PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.5

FASTENERS

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

Contents SPLIT PINS / COTTER PINS ----------------------------------------- 36

SPRING WASHERS----------------------------------------------------- 40
6.5.1 SCREW THREADS ------------------------------------------- 1 TAB WASHERS ---------------------------------------------------------- 41
SCREW NOMENCLATURE; -------------------------------------------- 1 LOCKING PLATES ------------------------------------------------------ 42
THREAD FORMS, DIMENSION AND TOLERANCES FOR WIRE LOCKING ---------------------------------------------------------- 43
STANDARD THREADS USED IN AIRCRAFT---------------------- 3 CIRCLIPS ------------------------------------------------------------------ 46
MEASURING SCREW THREADS ------------------------------------ 9 KEYS AND KEYWAYS ------------------------------------------------- 47
6.5.2 BOLT, STUDS AND SCREW ------------------------------15 QUICK RELEASE FASTENERS ------------------------------------- 50
SPECIFICATION, IDENTIFICATION AND MARKING OF 6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS------------------------------------------ 54
AIRCRAFT BOLT, INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS: ------------15
SOLID RIVETS ----------------------------------------------------------- 54
BOLT TYPES --------------------------------------------------------------21
SPECIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION-------------------------- 55
AIRCRAFT NUTS---------------------------------------------------------22
HEAT TREATMENT. ---------------------------------------------------- 61
STANDARD TYPES -----------------------------------------------------23
BLIND AND HOLLOW RIVETS --------------------------------------- 63
SELF-LOCKING NUT----------------------------------------------------25
ANCHOR NUTS ----------------------------------------------------------27
STUDS ----------------------------------------------------------------------28
TYPES AND USES-------------------------------------------------------28
STUD INSERTION AND REMOVAL ---------------------------------30
MACHINE SCREWS; AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS -----------33
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS ---------------------------------------------34
DOWELS -------------------------------------------------------------------35
6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES -----------------------------------------36

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

6.5.1 SCREW THREADS

SCREW NOMENCLATURE;

Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened together with all

of the strength that unthreaded fasteners provide. However,
unlike rivets and pins, threaded fasteners may be disassembled
and reassembled an almost infinite number of times.

Due to the large range of different available fasteners, great

Fig. 01
care must be always be taken to select the correct fastener for
each particular installation.
Whilst the wedge is, generally, used as a means of transmitting
THE INCLINED PLANE AND THE HELIX motion, it must be remembered that the action may be reversed
and the wedge can be caused to move when a force is applied
The value of the wedge, as a means of transmitting motion, is to the inclined surfaces.
well known.
This is readily appreciated when the angle is large (and the
For a constant effort applied in driving a wedge, a smaller angle larger the angle of inclination becomes, then, the more readily is
of inclination between the planes will cause a greater force to be the motion reversed), but, no matter how small the angle may
exerted through a shorter distance. Conversely, a larger angle be, the resultant of forces applied will still tend to produce
will cause less force to be exerted through a greater distance movement. Friction, between the surfaces, may, however,
(refer to Fig. 01). prevent movement from actually occurring.

When a continuous, inclined plane is cut around the outside (or

the inside) of a cylinder, then a spiral (also known as a ‘helix’) is

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

produced (refer to Fig. 02). The helix angle is important in screw SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY:
threads, because it dictates the number of threads, which can
be cut, per axial linear increment (millimetres or inches) on, or
It is often disputed as to the difference between a bolt and a
in, the cylinder.
screw, but, generally, it is accepted that a bolt is considered to
be a threaded fastener, which has a definite plain portion on the
shank, between its head and the beginning of the thread, and is
used in conjunction with a nut, whereas a screw is threaded all
the way to the head.

Because there are so many variations in terminology, with the

numerous manufactures, the only safe way of describing a
threaded (or any other) fastener is to use the correct
terminology, found in the relevant IPC, when ordering
replacement items.

Major Diameter: The crest to crest distance is of the thread is

known as major diameter.

Minor Diameter: The root to root distance of the thread is

Fig. 02 known as minor diameter.

Flank: The surface of the thread, which connects the root and
the crest.

Pitch: The distance from the centre of one crest to the center of
the next, measured parallel to the axis.

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Lead. The distance a screw moved axially in one complete turn.

In the case of multi-start threads. The lead is equal to the pitch
multiplied by the number of starts.

Runout: The part of the thread where the minor diameter

increases until it equals the major diameter and merges with the
plain portion of the shank.

THREAD FORMS, DIMENSION AND TOLERANCES

FOR STANDARD THREADS USED IN AIRCRAFT

Coarse and Fine Pitch Threads

Two screw threads may have the same major diameter and
similar thread form but different depths of thread. The part with
deep thread will have fewer threads per inch and pitch is said to
be coarser than the part with the shallow thread. The course
pitch thread will have greater lead than the fine pitch thread but
the minor diameter will be less and hence the strength. A
screwwith fine pitch thread will have stronger crest position,
tighter grip, finer adjustment and resistance to slackening
tendency under vibration.

Fig.03 Threads Terminology

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Fig. 05 Coarse and Fine threads

Single and Multi Start Threads

Single Start Thread: This is when there is only one screw thread
cut in the material.

Multi-start Thread: This is consisting of two or more separate,

parallel threads cut into the material carrying the thread.

Screw Threads Profile

Forms of screw threads vary according to the purpose for which

they are used and also according to the country in which they
are manufactured. Most threads are V-form, but some are
square and some are modifications of either or both.

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INTERNATIONAL THREAD SYSTEMS

Aircraft, bolts, nuts, screws and studs are manufactured to the

many, different, International Standards and in a variety of
different thread forms.

Most aircraft now use unified or metric threads but, however,

some older aircraft use obsolete British Association (BA), British
Standard Fine (BSF) or Whitworth (BSW) thread forms. None of
these are compatible with the unified (or metric) thread forms.

There are different type of thread systems in common

 British Standards
 American Standards
 Metric
 Unifie

BRITISH STANDARDS

Fig. 05 Threads Profile

British Standard Withworth (BSW) Thread

The B.S.W. thread has a symmetrical V-type thread form

withthread angle 550; the thread is rounded equally at crests
androots by circular arcs blending with the flanks and the

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theoreticaldepth of the thread is equal to Pitch x 0.64. This is a British Association (BA) Thread
coursethread, the number of threads per inch varying from 24
for athread of 3/16 in. major diameter to 4 for a 2 1/4 in. thread.
The fine pitch thread differs from the B.S.W. and B.S.F.
threadsin having a thread angle on 471/20; the feature of equal
roundingof crests and roots is retained. Actual diameter
measurementsare not quoted in this system; the smallest size,
No. 10 ins. A major diameter of 0.067 in., while the largest, No.

