-polar compounds can dissolve in other nonpolar compounds.
References: Faraon, G., & Hagad, H. (2012). Integrated Science. Quezon

City: McGrawhill Publishing House and Phoenix
Publishing House
Pavico, J., Ramos, A., Bayquen, A., Silverio, A., & Ramos, J.
(2014). Exploring Life Through Science 9. Quezon
City: Phoenix Publishing House.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Covalent compounds have covalent bonds between attracting atoms. In a
covalent bond, electrons are shared by the nuclei of the bonding atoms. This is
because there is little difference in electronegativity between these bonding atoms.
There is not enough force difference to pull the electron nearer to either of the
nuclei of the bonding atoms. Usually, the bonding of two nonmetals forms a
covalent bond.
To determine covalent compounds, here are some properties that indicate their
properties
A. Covalent compounds generally have lower melting and boiling points than
ionic compounds. Covalent compounds form distinct molecules. The attractive
force within the molecule (intramolecular force) is stronger than the attraction
among the molecules ( intermolecular forces). A little change in temperature easily
breaks the intermolecular forces thus, making melting and boiling points lower.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
B. Some covalent compounds especially containing carbon and or hydrogen tend
to be more flammable than ionic compounds. Carbon and hydrogen easily react
with oxygen during combustion forming carbon dioxide and water.
C. Covalent compounds are softer than ionic compounds. This is also explained
by the difference between the intermolecular and intramolecular forces.
D.Covalent compounds do not form ions. Thus, they do not conduct electricity.
E. Many covalent compounds are not soluble in water. With the principle of "likes
dissolve likes water is a slightly charged compound, while many covalent
compounds are not charged, thus many covalent compounds are dissolved in also
covalent solvent but not in water.
USLS-IS
Grade 9
USLS-IS
Grade 9
In a metallic bond, electrons from a certain atom are not attached to a
particular atom. They instead, move freely past the positive charge nuclei of the
other atoms. These electrons are called delocalized electrons. Electrons become
delocalized in order to stabilize their structure. Freely-moving electrons give
metallic properties such as luster, electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility,
and high tensile strength of the substances. Electrons that are free to move past
each other conduct heat and electricity easily.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
A bunch of bananas, a bouquet of flowers, a gaggle of geese, a school of
fish, these are just some examples of how groups of something are called. In these
examples, the number of each group does not matter. Each of these is just a
description of something that too many. There are, however, group names that tell
us exactly the number of objects this group has.
There are group names that can tell us how many members are there.
We use 'pair' of matter that is grouped by twos.
A dozen means twelve pieces in a group.
Sheets of bond aper containing 500 pieces is called a ream.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
In chemistry, the unit of grouping for particles of substances is called MOLE.
Mole is a Latin word that means heap. One 'heap' or mole of a substance,
whether atoms or
molecules, contains 6.022 x 10 atoms or molecules. This number is called
Avogadro's number. This name is in honor of the Italian scientist Amedeo
Avogadro (1776-1856). He was the first to suggest the possibility of particles to be
quantified.
A mole is defined as a heap of substance that contains the same number of

particles as that of a 12-gram of carbon-12, "C, isotope. For this mass of carbon,
it contains 6.022 x 10 particles or atoms. This means that the atomic mass of one
mole of an element, expressed in grams, will have this same number of atoms.
USLS-IS
Grade 9
The molar mass of an element is the atomic mass of one mole expressed in
grams/mole.
It contains 6.022 x 10 particles.
These particles are called atoms. the molar mass of an atom is found in the
periodic tables of elements.
The formula mass of a compound is the total mass of all the atomic masses in
the compound as indicated in the chemical formula. Formula mass is expressed in
grams/mol .

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Example 1
The Compound : Water

The Chemical formula: H20
Formula mass: From the periodic table:
H atomic mass =. 1.0 g/mol X 2 ( multiplied
by 2)
O atomic mass =. 16.0 g/mol
------------------------------
Formula mass 18.0 g/ mol
Example 2
The molar mass of a covalent compound is the mass of one mole of the compound
expressed in grams. It contains 6.022 x 10" particles called molecules. Molar
mass is the formula mass expressed in grams. For an ionic compound, the particles
are called formula units.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
The composition of a substance can be expressed in terms of mass and mole. To
illustrate:
Compute the mass of each element in 2.5 mole of CARBON DIOXIDE., CO2.
Carbon C: 1 mole C 12.0 g C

