Solution to Exam in Antenna Theory

Time: 17 March 2009, at 8.00–13.00.

Location: Gimogatan 4, Sal 2
You may bring: Laboratory reports, pocket calculator, English dictionary, Råde-Westergren: “Beta”,
Nordling-Österman: “Physics Handbook”, or comparable handbooks.
Six problems, maximum five points each, for a total maximum of 30 points.

1. Consider an infinitesimal electric dipole of length l placed symmetically at the origin. Assume
that the current in the dipole is constant and given by Ie (z′ ) = ẑI0 . Find the electric and magnetic
field components radiated by the dipole in all space.
Hint: The vector potential A is given by

µ e−jkR ′
Z
A= Ie (x′ , y′ , z′ ) dl
4π R
where R is the distance from any point on the source to the observation point.

Solution
z
R
l/2 Infinitesimal dipole:
r
r θ Ie = ẑ I0 (1)
y ′
R = r−r (2)
φ ′ ′ ′ ′
r = (x , y , z ) = 0 (for infinitesimal dipole) (3)
x
R = r for phase and amplitude (4)
−l/2

The vector potential becomes

µ I0 e− jkr µ I0 l − jkr
Z l/2
A = ẑ dz′ = ẑ e (5)
4π r −l/2 4π r

Change to spherical coordinates, ẑ = r̂ cos θ − θ̂ sin θ

µ I0 l − jkr
A= e (r̂ cos θ − θ̂ sin θ ) (6)
4π r
The magnetic field
  
1 1 1 ∂ ∂ Ar
H = ∇×A = r̂ · 0 + θ̂ · 0 + φ̂ (rAθ ) −
µ µ r ∂r ∂θ
    
1 ∂ µ I0 l − jkr ∂ µ I0 l − jkr
= φ̂ − e sin θ − e cos θ
µr ∂ r 4π ∂ θ 4π r
 
1 µ I0 l − jkr µ I0 l − jkr
= φ̂ e jk sin θ + e sin θ
µ r 4π 4π r
   
I0 l − jkr sin θ kI0 l 1
= φ̂ e jk sin θ + jk = φ̂ j sin θ 1 + e− jkr (7)
4π r jkr 4π r jkr

1
The electric field
1  
E= ∇×H H = (0, 0, Hφ )
jωε
(    )
1 r̂ ∂ θ̂ ∂
= (Hφ sin θ ) + − (rHφ )
jωε r sin θ ∂ θ r ∂r
(          )
1 kI0 l r̂ ∂ 1 2 1 θ̂ ∂ 1
= j sin θ 1 + e− jkr
+ − sin θ 1 + e− jkr
jωε 4π r sin θ ∂ θ r jkr r ∂r jkr
(     )
− jkr ∂
1 kI0 l r̂ 1
θ̂ ∂ 1
= 1+ e sin θ − sin θ
2
1+ e− jkr
ωε 4π r2 sin θ jkr ∂θ r ∂r jkr
(     )
k I0 l r̂ 1 θ̂ 1 1
= 1+ e− jkr 2 sin θ cos θ − sin θ − jk − − e− jkr
ωε
|{z} 4 π r 2 sin θ jkr r r jkr 2

η
     
I0 l 2 1 jk 1 1
=η r̂ 2 1 + e− jkr
cos θ + θ̂ 1+ − e− jkr
sin θ
4π r jkr r jkr (kr)2
   
I0 l cos θ 1 kI0 l sin θ 1 1
= r̂ η 1+ e− jkr + θ̂ jη 1+ − e− jkr (8)
2π r 2 jkr 4π r jkr (kr)2

We have found the fields valid in all space from an infinitesimal dipole:
 
kI0 l 1
Hφ = j sin θ 1 + e− jkr (9)
4π r jkr
Hr = Hθ = Eφ = 0 (10)
 
I0 l cos θ 1
Er = η 1+ e− jkr (11)
2π r2 jkr
 
kI0 l sin θ 1 1
Eθ = j η 1+ − e− jkr (12)
4π r jkr (kr)2

2
2. The normalized far-zone field pattern of an antenna is given by
 q
 sin θ sin2 φ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ φ ≤ π
E=

0 elsewhere
Find the directivity using
a) the exact expression;
b) the most appropriate approximative formula.
c) Explain why your chosen approximative formula gives the best value. When should the
other approximative formula be prefered?