0, has a majordiameter of 0.236 in. This is the standard thread

for Britishaircraft work under 1/4 in., for instruments, and for
most smallitems of electrical equipment.
Fig. 06 BSW Thread

British Standard Fine (BAF) Thread

The B.S.F. thread uses the same thread-form as the

B.S.W.thread, but has a finer pitch; for example, the B.S.W. 1/4
in.screw has 20 threads per inch of axial length, while the 1/4
in.screw, which has the same major diameter, has 26 threads
perinch. The advantages of fine pitch in screw-type
fasteningdevices have already been mentioned earlier; because
of theseadvantages, the B.S.F. thread is standardized for use Fig. 07 BA Thread
on Britishaircraft, aero-engines, motor transport, mobile
equipment andthe associated electrical equipment (from 1/4 in.
upwards).

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AMERICAN SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS be made form H.T.S., corrosion resistance steel or aluminium
alloy.

American Threads American National Coarse (N.C.) Thread

Two standard American threads, the (N.C) American National

Coarse and the (N.F) American National Fine, approximately to This standard coarse- pitch thread has a pitch to diameter
the B.S.W. and B.S.F. threads respectively, and are used for ratiothat is approximately equal to that of the B.S.W. thread –
corresponding purposes. The thread form is quite different from thepitch of the 1-in N.C. thread is 0.125 in. the same as the
that used in British threads; in many ways it resembles the pitch ofthe 1-in. B.S.W. thread. Sizes range from No. 1 (major
metric thread but there are certain important differences. diameter0.073 in.) by steps of 0.013 in. to No. 12 (0.216 in.
majordiameter); beyond this point sizes are indicated by quoting
Examination of the diagram will show that the flattening of crest majordiameters in fractional inch measure -they range from 1/4
and root of the thread is not equal, the flat on the crest of the in. bysteps of 1/16 in. to 1/8 in., then by steps of 1/8 in. to 11/2
male thread being appreciably smaller than the flat at the root. It ins andupwards by steps of 1/4 in. An example of thread call out
will also be seen that while the flat at the root of the female 8-32-NC 3 is size 8 (0.164 inch diameter), 32 threads per
thread matches the flat at the crest of the male thread the inch,National Coarse with class 3 fit.
female thread crest has a flat considerably wider than that at the
malethread root, and a noticeable clearance is thus created American National Fine (N.F) Thread
between these two points.

Thread fits of the American screw thread series are classified as This thread uses the same thread form as the N.C. but has
follows: amuch finer pitch; the range of the size is as for the N.C.
thread,but has size 0 (0.60 inch) also. The pitch is considerably
Class 1 -loose fit. finerthan that of B.S.F. threads of corresponding size –the 1-in.
Class 2- free fit. Used for Aircraft screws N.F.thread has a pitch of 0.071 in. (just over 14 threads per
Class 3- medium fit Used for Aircraft bolts inch), ascompared with a pitch of 0.1 in. (10 threads per inch) of
Class 4 - close fit. Close tolerance bolts the 1-in.B.S.F. thread. An example of thread callout 1/4 – 28 –
NF 3 issize 1/4 in (diameter), 28 threads per inch, National Fine
Class 4 fit would require a spanner to turn the nut onto a bolt, a withClass 3 fit.
class 1 fit could easily be turn with the fingers.Aircraft bolts may

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UNIFIED SCREW THREADS METRIC SYSTEM

The need of a common standard for screw threads has This type of thread is of Continental origin, all dimensions being
longbeen recognized and negotiations in 1948 between expressed in millimetres. The thread form is noticeably different
theStandards Institutions and Associations of the United from that used in British Standard threads; the thread angle is
Kingdom,Canada, and the United States resulted in the 600, while crests and roots are flattened equally to an extent.
adoption of Unitedstandard screw threads, with metric The pitch is between that of the B.S.W. and B.S.P. threads; as a
equivalents. These threadsare of two basic series, in which result this thread has general applications for general
major diameter is related topitch; both use the same thread form engineering, aircraft and motor transport work. Pitches and
and they are designated as the Unified Coarse Thread (U.N.C.) major diameters between 6 mm. and 80 mm. are standardized
and the Unified Fine Thread (U.N.F.). The U.N.C. series of internationally; above and below these limits national
threads corresponds to the B.S.W. and A.N.C. series so far as differences become apparent – for example, the 5 mm. Thread
applications are concerned and they cover sizes ranging from used in Germany and Switzerland has a pitch of 0.8 mm, while
1/4 in. (major diameter) up to 4 in; the U.N.F. series the 5 mm. thread used in France has as a pitch of 0.99 mm.
corresponds to the B.S.F. and A.N.F. series, and are available Apart from the S.I. thread, a fine pitch series of metric threads is
in fractional sizes ranging from 1/4 in. to 11/2 in. also available for special purposes.

LIMITS AND TOLERANCES OF THREADS

To permit control of screw thread dimensions during production,

drawings should stipulate the nominal size, specification
reference and class, whilst for screw threads of special
diameter/pitch relationships, or for interference fits, the drawings
should specify the tolerance sizes for the major, effective and
minor diameters. If such information is not given, the guidance
of the designer should be sought. The major diameter of internal
threads is controlled in practice by the major diameters or the
taps of screwing tools used to cut the threads, thus a tolerance
is not usually specified, but only a minimum size, which should

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be the same as the basic major diameter. However, a sharp MEASURING SCREW THREADS
root radius should be avoided, and the screwing tools used
An inspection of the threads should be made to verify that the
should be capable of producing a root radius equal at least drawing requirements in respect of dimensional accuracy,
toone-half of the standard radius for the pitch concerned. The thread form and standard of finish are met.
tolerances permitted for the major, effective and minor
diameters of a screw thread provide, in effect, an envelope of Equipment to be used isgiven in the following paragraph.
limiting boundaries within which the thread form must lie. The
accuracy of pitch, however, should be assessed over the
specified length of engagement of the mating parts, since no Thread Gauges
separate tolerance is given. In a similar manner, no tolerance is
usually quoted for the flank angle.
The system of "Workshop" and "Inspection" grade gauges by a
system of gauges designated "General" and "Reference" grade
gauges. General and Reference grades are provided for "Go"
screw plug, ring and caliper gauges and their associated setting
plugs, but for "Not Go" screw gauges and "Go" and "Not Go"
major diameter gap gauges and minor diameter plug gauges.

General Gauges

These gauges are so dimensioned as to control the thread

flanks within the specified work limits, i.e., the gauge tolerances
lie within the work limits. The use of General gauges is
recommended for medium and free fit class Whitworth form
threads and for all classes of B.A. threads.

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Not-Go Gauges
Reference Gauges
Not Go effective diameter gauges are also designed to comply
These gauges are designed around the nominal size of the with the requirements of B.S. 919: 1952, where it is
thread with a minimum encroachment into or outside the work specifiedthat the threads should be cleared at the crests and
tolerance. The principal uses of Reference gauges are as roots in order to permit control of the effective diameter only. To
referees in cases of doubt, thus serving as a check on the minimise the possibility of pitch error affecting the result, the
continued accuracy of General gauges, and for checking gauges embody not more than two or three turns of thread.
threads, which have been manufactured to close class
tolerances. ACCURACY OF GAUGES

Go Gauges It is important that all thread gauges should be checked

periodically to ensure that they are not worn beyond permissible
These gauges are designed to control the maximum diameter limits or are otherwise inaccurate. Checking is normally done by
and pitch of the external thread and the minimum diameter and skilled inspectors; and if the gauges are in continuous use, a
pitch of the internal thread. The gauges are manufactured to the daily check is desirable. If the work is of an intermittent nature, a
thread form and gauge length specified in B.S. 919: 1952. weekly check should suffice, but if the work is being handled in
"short runs", a check before and after use is recommended.