30.0 g of Carbon
2.5 mol CO2. X ____________ X ______________ =
mol carbon dioxide
mol carbon
Oxygen O: 1 mole C 16.0 g O

80.0 g of Oxygen
2.5 mol CO2 X ______________ X ______________ =

USLS-IS
Grade 9
mol oxygen
mol carbon dioxide
The percent composition of substance can be computed this way.
What is the percent composition of H20?
Hydrogen H: 1.0 g H
2.0 g of Hydrogen
2 mol H. X ________ =
mol H
Oxygen O: 16.0 g O 16.0 g of Oxygen
1 mol O X ______________ = ____________________
mol O
MOLAR MASS H20 = 18. g/ mol H20

USLS-IS
Grade 9
2.0
Hydrogen H: 11.11 % of Hydrogen
________ X 100 =
18.0
16.0
Oxygen O: 88.89 % of Oxygen
___________X
1 mol O X ____________________
100 =
18
TOTAL = 100.00 H20

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Percent composition is very simple. Percent composition tells you by mass what
percent of each element is present in a compound. A chemical compound is the
combination of two or more elements. If you are studying a chemical compound,
you may want to find the percent composition of a certain element within that
chemical compound. The equation for percent composition is (mass of
element/molecular mass) x 100. If you want to know the percent composition of the
elements in an compound, follow these steps:
1. Find the molar mass of all the elements in the compound in grams per mole.
2. Find the molecular mass of the entire compound.
3. Divide the component's molar mass by the entire molecular mass.
4. You will now have a number between 0 and 1. Multiply it by 100 to get
percent composition!

USLS-IS
Grade 9
1. The compounds will always add up to 100%, so in a binary compound, you
can find the % of the first element, then do 100%-(% first element) to get (%
second element)
2. If using a calculator, you can store the overall molar mass to a variable
such as "A". This will speed up calculations, and reduce typographical
errors.
These steps are outlined in the figure below.
For another example, if you wanted to know the percent composition of

hydrochloric acid (HCl), first find the molar mass of Hydrogen. H = 1.00794g.
Now find the molecular mass of HCl: 1.00794g + 35.4527g = 36.46064g. Follow
steps 3 and 4: (1.00794g/36.46064g) x 100 = 2.76% Now just subtract to find the
percent by mass of Chlorine in the compound: 100%-2.76% = 97.24% Therefore,
HCl is 2.76% Hydrogen and 97.24% Chlorine by mass.
Percent Composition in Everyday Life
Percent composition plays an important role in everyday life. It is more than just
the amount of chlorine in your swimming pool because it concerns everything from
the money in your pocket to your health and how you live. The next two sections
describe percent composition as it relates to you.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
References:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Arkansas_Little_Rock/Chem_1402%3A_General_Chemistry_1_(Kattoum)/Tex
t/2%3A_Atoms%2C_Molecules%2C_and_Ions/5.13%3A_Percent_Composition

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Bread, gasoline, and steel, what do they have in common? They all contain
carbon atoms. These things have different uses in our life. But they differ greatly
chemically and physically. They also have different uses, shapes, and colors, And
wonder of all wonders, they all contain carbon atoms. Carbon is an element that is
ubiquitous. That is why there are millions of substances containing the element
carbon.
Carbon is a nonmetallic element with an atomic number6. The popular

allotropes of carbon are graphite and diamond. Diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring material known. It is highly transparent and has very little electrical
conductivity. Diamond is one of the more expensive minerals used as stones for
jewelry; while graphite is soft and has high electrical conductivity. All allotropes
of carbon are solid under normal conditions.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Limestones, dolomites, and carbon dioxide are the largest sources of inorganic
carbon. Organic carbon is found in deposits of coal and peat. Carbon is the 15th
most abundant element in the earth's crust. Carbon is the second most abundant
element in the human body. Carbon is the chemical basis of all known life, hence
it is present in all life forms. Carbon is tetravalent. It has four electrons in the
outermost shell capable of forming a covalent bond.
The most common oxidation state of carbon in an inorganic compound is +4

and +2 in carbon monoxide. Carbon has the ability to form long chains of
interconnecting carbon-carbon (C-C) bonds or forming rings. This property of
carbon is called catenation, The C-C bonds are strong enough allowing carbon to
form an infinite number of compounds. The binary compound of carbon is called
carbides, Examples of which are aluminum carbide AlC, Boron carbide B,C, and
silicon carbide SiC. Carbon in the carbides is paired with n lesser
electronegativity.
Organic compounds are chemical compounds containing carbon except for