Solution
0≤θ ≤π
a) Normalised radiation intensity U = sin θ sin2 φ
0≤φ ≤π
This is a directive radiation pattern.
4πUmax
D0 = (1)
Prad
Z πZ π Z π Z π
π2
Z
Prad = U dΩ = sin2 φ sin2 θ dθ dφ = sin2 φ dφ sin2 θ dθ = (2)
0 0 0 0 4
Umax = 1 (3)
4π 16
D0 = 2 = ≈ 5.09 (4)
π /4 π
b) The pattern is not very directive. Therefore, Kraus’ approximative method is more accu-
rate than Tai-Pereira’s method. We use Kraus’ method:
4π Θ1r = HPBWθ
D0 = (5)
Θ1r Θ2r Θ2r = HPBWφ
Find HPBWθ by setting φ = φmax = π /2 and U (θ, φ=π/2)=sin θ
Umax
solving for half the max. radiation intensity:
Umax 1 θ1 = 30◦ Umax
= = sin θ ⇒ 2
2 2 θ2 = 150◦
θ
2π (elevation θ1 θ2 π
HPBWθ = θ2 − θ1 = 120◦ = 0
HPBW θ
3 plane)

U (θ=π/2, φ)=sin 2φ
Find HPBWφ by setting θ = θmax = π /2 and Umax
solving for half the max. radiation intensity: Umax
Umax 1 φ1 = 45◦ 2
= = sin2 φ ⇒ φ
2 2 φ2 = 135◦
0 φ1 φ2 π
π (azimuthal HPBW φ
HPBWφ = φ2 − φ1 = 90◦ =
2 plane)

D0 = 4π = 12
Kraus:
(2π /3)(π /2) π ≈ 3.82 (Tai-Pereira gives D0 = 3.24)
c) Kraus is best for less directive patterns as the one in the problem, while Tai-Pereira is best
for very directive patterns.

Comment: McDonald’s and Pozar’s formulae are for omnidirectional patterns and cannot be
used.

3
3. A vertical infinitesimal linear electric dipole of length l is placed a distance h above an infinite
perfectly conducting electric ground plane.

a) Find the electric and magnetic fields radiated by the dipole in the presence of the ground
plane.
b) Determine the height h above the conducting plane at which the dipole must be elevated
so that nulls are formed at angles θ = 0◦ and θ = 60◦ from the direction normal to the
conducting plane.

Solution

z r1
kI0 l − jkr1
r a) E1 = jη e sin θ θ̂ (1)
4π r1
r2 kI0 l − jkr2
h θ E2 = j η e sin θ θ̂ (2)
h cos θ x,y
4π r2
Far-field approximation:

h r1 ≈ r − h cos θ
for phases (3)
h cos θ r2 ≈ r + h cos θ
r1 ≈ r2 ≈ r for amplitudes (4)

kI0 l − jkr  
E = E1 + E2 = j η e sin θ e jkh cos θ + e− jkh cos θ θ̂
4π r
kI0 l − jkr
= jη e sin θ [2 cos(kh cos θ )] θ̂ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π /2 (5)
| 4π r {z }| {z
AF
}
EF
1 kI0 l − jkr
H = r̂ × E = j e sin θ [2 cos(kh cos θ )] φ̂ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π /2 (6)
η 4π r

b) Null at θ = 0◦ from EF
Null at θ = 60◦ if AF(θ = 60◦ ) = 0 ⇒

2π 1
cos(kh cos 60◦ ) = 0, kh = h, cos 60◦ = (7)
  λ 2
πh
cos =0 (8)
λ
πh π
= ± + 2π n, n = 0, ±1, . . . (9)
λ 2
λ
h = + 2nλ , n = 0, ±1, . . . (10)
2
λ
Smallest height h = (11)
2

4
4. Three constant current circular loops of equal radii a = 7λ /10 and equal current amplitudes and
phases are placed along the z axis with the planes ot the loops in the xy plane, see figure below.
The spacing between the loops is uniform and equal to d = λ /2. If the loops are assumed not
to couple to each other, find the nulls of the far-field pattern radiated by the loops.
z

d
y
a

d x

Solution

Total field = EF × AF and the nulls of the array are the nulls of the element factor and the nulls
of the array factor.
Element Factor:
kaI0 − jkr
Eφ = η e J1 (ka sin θ ) ∼ J1 (ka sin θ ) (1)
2r
J1 (x) = 0 for x0 = 0, x1 = 3.8317, x2 = 7.0155, x3 = 10.1743, . . .