SETTING PLUGS

Setting plugs are screw plug gauges to which adjustable screw

ring and caliper gauges are set. They have truncated crests and
are cleared at the roots to ensure contact only with the flanks of
the threads of the gauge being set. General setting plugs should
be used for General "Go" gauges and Reference setting plugs
should be used for Reference "Go" gauges.

Fig. 08 Go Gauges

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GAUGING THE THREADS Gauging Plated Threads

Reference was made in paragraph Plated Threads to the

Gauging Internal Threads special arrangements permitted in regard to manufacture when
threads are to be metal plated. The gauging system
The following gauges should be used when checking internal recommended for checking such threads, both before and after
threads to ensure compliance with drawing requirements. plating, is given in the following paragraphs.

1. A "Go" full form screw plug gauge to control the External Threads
minimum diameter of the thread, and to ensure that the
pitch is acceptable over the specified length of Prior to plating, the threads should be checked with a Not Go"
engagement. effective diameter caliper gauge to control the minimum
effective diameter specified prior to plating, and a "Not Go"
2. A "Not Go" effective diameter screw plug gauge to major diameter gap gauge, made to control the minimum major
control the maximum effective diameter of the thread. diameter specified prior to plating.

3. A "Not Go" minor diameter plug gauge to control the 1. After plating, the threads should be checked with a "Go"
maximum minor diameter of the thread. full form thread caliper or ring gauge to control the
maximum diameter of the thread.
4. When truncated threads are to be checked, "Go" and
"Not Go" minor diameter plug gauges, specially 2. When plated truncated threads are to be checked, a
dimensioned for truncated threads, should be used. "Go" major diameter gap gauge, specially dimensioned
Observation should be made to ensure that the axis of for truncated threads, should be used to control the
the thread through the nut is at right angles to the end major diameter.
faces. This is particularly important in larger nuts, which
may be used at predetermined torque loadings on Internal Threads
ground-threaded high tensile bolts or studs.
Prior to coating, the threads should be checked with a "Not Go"
effective diameter screw plug gauge to control the maximum
effective diameter specified prior to plating, and a "Not Go"
minor diameter plug gauge; made to control the maximum minor
diameter specified prior to plating.
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1. After plating, the threads should be checked with a "Go" Gauges of the types described in thread gauges are
full form screw plug gauge to control the minimum generallyused to ensure that production threads conform to
diameter of the thread. specification,they do not, however, ensure that a completely
satisfactory thread is formed. The form and finish of the roots of
2. When plated truncated threads are to be checked, a both internaland external threads are not precisely controlled by
"Go” minor diameter plug gauge, specially dimensioned gauges andreliance must be placed on the accuracy of the
for truncated threads, should be used to control the cutting or rollingtools used.
minor diameter.
Maintenance of a satisfactory product thread is achieved by
careful inspection of these tools and by the use of optical
OTHER INSPECTION projection to ensure a good thread profile. It will be necessary to
make an accurate cast of an internal thread in order to apply
projection methods.
In addition to gauging the threads, the parts should be
inspected for general dimensional accuracy. The majority of It will also be seen that the tolerances applied to a particular
thread drawings specify that a "lead", or chamfer, should be type of gauge are thesame regardless of thread class, and
applied to the first half or full thread, and this also should be certain gauges maytherefore be used for more than one
checked for accuracy. Bolts, and in particular those having short purpose. The effective diameter threads gauges and crest
plain shanks, which are produced on automatic machines using diameter plain gauges which will be necessary for inspecting
automatic die chucks, should be checked to ensure that the final product threads of any class. The gauging of minimum metal
thread is correctly formed, since, for various reasons, the thread limits after coating is not recommended. These limits must be
form cutter may fail to cut a full final thread. Rolled threads may controlled before the application of the coating by the use of
be affected by chips in rolling dies, which will produce similar appropriate GO and NOT GO gauges. Provided that the product
identically repeated bumps on each thread produced from the is accepted by the GO gauge after plating the thread should be
dies. A proportion of the threads should be examined visually satisfactory.
for such defects, since they may not necessarily be revealed by
gauging. As mentioned in provision for coated threads the coating of
Class 3B threads is not recommended due to the fact that the
coating allowance absorbs an unduly large proportion of the
product tolerance. If a Class 2B nut is used instead, the
effective diameter tolerance, after coating, will approximate to
Class 3B limits. If required, a Class 3B internal thread may be
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coated, but the GO plug gauge used before coating should be engagement of the mating parts, since noseparate tolerance is
of basic diameter plus 0.001 inch (for threads 1/4 inch diameter given. In a similar manner no separatetolerance is normally
and larger). quoted for the flank angle.

Thread Finishing Effective Diameter Tolerance

Product threads should be examined to ensure that the required

standard of finish has been obtained and that there is no This is derived from a three part formula which takes account
evidence of tearing or chatter; it is recommended that a ofdiameter, pitch and length of engagement. For UNC, UNF,
magnifying glass of suitable magnification or some other optical UNJ,4UN, 6UN and 8UN threads, a length of engagement equal
instrument should be used for this purpose. The standard of to
finish is affected by the speed and method of manufacture and one diameter is used; for all other threads a length
also by the type of material being threaded. Suitable techniques ofengagement of 9 pitches is used.
should be selected for a particular material in order to achieve a
satisfactory finish. Where cutting tools are used on stainless Major Diameter Tolerance
steel such as S80, frequent checks may be necessary to ensure
that tool wear has not degraded the thread.
With external threads the tolerance on major diameter is
LIMITS AND TOLERANCES derivedsolely from a formula based on pitch. With internal
threads notolerance is quoted, it being considered that this
dimension will be adequately controlled by the crests of the tap
In order to provide for interchangeability and ensure the or cutting tool.
correctclass of fit for a particular application, standard Unified
threadsare controlled by a system of tolerances which are Minor Diameter Tolerances
defined in BS1580. This Standard relates to threads of 1/4 inch
diameter andlarger but the principles employed are also
applicable to thenumbered sizes (i.e. 0-80 to 10-32) the The minor diameter tolerance on external threads is related
tolerances for which arelisted in BS 3155.The tolerances directly to the effective diameter tolerance. The minor diameter
permitted for the major, effective and minordiameters of a screw of an internal thread is formed by an operation prior to threading
thread provide, in effect, an envelope oflimiting boundaries and the tolerance is related to pitch and diameter.
within which the thread surface must lie. Theaccuracy of pitch,
however, should be assessed over thespecified length of
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DEPTH OF ENGAGEMENT

The depth of engagement (i.e. radial amount of thread overlap)

is 5H/8 for standard Unified threads and 9H/16 for UNJ threads
when mating threads are in the maximum metal condition. This
is reduced by the tolerances permitted on the major diameter of
the external thread and the minor diameter of the internal
thread.