carbons in the form of carbides, carbonated drinks, simple oxide,carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and cyanides. The carbon allotropes like diamond and graphite
are considered inorganic
compounds.
During earlier times, organic compounds were substances obtained from plants
and animals. Now that organic compounds can be prepared synthetically, the study
of organic chemistry is now defined as the study of carbon-containing
compounds.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
The three ways of writing the formula of an organic compound are structural
formula,condensed structural formula, and molecular formula, In the structural
formula, the covalent bond is shown by a line connecting atoms. These lines
represent the covalent bond between atoms. The condensed structural formula
shows the chain of C-C bond only while the molecular formula show only the
number of each kind of atom in the molecules. Above are the different ways of
writing the formula of propane.

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Grade 9
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing only carbon and
hydrogen. They are classified according to the type of C-C bonds. For all types of
hydrocarbon, their names have prefixes indicating the number of carbon in the
longest chain.
Number of Number of
carbon in carbon in
Longest Chain Prefix Name Longest Chain Prefix Name
(n) (n)
1 meth- 6 hex-
2 eth- 7 hept-
3 prop- 8 oct-
4 but- 9 non-
5 pent- 10 deca-

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Types of carbon according to the number of double and triple bonds.
HOW THE
FORMULA
IS
TYPE OF NAME WRITTEN
BONDS EXAMPLE FORMULA
HYDROCARBON ENDING (n =
number of
carbon
atoms)
Alkanes Single -ane CnH2n+2 Methane CH4
Alkenes Double -ene CnH2n Methene CH2

Ethyne /
Alkynes Triple -yne CnH2n-2 C2H2
Acetylene
The Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have no double or triple bond. The first
four alkanes according to the increasing number of carbon in a chain are methane,
ethane, propane, butane, and pentane. The structural formula of the first four
alkanes are shown below.
The hydrocarbon compounds are too many. There are more than 20 million of
hydrocarbons. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
has established a systematic way of naming organic compounds during the meeting
of international chemists at Geneva, Switzerland in 1892.
Molecular
# ALKANES Molecular ALKENES Molecular ALKYNES
Formula
CARBON Formula Formula
(single (double (triple
CnH2n-2
ATOMS bond) bond) bond)
CH n CH
2n+2 n 2n
1 Methane CH4 - -
2 Ethane C2H6 Ethene C2H4 Ethyne C2H2

3 Propane C3H8 Propene C3H6 Propyne C3H4

USLS-IS
Grade 9
4 Butane C4H10 Butene C4H8 Butyne C4H6
5 Pentane C5H12 Pentene C5H10 Pentyne C5H8
6 Hexane C6H14 Hexene C6H12 Hexyne C6H10
7 Heptane C7H16 Heptene C7H14 Heptyne C7H12
8 Octane C8H18 Octene C8H16 Octyne C8H14
9 Nonane C9H20 Nonene C9H18 Nonyne C9H16
10 Decane C10H22 Decene C10H20 Decyne C10H18
# ALKANES Molecular
CARBON Formula Structures
(single
ATOMS bond) CnH2n+2
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane C2H6
3 Propane C3H8
4 Butane C4H10

USLS-IS
Grade 9
5 Pentane C5H12
6 Hexane C6H14
7 Heptane C7H16
8 Octane C8H18
9 Nonane C9H20
10 Decane C10H22
1. Alkanes are named according to the longest continuous chain of carbon in the
molecule.
2. Before knowing the parent hydrocarbon, first, take note of the alkyl group
attached.
The Alkyl group is a small hydrocarbon detached with hydrogen, thus making the
group available for bonding to another atom.
Alkyl names are the alkane names changing the ending-ane to -yl.
From Alkane To Alkyl