7π θ1 = 0◦
x0 = 0 : ka sin θ = sin θ = 0 ⇒ sin θ = 0 ⇒ (2)
5 θ2 = 180◦

7π θ3 = 60.6◦
x1 = 3.8317 : sin θ = 3.8317 ⇒ sin θ = 0.871 ⇒ (3)
5 θ4 = 119.4◦
7π
x2 = 7.0155 : sin θ = 7.0155 ⇒ sin θ = 1.60 > 1 ⇒ no more nulls (4)
5
Array Factor:
z r2

r1 = r
a
r3 Far-field approximation:
d θ
d cos θ

y r2 ≈ r − d cos θ
a for phases (5)
r3 ≈ r + d cos θ
d x
d cos θ r2 ≈ r3 ≈ r for amplitudes (6)
a

AF = 1 + e jkd cos θ + e− jkd cos θ = 1 + 2 cos(kd cos θ ) (7)

AF = 0 ⇒ cos(kd cos θ ) = −1/2 (8)

2π
kd cos θ = ± + 2π n, n = 0, ±1, . . . kd = π (9)
3
2
cos θ = ± + 2n, n = 0 (10)
3
θ5 = 48.2◦ , θ6 = 131.8◦ (11)
Nulls at θ = 0◦ , 48.2◦ , 60.6◦ , 119.4◦ , 131.8◦ , 180◦

5
5. Design a linear array of isotropic elements placed along the z axis such that the nulls of the
array factor occur at θ = 0◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ , 120◦ , and 180◦ . Assume that the elements are spaced a
distance d = λ /2 apart and that β = 0.

a) Sketch and label the visible region on the unit circle.

b) Find the smallest possible number of required elements and their excitation coefficients.
c) Determine the length of the array.

Hint: The array factor of an N-element linear array is given by AF = ∑Nn=1 an e j(n−1)ψ , where
ψ = kd cos θ + β . Use the representation z = e jψ .

Solution
N N
a) AF = ∑ an e j(n−1)ψ = ∑ an zn−1 = a1 + a2z + · · · + aN zN−1 = (z − z1) · · · · · (z − zN−1)
n=1 n=1
2π λ
ψ = kd cos θ + β = cos θ = π cos θ Visible
λ 2 region
z = e jψ ⇒ |z| = 1 ⇒ unit circle ψ(θ=0 )
ψ
θ = 0◦ ⇒ ψ =π ψ(θ=180 )
θ = 180◦ ⇒ ψ = −π
θ = 90◦ ⇒ ψ =0
θ = 60◦ ⇒ ψ = π /2

b) Nulls:
θ1 = 0◦ ⇒ ψ1 = π ⇒ z1 = e jπ = −1
θ2 = 60◦ ⇒ ψ2 = π /2 ⇒ z2 = e jπ /2 = j
θ3 = 90◦ ⇒ ψ3 = 0 ⇒ z3 = e j0 = 1
θ4 = 120◦ ⇒ ψ4 = −π /2 ⇒ z4 = e− jπ /2 = − j
θ5 = 180◦ ⇒ ψ5 = −π ⇒ z5 = e− jπ = −1 = z1

Because z5 = z1 we omit z5 for the smallest number of elements

AF = (z + 1)(z − 1)(z − j)(z + j) = (z2 − 1)(z2 + 1) = z4 − 1

Identification of coefficients give only 2 required elements:

a1 = −1
a2 = a3 = a4 = 0
a5 = 1

c) The length of the array is the distance between elements #1 and #5, i.e., 4d = 2λ
Comment: If we take into account z5 , i.e. we count z = −1 twice, we obtain 4 elements. This
would give the same number and location of the nulls, but a different radiation pattern, see the
figures below. The first figure is for 2 elements and the second for 4 elements.
With 2 elements, i.e. z=−1 is counted once With 4 elements, i.e. z=−1 is counted twice
2 4