ALLOWANCE

This is the design clearance permitted between mating threads

and is deducted from the basic size of the external thread. The
allowance for Class IA and 2A threads is 30 per cent of the
Class 2A effective diameter tolerance but there is no allowance
permitted for Class 3A threads.

NOTE: Due to the tendency of close fitting fasteners of un-

plated stainless steel to seize when tightened it is
recommended that stainless steel bolts should not be made to
Class 3A limits.

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6.5.2 BOLT, STUDS AND SCREW  AGS Aircraft General Standard

 AS Aircraft Standards
 Al. Al. Aluminium Alloy
SPECIFICATION, IDENTIFICATION AND MARKING OF  BA British Association
AIRCRAFT BOLT, INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS:  BSF. British Standard Fine
 HTS. High Tensile steel
The bolts, used in the construction of aerospace components  HTSS. High Tensile Stainless Steel
and structures, have evolved into a bewildering range of  LTS. Low Tensile Steel
materials, shapes and sizes, all of which are dictated by the  SS Stainless Steel
applications for which the items have been designed  UNC. Unified National Coarse
 UNF. Unified National Fine.
Standards and systems have been established, to provide
identification of the many different forms of threaded devices, in
order to ensure that only the correct items are installed in the IDENTIFICATION OF BS UNIFIED BOLTS
relevant locations.
British Standard Unified (BS Unified) bolts are identified by the
use of an alpha-numeric code, which provides information
It is stressed here, that only the approved design materials may
relating to the type, material, surface finish, length, diameter
be used for aerospace components and, while a selection of
and any other important characteristics of the threaded device
some of the bolts are presented in these course notes, by way
of introduction, the relevant AMM, SRM and IPC will be the sole Table 01 shows a (very small) selection of aircraft standard
authority for deciding the correct type of bolt that is to be used in bolts and screws with a (shortened) description of the type of
a particular application. device and the materials from which it is made.

BRITISH BOLTS
Reference to the table shows that the code A102 signifies a
An extensive range of bolts and screws is provided for, in the hexagonal-headed bolt which is made of high-tensile steel,
specifications drawn up by the Society of British Aerospace while the code A175 represents a 100° countersunk-headed
Companies (SBAC). The following abbreviations (some of which bolt, made from an aluminium alloy.
have, already, been discussed are in common use:

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ensure that the items being used are correctly identified and to
the approved standard.

 A shallow recess in the head of a bolt, equal to the

nominal diameter of the thread (cold forged items).

 A ‘dog point’ (small protrusion) on the threaded shank end

(usually applies to screws).

Further numbers and letters are added to the identifying code,

to provide information relating to the length (usually of the plain
shank or gripping portion) and to the diameter of the items. The
length is given by a number, which signifies increments of
tenths of an inch, so that a 5 would represent a bolt with a plain
shank of 0.5 in, while the number 12 would signify the plain
Table 01 Codes Number for Unified thread shank as being 1.2 in long

Other methods of indicating that an item has a Unified thread Reference to Table 02, will show how the diameter of an item is
are: designated by the addition of another letter to the system, so
that a bolt, with the code marking of A102 9 E, would signify a
 Three contiguous (touching) circles marked in a convenient Unified-threaded, hexagon-headed bolt, made from high-tensile
position (machine items). steel, with a plain shank length of 0.9 in, and a diameter of ¼ in.

Note: Due to the difficulty in applying the identifying marks to

individual items, it is planned to merely mark the packets in
which the threaded devices are marketed, so that some, or all,
of the identification marks will not be seen on the items
(particularly screws). Great care must, therefore, be taken to

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Table 03. “BA” and “BS” Unified Bolt Codes

AMERICAN BOLTS

American aircraft bolts and nuts are threaded in the NC

(American National Coarse), the NF (American National Fine),
Table 02. “BS” Unified Bolt Codes
the UNC (Unified National Coarse), and the UNF (Unified
Note: In the earlier UK system (which may be encountered on National Fine) thread series. The item is often coded to give the
older, or home-constructed, light aircraft), bolts more than ¼ diameter of the threaded portion and the number of threads per
inch diameter are normally BSF, whilst bolts less than ¼ inch inch (tpi).
diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these items also
use a number to represent their nominal length and a letter Aircraft bolts may be made from HTS, Corrosion-Resistant Steel
or Aluminium Alloy. Head types may be hexagonal, clevis,
code (as can be seen in Table 03) to identify their diameter.
eyebolt, internal wrenching and countersunk (refer to Fig.01)
and head markings may be used to indicate other features such
Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head as close tolerance, aluminium alloy, CRS or other types of steel.
(High Tensile Steel) or a raised ring on the bolt head (Cold
Rolled) to assist differentiation of their particular designations.

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IDENTIFICATION OF AN STANDARD BOLTS

While there are several different US Standards, there is only

need to discuss one type for the purpose of these course notes,
as the others are very similar.

AN bolts come in three head styles, Hexagon Head, Clevis and

Eyebolts and Table 04 provides an indication of the various
code numbers in use.

Fig. 01 Aircraft Bolts

Table 04. “AN” Standard Bolts

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Note: The later series uses a different number system

For identification purposes the AN number is used to indicate

the type of bolt and its diameter. In addition a code is used to
indicate the material, length and presence of a split pin or
locking wire hole as follows:

 Diameter: The last figure, or last two figures, of the AN

number indicates thread diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3
= No.10, and 4 = ¼” with subsequent numbers
indicating the diameter in 1/16” increments.
Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼” diameter
and an AN14 is a hexagon headed bolt of 7/8” (14/16”)
diameter.
 Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal
headed bolt, is measured from under the head of the first
full thread (refer to Fig. 44) and is quoted in 1/8”
increments as a dash number.
Fig. 02 Head Markings for “AN” Bolts

The last figure of the dash number represents eighths and the
first figure inches, so that an AN4 – 12 is a ¼” diameter
hexagon headed bolt, 1¼” long.

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 Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied  Material: The standard coding applies to a non-
with a hole drilled in the threaded part of the shank, but corrosion-resistant, cadmium-plated steel bolt. Where
different arrangements may be obtained: the bolt is supplied in other materials, letters are
placed after the AN number as follows:
Drilled shank = normal coding e.g. AN24 – 15

 C = Corrosion Resistance Steel C.R.S.

Un-drilled shank = A added after dash No. e.g. AN24 – e.g. AN25C15
15A

 DD = Aluminium Alloy
e.g. AN25DD15
Drilled head only = H added before dash No.

(replacing dash) A added

 Thread: Where the bolt is supplied as either UNF or
after dash No. UNC threads, a UNC thread is indicated by placing an
A in place of the dash, e.g. AN24A15

e.g. AN25H15A

Drilled head and shank = H added before dash No. e.g.