Methane Methyl
CH4 CH3
Ethane Ethyl
C2H6 C2H5
An example of the alkane methane (CH4), if one H is removed from it, it

becomes methyl (CH3),
an unstable charge hydrocarbon.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
3. When alkyl is attached to the parent chain, the carbon in the parent chain
numbered to identify the position of the attachment. Number the chain in such the
way that the alkyl group is attached to the carbon with the lowest number of
chain
4. Names of the substituent groups are placed in alphabetical order before the
name of the parent compound.
5. For more than one alkyl group of the same kind, give the number of carbon to
where it is attached. If the same group is attached to the same carbon, the number
of carbon is placed as many as the number of the attached groups there are.
6.To separate the number of carbon from its substituents, use a hyphen. Use a
comma to separate numbers. Use Greek prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.) to number
identical groups. These prefixes are not considered in the alphabetical order of the
substituents.
7. The last alkyl group named is prefixed to the name of the parent alkane to
make one word.
# ALKENES
CARBON
(double Molecular Structures
ATOMS bond) Formula
CnH2n
1 - -
2 Ethene C2H4

USLS-IS
Grade 9
3 Propene C3H6
4 Butene C4H8
5 Pentene C5H10
6 Hexene C6H12
7 Heptene C7H14
8 Octene C8H16
9 Nonene C9H18
10 Decene C10H20
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a double bond. The kinds of

alkenes are also named by using the prefixes in an alkane. Naming these
compounds similar to the way of naming alkanes. We indicate the position and the
number of double chains in an alkene. Their names end with -ene. Below are some
alkenes which have different positions of the double bond.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Molecular
# ALKYNES
Formula
CARBON Structure
(triple
CnH2n-2
ATOMS bond)
1 -
2 Ethyne C2H2
3 Propyne C3H4
4 Butyne C4H6
5 Pentyne C5H8
6 Hexyne C6H10
7 Heptyne C7H12
8 Octyne C8H14

USLS-IS
Grade 9
9 Nonyne C9H16
10 Decyne C10H18
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a triple bond. Their names

are similar with alkenes, by using the same prefixes used in alkanes. Alkynes end
with -yne. Some examples of alkynes are found at the right.
To name an alkene or alkyne
1. The longest chain containing the triple bond is the parent chain.
2. Name this parent chain as you would an alkane changing the -ane ending to -
ene for alkene , or -yne for alkyne.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
The functional groups of atoms that give chemical characteristics to the parents
compound where it is attached
RUBBING ALCOHOL
Alcohol is an organic compound with a functional group called hydroxyl

(-OH).
The general formula of alcohol is CnH2n+1OH. The formula of any alcohol is ROH.
The IUPAC way of naming alcohol is, the parent chain is the prefix, then
add the suffix -ol
Alcohol with one carbon is called methan-ol. For Alcohol with 3 carbon, the
position of the hydroxyl is mentioned first like propan-2-ol.
This means the-OH is attached to the second carbon. The non-systematic

way of naming it is by mentioning the alkyl name first then add the word alcohol.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Number of (R) Alkyl Group +
Alcohol Uses
Carbons Hydroxyl Group
1 Methyl + -OH Methanol Wood Alcohol
Alcoholic
2 Ethyl + -OH Ethanol
Beverages
Rubbing Alcohol (
3 Propyl + -OH Propanol Isopropyl
Alcohol)
ACETONE: NAIL POLISH REMOVER
Ketone contains carbonyl group with general formula R(C=O)R. Where R is

any alkyl group, O is the central oxygen doubly bonded to any one of the carbon
(C=0), while R'is the other alkyl group. To name a ketone, change the sufix of the
parent alkane to -anone.
The simplest ketone has three carbon. It is called 2-propanone. The carboxyl
group is attached to the second carbon. One common example of ketone is
acetone, an organic solvent used for erasing nail polish.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Ketone Uses
Carbons Carboxyl Group
1 Methyl + C=O Methanone Fragrances
2 Ethyl +C=0 Ethanone Fragrances
Nail Polish
3 Propyl + C=0 Propanone
remover
ANCIENT EGYPT EMBALMING: USING FORMALIN / FORMALDEHYDE

OR METHANAL
In an aldehyde, one carbon is doubly bonded with oxygen called carbonyl.

Also attached
are one allkyl group and hydrogen. The carbonyl is attached at the end of the
chain, To name an aldehyde, the parent chain is suffixed with -al.
An aldehyde with one carbon is called methanal or formaldehyde Many

fragrant substances are usually aldehydes.