1.8
3.5

1.6
3
1.4

2.5
1.2

1 2

0.8
1.5

0.6
1
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

6
6. A rectangular aperture of dimensions a and b is placed at an infinite ground plane as shown in
the figure below. The tangential field distribution over the aperture is given by

−b/2 ≤ x′ ≤ b/2
Ea = x̂ E0
−a/2 ≤ z′ ≤ a/2

Find the spherical far-zone electric and magnetic field components radiated by the aperture. The
spherical field components must be expressed with respect to the coordinate system specified
in the figure.
Hint:
Z c/2 α


jα x sin 2c
e dx = c α
−c/2 2c

a x

Solution

y 
−b/2 ≤ x′ ≤ b/2
Ea = x̂ E0 (1)
r −a/2 ≤ z′ ≤ a/2
b R 
E = (0, Eθ , Eφ ), Er = 0
Far-zone fields: (2)
a ψ x H = (0, Hθ , Hφ ), Hr = 0
The equivalence principle gives the electric
r
conductor equivalent (infinite electric ground plane),
z see the formula collection.

The equivalent current densities are


−2n̂ × Ea = −2ŷ × x̂ E0 = ẑ 2E0 over the aperture
Ms = (3)
0 elsewhere
Js = 0 everywhere (4)

Theorem of cosine:

R2 = r2 + r′2 − 2rr′ cos ψ (5)

s  ′  2 " ′  2 #
r′ r r r′ √ x
R = r 1 − 2 cos ψ + = ≪ , 1 + x ≈ 1 + when x ≪ 1
r r r r 2
 ′ 
r
≈ r 1 − cos ψ = r − r′ cos ψ (6)
r

7
But r′ cos ψ = r′ · r̂ = (x′ x̂ + z′ ẑ) · (x̂ sin θ cos φ + ŷ sin θ sin φ + ẑ cos θ ) = x′ sin θ cos φ + z′ cos θ

Far-field approximation: R ≈ r − x′ sin θ cos φ − z′ cos θ for phases

. R ≈ r for amplitudes

ε e− jkr
F≈ L (7)
Z4π r
Ms e jk(x sin θ cos φ +z cos θ ) dx′ dz′
′ ′
L= (8)
S′
Ms = ẑ 2E0 = 2E0 (r̂ cos θ − θ̂ sin θ ) ⇒ L = (Lr , Lθ , 0) (9)

Radiated fields:

H = − jω F for θ and φ , Hr = 0 (10)

h 1 1 1 1 i
H = r̂ × E ⇒ r̂ × H = r̂ × (r̂ × E) = [r̂ (r̂ · E) −E (r̂ · r̂)] = − E (11)
η η η | {z } | {z } η
0 1
E = −η r̂ × H = jωη (r̂ × F) for θ and φ , Er = 0 (12)

We do not need to calculate Lr . In addition, Lφ = 0, so

Z b/2 Z a/2
e jkx sin θ cos φ dx′ e jkz cos θ dz′
′ ′
Lθ = −2 E0 sin θ (13)
−b/2 −a/2

Z c/2 α


jα x sin 2c
Use the hint: e dx = c α
−c/2 2c



2 sin θ cos φ 2 cos θ
kb ka
sin sin sin X sin Z
Lθ = −2 E0 sin θ b a = −2ab E0 sin θ (14)
2 sin θ cos φ 2 cos θ
kb ka X Z

where
kb ka
X= sin θ cos φ and Z= cos θ (15)
2 2
ε e− jkr abε E0 − jkr sin X sin Z
F≈ Lθ θ̂ = −θ̂ e sin θ (16)
4π r 2π r X Z
The fields:
abε E0 − jkr sin X sin Z h ε ki
Hθ ≈ − jω Fθ ≈ jω e sin θ = ωε = kcε = k √ =
2π r X Z εµ η
abkE0 − jkr sin X sin Z
=j e sin θ (17)
2πη r X Z
Hφ = − jω Fφ = 0 (18)
E = jωη (r̂ × F) = −η r̂ × H (19)
Eθ = 0 (20)
abkE0 − jkr sin X sin Z
Eφ = − j e sin θ (21)
2π r X Z