AN25H15

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BOLT TYPES Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16” diameter, and aluminium
SPECIAL-TO-TYPE BOLTS alloy bolts smaller than ¼” are not used on primary structure.
Other bolts may be used as follows:
The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 – AN20 (refer to Fig 03),
is an all purpose structural bolt used for applications involving
tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is permissible.  Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are machined more
accurately than the standard bolt. They may be hexagon
headed (AN173 – AN186) or have a 100º countersunk
head (NAS80 – NAS86). They are used in applications
where a tight drive fit is required (the bolt requires the use
of a 340g - 400g (12oz – 14 oz) hammer to drive it into
position.

 Internal Wrenching Bolts: (MS 20024 or NAS 495)

these are fabricated from high-strength steel and are
suitable for tensile or shear applications. The head is
recessed to allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used
for installing or removing the bolt. In Dural-type material,
a heat-treated washer must be used to provide an
adequate bearing surface for the head.

Eye Bolt
Clevis Bolt  Clevis Bolts: The head of a clevis bolt is round and
either slotted, for a standard screwdriver, or recessed, for
a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of bolt is used only
Special-to-Type
FIG. 03 Bolts for shear loads and never in tension. It is often inserted
as a mechanical pin in a control system.
FIFI
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 Eyebolt: The eye is designed for the attachment of cable AIRCRAFT NUTS
shackles or turnbuckles and the bolt is used for tensile
loads. The threaded end may be drilled for ‘safetying’. Aircraft nuts are made in a variety of sizes and shapes. They
can be made of cadmium plated carbon steel, stainless steel or
anodized 2024-T aluminium alloy and have right or left hand
METRIC BOLTS
threads. As they do not have any identifying marks or lettering
they are usually identified by colour and construction. Familiar
types include the plain, castle. Slotted. Thin light hexagon and
wing nut.
The identification of a Metric bolt is by the use of the diameter in
millimetres, immediately after the capital letter ‘M’. In this way, In next few paragraphs we are going to talk about their
M6 represents a 6 mm-diameter bolt. The length is also shown importance, mechanism, coding and usage in different
in millimetres, so the bolt M6 -15will be a 6 mm- diameter bolt, environment.
which is 15 mm long. The basic terminology, for identifying bolts
of the Metric system, involves the nominal length, the grip All nuts used in aircraft construction must have some sort of
length and diameter. locking device to prevent them from loosening and falling off.
Many nuts are held on a bolt by passing a cotter pin through a
Length
hole in bolt shank and through slots, or castellation, in the nut.
Others have some form of locking insert that grips a bolt's
threads or relies on the tension of a spring-type lock-washer to
hold the nut tight enough against the threads to keep it from
Grip vibrating loose.

Aircraft nuts can be divided into two general groups:

Diameter
 Non-self-locking
 Self-Iocking nuts

As the name implies, a self-Iocking nut locks onto a bolt on its

own while a non self-locking nut relies on either a cotter pin,
Metric Bolt Terminology check nut, or lock washer to hold it in place. We'll begin by
looking at the most common non self-Iocking nuts.

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NON-SELF-LOCKING NUTS

All nuts used in aircraft construction must have some way of

locking them to prevent their becoming loose and falling off.
Many nuts are held on the bolt by passing a cotter pin through a
hole in the bolt shank and through slots, or castellations, in the
nut. Others have some form of locking insert to grip the threads
of the bolt, and a few depend on the tension of a spring-type
lock-washer to hold the nut tight enough against the threads to
prevent its vibrating loose.

STANDARD TYPES

Aircraft Plain Nut

Fig. 05 Aircraft Nuts

The plain nut has no castellations and, therefore, cannot be

held in place using a cotter pin. Since these fine-thread nuts Check Nut
have no locking provisions, a spring-type lock washer must be
used in combination with the nut. The lock washer applies a
spring force to prevent the nut from shaking loose. A check nut is used to jam against a plain nut to lock it onto
abolt so it cannot back off. The check nut is made of cadmium
The plain nuts are used with either tensile or shear loads and platedsteel and is available in both right- and left-hand threads.
are made of either nickel steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and An AN316-4R is a right-hand check nut that fits a quarter-inch
aluminum alloy. The type of material used is indicated in the (AN4) bolt, while an AN316-4L has a left-hand thread for a
designation code in the same way as for bolts. In other words, quarter-inch left-handed bolt.
the absence of an additional letter identifies nickel steel,
whereas the letter "C" preceding the dash number identifies
corrosion resistant steel, and a "D" identifies 2024 aluminum
alloy.

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Coarse-Thread Machine Screw Nut cadmium-plated nickel steel. A corrosion resistant nut, on
theother hand, is identified by the letter "C" inserted before the
dash number in the part code. Aluminium alloy nuts are
These nuts are made in machine screw sizes from number 2 up identified by the letter "D." For example, the part code AN310D-
through quarter inch, and they are available in carbon steel, 6 identifies an aluminium alloy nut that has an inside diameter of
corrosion-resistant steel (C), brass (B), and 2024 aluminium 6/16 (3/8) inch
alloy (DD). A nut identified as an AN340B6 is a brass nut that
fits a 6-32 machine screw. An AN340DD416 is an aluminium Aircraft Shear Castle Nut
alloy nut that will fit a 1/4-20 bolt.

Fine-Thread Machine Screw Nut The AN320 shear castle nut is made of the same material and
has the same type of thread as a AN310 nut. However, shear
castle nuts are much thinner than standard castle nuts and,
These nuts are similar to the coarse-thread machine screw nuts therefore, are used only for shear loads on clevis bolts. An
except they have national-fine series threads. They are AN320-6 nut is a shear castle nut that is used on an AN26
available in cadmium-plated carbon steel, corrosion-resistant clevis bolt. An aluminium alloy (2024) nut is identified as an
steel (C), commercial brass (B), and 2024 aluminum alloy (DD). AN320D6
An AN345B6 is a brass nut that will fit 6-40 machine screw. An
AN345DD416 is an aluminum alloy nut that will fit a 1/4-28 bolt. ENGINE NUT

Aircraft Castle Nut Slotted Engine Nut

These fine-thread nuts are designed to fit on a standard This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine and is not
airframe bolt with a Class 3 fit, and are used when the bolt is approved for airframe use. It is made of heat-treated steel and
subjected to either shear or tensile loads. The size of a nut is has national fine threads that produce a Class 3 fit. It is
indicated in the part code by a dash number, which denotes the available in sizes from AN355-3 (3/16 inch) to AN355-12 (3/4
size of the bolt it fits. For example, an AN310-6 nut fits an AN6 inch) and has slots cut in it for a cotter pin.
bolt, which has a diameter of 3/8 inch. Castle nuts are available
in cadmium-plated nickel-steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and
2024 aluminium alloy. Unless specified, a castle nut is made of
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Plain Engine Nut SELF-LOCKING NUT

Self-locking nuts, or lock nuts, employ a locking device in

This engine nut is similar to the AN355 in that it is approved for theirdesign to keep them from loosening. However, because
use on engines only. However, an AN360 differs from an AN355 thereare several different types of lock nuts, you must be certain
in that it does not have cotter pin slots and has a black rust thatthe proper locknut is used in a given application. Failure to
proof finish. An AN360-7 is a plain engine nut that fits a 7/16- do socould result in failure of the locking provision. The two
inch bolt. generaltypes of self-locking nuts used in aviation are the fiber,
or nylontype, and the all-metal type. Self-locking nuts shouldnot
Wing Nut be used in any location where the nut or the bolt is subject to
rotation. This includes such applications as control hinge pins.