Aldehyde Uses
Carbons Carbonyl Group
1 Methyl + C=O +H Methanal Embalming

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Rubber/
2 Ethyl +C=O +H Ethanal
Flavoring
Manufacture of
3 Propyl + C=O +H Propanal
Plastics
FORMIC ACID/ METHANOIC ACID: BITE OF AN ANT
Carboxylic acid contains a carboxyl group, -COOH. Acetic acid is the most
common carboxylic acid, called vinegar.
Number of (R) Alkyl Group + Carboxylic

Uses
Carbons Carboxyl Group Acid
Methanoic
1 Methyl + -COOH Dyeing
Acid
Vinegar / Acetic
2 Ethyl +-COOH Ethanoic Acid
Acid
Propanoic
3 Propyl + -COOH Preservatives
Acid

USLS-IS
Grade 9
Summary of Concepts
*Carbon is the base element of organic compounds.

*Carbon is tetravalent capable of bonding with four atoms.
*Carbon compounds can be natural or synthetic.
*Carbon compounds can be organic or inorganic.
*Hydrocarbons are carbon compounds containing hydrogen and carbon.
*Hydrocarbons are named by the number of carbon in the parent chain.
*Hydrocarbons are modified by the kind of functional groups attached.
*Functional groups give the distinct characteristic of the compound.
*Carbon compounds are named in systematic way as established by IUPAC.
*Hydrocarbons are also classified by the presence or absence of double
or triple bond.
*Alkane has no doutble bond. It is a saturated carbon.

*Alkene has a double bond.
*Alkyne has a triple bond.
*A chain of carbon forming a ring is called aromatic carbon.

*A straight chain of carbon is called aliphatic carbon.
*Benzene is a cyclic hydrocarbon containing six carbon forming a hexago
*It is widely used as solvent of some organic compounds.
*Functional groups are groups of atoms that give chemical characteristics t
the parent compound to where it is attached.
*Each functional group has structure that make it unique one from the other
*The standard for the systematic way of naming compounds are set by the
IUPAC. With this way, we can know the type of the compounds by its name.
*Alcohol contains hydroxyl, -OH. Its systematic name ends with a suffx -ol.
*Carbonyl group is carbon doubly bonded with oxygen.
*The symbol R, R, etc. represent aryl or alkyl groups.
*Ketone has carbonyl group attached to two alkyl or aryl group. Its systematic
name ends with the suffix -one.
*Aldehyde has carbonyl group attached to one alkyl or aryl group (R or R)

and hydrogen. Its systematic name ends with the suffix -al.

USLS-IS
Grade 9
*Carboxylic acid has carbonyl group attach to one alkyl or aryl group and -OH.
Its systematic name ends with the suffix oic acid.
*Ester has carbonyl group attached to an alkyl or aryl group and -0-R. Its
systematic name ends with the suffix -oate.
•Ether is oxygen attached with two aryls or alkyl group (Ror R'). Its systematc
name ends with the word ether.
*Amide is nitrogen attached with Ror R' then carboxyl group. Its systematic name
ends with the suffix amide.
*Amines are nitrogen attached with R, R, and other functional group-

Its systematic name ends with the suffix amine,

USLS-IS
Grade 9

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Imagine trying to find a book in a library if all the books were unorganized.

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Forces between atoms within a molecule are called intramolecular forces

Intramolecular forces are usually strong than intermolecular forces. These

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In addition, you may use the table below as reference.

The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic

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References: Angeles, D., Crisostomo, L., Quinsaat, D., & Toledo, S.

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How do you know the compound is ionic in the first place?

Alkali metals (Group 14) +1 cation

(Note: For polyatomic cations, you must memorize the names.)

(Note: For polyatomic anions, you must memorize the names.)

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Cl Chlorine Cl- Chloride

Br Bromine Br- Bromide

With Polyatomic Ions

The steps for naming compounds with polyatomic ions:

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Because the hydrogen compound is a combination of equally matched atoms,

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Single Covalent Bond

Double Covalent Bond

A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of twơpairs of electrons

Triple Covalent Bond

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A hydrogen molecule, H2, is a nonpolar molecule. Because the two hydrogen

References: Faraon, G., & Hagad, H. (2012). Integrated Science. Quezon

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We use 'pair' of matter that is grouped by twos.

A dozen means twelve pieces in a group.

Sheets of bond aper containing 500 pieces is called a ream.

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A mole is defined as a heap of substance that contains the same number of

It contains 6.022 x 10 particles.

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The Compound : Water

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Carbon C: 1 mole C 12.0 g C

Oxygen O: 1 mole C 16.0 g O

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The percent composition of substance can be computed this way.

What is the percent composition of H20?

1 mol O X = ______