Wing nuts are used when it is necessary to remove a part Low-Temperature Self-Locking Nuts
frequently without the use of tools. Aircraft wing nuts are made
of either cadmium-plated steel or brass and are available in
sizes to fit number six machine screws up to 1/2 inch bolts. All The fiber-Iocking collar is not threaded and its inside diameter is
of these nuts have national fine threads that produce a Class 2 smaller than the largest diameter of the threaded portion or the
fit. Nuts for machine screw sizes are designated by the series outside diameter of a corresponding bolt. When the nut is
number. However, nuts used on bolts have a bolt size given in screwed onto a bolt, it acts as an ordinary nut until the bolt
1/16 inch increments followed by the number 16. For example, reaches the fiber collar. When the bolt is screwed into the fiber
with an AN350-616 wing nut, the -6 indicates that the nut will fit collar, however, friction (or drag) causes the fiber to be pushed
a 3/8 (6/16) inch bolt. upward. This creates a heavy downward pressure on the load
carrying part and automatically throws the load-carrying sides of
Double Hexagon Stiffnut the nut and bolt threads into positive contact. After the bolt has
been forced all the way through the fiber - collar, the downward
pressure remains constant. This pressure locks and holds the
A range of double – hexagon stiff nuts manufactured from heat nut securely in place even under severe vibration. The bolt does
resistant steel and having UNJF threads. These nuts are not actually cut threads into the insert, but rather forces its way
specified for the use on the AS series of heat resistant bolts with into the resilient material, and because there are no permanent
UNJF threads, and may be identified from the AS number threads made in the insert, these nuts may be re-used many
marked on the extended washer portion of the nut. times. They are usable as long as there is enough friction
between the nut and the bolt that the nut cannot be turned down
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by hand, requiring a wrench instead. A tap must never be run High-Temperature Self-Locking Nuts
through a self-locking nut to make it easier to screw onto the
bolt, as this would destroy the locking ability of the nut. A self-
locking nut must be screwed down onto the bolt until at least all In applications where temperatures exceed 250 degrees F, high
of the chamfer on the end of the bolt protrudes through the temperature self-locking nut can be used. Rather than using a
insert. If the bolt is not chamfered, at least one thread and not fibber or plastic insert to provide the locking action, there are
more than three threads should protrude through the nut. Some several ways the nut may be made to grip the bolt. Some of
bolts have their shank drilled for a cotter pin, and these bolts these nuts have a portion of the end slotted and the slots
may be used with self-locking nuts, provided the bolt is5/16-inch swaged together. This gives the end of the nut a slightly smaller
or larger in diameter and the edges of the cotter pin hole diameter than the body, and the threads will grip those of the
are chamfered so there are no burrs around the hole. Low- bolt. Others have the end of the nut squeezed into a slightly
temperature nuts should not be used in any location where the oval shape, and as the bolt screws up through the threads
temperature will exceed 250 degrees F. They are approved for itmust make the hole round. This provides the gripping action.
use on engines only in those locations specified by the engine
manufacturer. Boots-Self-Locking Nut

The Boots self-locking nut is of one-piece, all-metal

construction, designed to hold tight in spite of severe vibration.
It has two sections and is essentially two nuts in one, a locking
nut and a load-carrying nut. The two sections are connected
with a spring, which is an integral part of the nut. The spring
keeps the locking and load-carrying sections such a distance
apart that the two sets of threads are out-of-phase; that is, so
spaced that a bolt, which has been screwed through the load-
carrying section, must push the locking section outward against
the force of the spring to engage the threads of the locking
Fig. 06 Self Locking Nut
section properly. Thus, the spring, through the medium of the
locking section, exerts a constant locking force on the bolt in the
same direction as a force that would tighten the nut. In this nut,
the load-carrying section has the thread strength of a standard
nut of comparable size, while the locking section presses
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against the threads of the bolt and locks the nut firmly in loosely into a basket, which is riveted to the skin, and the
position. Only a wrench applied to the nut will loosen it. The nut nutfloats enough to align itself with the screw.
can be removed and reused without impairing its efficiency.
Boots self-locking nuts are made with different spring styles and
in various shapes and sizes. The wing type is the most common
type. Wing-type nuts are made of anodized aluminium alloy,
cadmium plated carbon steel, or stainless steel.

Fig. 08Anchor Nut

Fig. 07 Boots Self Locking Nut To speed the production of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are
installed around inspection plate openings. These are floating-
Anchor Nuts type anchor nuts, and there are a number of them in a channel
that is riveted to the structure. Each nut floats in the channel
Anchor nuts may be supplied with or double attachment points with enough play that the screws can move the nut enough to
and may be fixed or floating in a cage. The anchor nut may be align it.
one unit. Inspection plates and access doors that are fastened
to an aircraft with screws have anchor nuts secured to the Common applications for anchor nuts are
inside of the structure into which these screws fit. Some of the  Attachment of anti-friction bearing and control pulleys.
most commonly used anchor nuts are the two-lug anchor nut,  Attachment of accessories, anchor nuts around
the one lug anchor nut, and the corner anchor nut. To make the inspection holds and fuel tank openings.
installation of an access door easier where there are a great  Rocker box covers and exhaust manifolds.
number of screws, the floating anchor nut is used. These nuts fit

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STUDS Waisted Studs

Studs are metal rod threaded at each end and are used in the
situations where it is not desirable or possible to drill through a These are used where reduction of weight without loss of
part for fitting a bolt and nut. One end of the stud screwed to the strength is of paramount importance; the diameter of the plain
end of its thread into a tapped hole in one of the parts, and the portion of the stud is reduced to the minor diameter of the
other part is held in position by a nut screwed on to the other endthreads thus lightening the stud without impairing its
end of the stud. effective strength.

TYPES AND USES

There are different types of studs being used for different

circumstances, the following variants have a reasonably wide
applications. They are;
Fig. 10 Waisted Stud
1. Standard Stud
2. Waisted stud
3. Shouldered stud Stepped Studs
4. Stepped Studd

Standard Stud This type affords a stronger anchorage than the plain type if the
“metal” end is one size larger than that of the “nut” end, eg a ¼
in. B.S.F. stepped stud has a plain portion of ¼ in. diameter, a
These are plain rods with threads cut in both ends. ¼ in. thread on the “nut” end, and a 5/16 in. thread on the
‘metal’ end. Stepped studs are also used as replacements for
plain studs when the tapped stud-hole, because of damage, has
to be re-drilled and tapped with a larger thread.

Fig. 09 Standard Stud

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FITTING THE STUDS

Studs should be a good fit in the tapped hole and should remain
Fig. 11 Stepped Studs in position when the nut is removed. The use of locking agent
such as loctite is recommened in according to Maintenance
Shouldered Studs Manual. Stud may be inserted by using a stud box and spanner
or fitting lock nuts and using a spanner on the upper nuts or by
using a stud-inserting tool.
This type is used where maximum rigidity of assembly is of
prime importance. The stud is machined from oversize bar, and Stud Box
a projecting shoulder is left between the “metal” end thread and
the normal-diameter plain portion; this shoulder seats firmly on
the surface of the “metal” and gives additional resistance to The stud box, in its simplest form, is simply a rather deep
sideway stresses. The clearance hole in the second component, hexagonal nut with an ordinary bolt screwed into one end; the
through which the “nut” end and plain portion of the stud stud which is entered into the other end, is prevented
passes, must be machined at the inner end to give clearance to fromturning in the stud box by setting up the bolt against the
the stud shoulder. end of the stud, and the stud box is then turned by a spanner to
drive the stud home firmly. The type of stud box shown in the
illustration A has a stepped hole, with threads of different
diameter at either end; these threads are usually of “preferred”
sizes, e.g. O.B.A./2 B.A. and by changing the lock bolt as
requisite a stud box can be used with two sizes of stud.

Fig. 12 Shoulder Stud

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STUD INSERTION AND REMOVAL

The tool enables studs to be inserted or removed without

imposing any strain on the screw thread, since the plain part of
the stud is held in a friction grip. When the tool is assembled,
the cam followers are contained within the cage and are free to
move radially within the limits of the slotted holes the end plate
is pressed in to the end of the tool and is locked by peening.
When using the tool the stud is passed through the hole in the
end plate until its plain part is positioned within the hole in the
cage and the locating screw is adjusted to prevent further entry
of the stud into the tool. On rotating the tool body the cage
tends to remain stationary owing to the light frictional grip of the
cam followers on the stud shank; the rotating cam forces the
followers inwards to provide a light grip on the stud shank, and
the stud then turns with the tool in the direction of rotation.

Removal Of Studs

The procedure to followed when removing studs depends

largely upon the state of the stud:

Undamaged Stud

These may be removed by locknuts using a spanner on the

lower nut or by using the tool described in the previous
Fig. 13 Stud Box Components
paragraph.

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Damaged Studs

d. bolt is unnecessary since the thread of the tool is itself

If the thread is damaged to such an extent that locknuts cannot strong enough to force out the stud when the tool is
be fitted, use the stud tool; if this is not available, file flats on the turned anticlockwise.
stud and use a spanner or tap wrench to remove.
e. As a last resort, drill right through the remains of the stud
Broken Studs with a drill that is slightly smaller than the core diameter
of the stud and very carefully re-tap the hole, picking up
the original thread.
If the stud is broken at a point above the component surface
proceed as in damage stud. Studs that are broken flush with or
below the component surface must be dealt with according to
the accessibility of the remaining portion of the stud, the size of
the stud, the availability of special tools etc. The following
methods are all practicable:
a. Centre-pop the centre of the broken stud, drill a hole
(about half the stud diameter) centrally in the broken
portion, lightly body and unscrew by using a spanner on
the squared end of the drift. Remember that no useful
purpose is served by driving the drift too hard this merely
expands the stud in the hole and makes removal more
difficult.

b. Drill as in (a) a tapping size hole, tap this hole with a

thread of opposite hand to that of the stud thread, insert
a matching bolt into the tapped hole, and remove the
remain of the stud by screwing up the bolt.

c. A similar procedure is described in (b) can be carried out

with screw extractors, often known as ‘Ezy-outs’. This
type of tool resembles a coarse left hand taper tap; a

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SCREWS

Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded

fastener in aircraft. They differ from bolts in that they are
generally made of lower strength materials. Screws are typically
installed with a loose-fitting thread, and the head shapes are
made to engage a screwdriver or wrench. Some screws have a
clearly defined grip length while others are threaded along their
entire length. There are three basic classifications of screws
used in aircraft construction: machine screws, which are the
most widely used; structural screws, which have the same
strength as bolts; and self-tapping screws, which are typically
used to join light weight materials.

Code System for Grub Screws Complying with BS A5-A56

The code system used for these screws consists of the British
Standard number followed by the part number.

 The part number consists of a number indicating the

overall length of the screw in sixteenths of an inch.

 A letter before the part number indicates the nominal

diameter

Fig. 14 Screws

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TYPES AND SHAPES OF SCREWS Countersunk Heads

There are different type and shape of screws, which depends The nominal length is the distance measured from the upper
upon the their usage at particular location. surface of the head to the extreme end of the shank.

1. Round head Raised Countersunk Heads

2. Mushroom head
3. Raised Counter sunk The nominal length is the distance measured from the upper
4. Hexagon surface of the head (excluding the raised portion) to the extreme
end of the shank.

MACHINE SCREWS; AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS

Machine screws are used extensively for attaching fairings,

inspection plates, fluid line clamps and other light structural
parts. The main difference between aircraft bolts and machine
screws is that the threads of a machine screw usually run the
full length of the shank, whereas bolts have an unthreaded grip
length. Screws normally have a Class 2, or free fit and are
available in both national coarse and national fine threads. The
Fig. 15Head Shapes of Screws
most common machine screws used in aviation are the fillister
head screw, the flat-head screw, the round-head screw, and the
truss-head screw.
Round Heads
Fillister-Head Machine Screw
The nominal length is the distance measured from the
underside of the head to the extreme end of the shank.
Fillister-head screws are slotted. and have a hole drilled through
their head. They come in both coarse-thread (MS35265) and
fine-thread (MS35266), both of which produce a Class 3 fit.

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brass. These screws are available in sizes from 4-48 through

Fillister-head screws are available in sizes from 4-40 up to 1/4- 3/8-16.
20 and have no clearly defined grip.
Round-Head Machine Screw

The MS35206 round-head machine screw is made of cadmium

plated carbon steel and has either a slotted or recessed head.
This screw is also available in brass and is identified by the part
designation MS35214. The brass screws are typically coated
with a black oxide and are sometimes used to mount
instruments. Like most other screws, the roundhead machine
screw is available with either fine or coarse threads.

SELF-TAPPING SCREWS

Self-tapping screws (refer to Fig. 17) have coarse threads and

Fig. 16 Fillister and Flat-head screws are used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic and plywood
together. The type A screw has a gimlet (sharp) point, and the
type B has a blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than
the type A.
Flat-Head Machine Screw
There are four types of head in normal use:
These countersunk screws are made of cadmium-plated carbon
steel, and are available with a recessed head for cross-point  round head
screwdrivers. They are available with either fine or coarse  countersunk oval-head
threads and come with either an 82-degree or 100 degree  truss or mushroom-head
countersink. The 100-degree flat-head screw carries the part  flat countersunk-head.
code MS24693. The MS24693S is made of cadmium-plated
carbon steel and the MS24693BB is made of black oxide coated

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DOWELS

While not usually used as fasteners, dowels are rods or pins of

the appropriate material which are fixed (often permanently) in
one of the components of a joint such that the protruding shank
of the dowel locates with a corresponding hole in the item being
attached, thus ensuring accurate assembly.

Two examples of the use of dowels may be found where a

Propeller Control Unit is attached to an engine casing and there
is a requirement for absolute accuracy in the alignment of the oil
tubes and, again, where the segments of an engine compressor
need to be joined with precision so that the rotating members do
not foul the stationary parts.

Fig. 17 Four types of self-taping head screws

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6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES SPLIT PINS / COTTER PINS

CivilAirworthiness Requirements prescribe that an approved Split or Cotter pin is referred to the same pin. Split pins
meansof locking must be provided on all connecting elements in aremanufactured from corrosion resisting steel and are used
theprimary structure, fluid systems, controls and other inconjunction with drilled bolts and slotted or castellated nuts.
mechanicalsystems essential to the safe operation of an aircraft Thepins should be a reasonably close fit in the nut and
such as Aircraft Engines, etc. bolt/studassembly. The legs of split pins should be turned as
indicated on the designdrawings, but when the method is not
The purpose of a locking device is to prevent loosening specified it isrecommended that one of the methods (Figure 17).
ordisengagement of matingcomponents under varying If necessary, pins should be cut to a suitablelength to prevent
conditionsof stress, vibration and temperature as its pick-up in clothing, cleaning cloths, etc., andthe surplus ends
effectiveness may beof the utmost importance to the safety of accounted for to prevent their becoming a loosearticle
an aircraft. Lockingdevices should be fitted in such a way as to hazard.After turning and closing the legs to the nut faces, an be
prevent thepossibility of fretting, distortion, displacement or made to ensure that cracking or cutting has notoccurred at the
unevenstressing of the locked parts. bends.

LOCKING METHODS

The following methods of locking are in common use:

Split Pinning
Locking by Adhesives
Locking Washers
Locking Plates
Wire Locking
Circlips and Locking Rings
Self Locking Fasteners
Peening
Fig. 17 Cotter Pin installation

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For bolted joints, one pair of slots must be in alignment with

thehole in the bolt when the specified degree of tightness has
beenobtained. Undrilled bolts should be prepared for drilling
bytightening the nut to the specified torque loading and marking
thehole position. The nut should be removed and the split
pinholedrilled with the aid of a drilling jig. Burrs should then be
removed,the nut fitted and tightened to the required torque
loading andthe correct size of split pin fitted.In instances where
torque loading is not specified, it may bepermissible to tighten Fig. 18 Roll Pin
the nut slightly to achieve alignment, but inno circumstances
should a nut be eased back from the normallytight position
since this may result in slackness between theparts of the Clevis Pin
assembly. Nuts must not be filed to facilitate thefitting of split
pins. Alignment is more difficult with drilled bolts, and selective
assembly of nuts and/or washers may be required. Clevis, or flat head, pins are used for hinge pins in some aircraft
control systems. They are made of cadmium-plated steel and
Terry Pins have grip lengths in 1/16-inch increments. When installing a
clevis pin place the head in the up position, place a plain
They are similar in design to a strong safety pin and are passed washer over the opposite end, and insert a cotter pin through
through a hole in a bolt, or nut and bolt and then fastened. They the hole to lock the pin in place.
are classified by their gauge and size.

Roll Pin

Roll pins are often used to provide a pivot for a joint where the
pin is not likely to be removed. A roll pin is made of flat spring
steel that is rolled into a cylinder but the two ends are not
joined. This allows the pin to compress when it is pressed into a
hole and create a spring action that holds the pin tight against
the edge of the hole. To remove a roll pin it must be driven from Fig. 19 Clevis Pin
a hole with a proper size pin punch.

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Taper Pin during the locking process. Careful inspection is required after
fitment of pins through hollow tubes, to ensure that undue force
during the peening operation has not bent the pins, and thus
Both the plain and threaded taper pins are used in aircraft impaired the security of the fittings.
structures to make a joint that is designed to carry shear loads.
This type of pin does not allow any loose motion or play. The Adhesive Locking
plain taper pin is forced into a hole that has been reamed with a
Morse standard taper pin reamer and is held in place by friction. Many small components, particularly those in instruments,
It can be safe tied by passing safety wire around the shaft and valves, switches etc. may be locked by the application of an
through a hole drilled in its large end. A threaded taper pin is adhesive. The adhesive used may be shellac, araldite or similar
similar to a plain one except that its small-end is threaded to materials to DTD900 specifications. The adhesive is applied to
accept either a self-locking shear nut or a shear castle nut. the outside of the nut face and protruding screw thread after
they are tightened. This prevents loosening of the parts due to
vibration. When using Araldite it is good practice to mix a
separate sample under similar conditions. If the mixed
samplecures satisfactorily it can be assumed that the araldite
lockingthe part is also satisfactory.

Threaded metal fasteners may also be locked using a liquid

sealant such as Loctite. This is an approved proprietary
material (DTD900 Approval No 4588) which hardens in the
screw threads after assembly. This sealant is a penetrating
liquid polymer which remains fluid when exposed to air, but
hardens to tough a plastic when excluded from the atmosphere.
Fig. 20Plain and Threaded Taper Pin
This hardening effect is accelerated by cintact with metal
surfaces. Loctite is mainly used for bolt locking and for the
retention of inserts, such as roller bearings and bushes. Under
Taper pins with taper of 1 in 48 and parallel pins, are used on the appropriate condition, Loctite will bond all common metals,
both tubular and solid sections, to secure control levers to glass, ceramics, and phenolic plastics.
torque shafts and forked ends to control rods, etc. Some taper
pins are bifurcated and the legs spread for locking, whilst other It is supplied in five grades to give a predetermined locking
taper pins, and parallel pins, are locked by peening or by torque in a variety of applications. These applications range
forming reaction rivet heads. To avoid slackness, the pins are from stud locking to retaining bearings in housings. When using
usually assembled in reamed holes, the head being supported
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Loctite the parts should be free from grease and oil to obtain
maximum strength. Loctite may be used on threaded parts
which have the original lubrication applied by the manufacturer.
In these cases a 15 per cent decrease in the strength of locking
usually occurs. Loctite should only be used when specified by
the approved drawings or instructions. It must be applied in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions.

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LOCKING WASHERS

In modern washer has become one of the unique small part in a

component which provides different functions and applies a
predetermined force on adjacent members in an assembly.

- Dampens vibration
- Eliminates side or end-play
- Controls end pressure Fig. 21 Spring Washers
- Keeps fasteners secure
- Accommodates thermal or pressure expansions In some instances, particularly with light alloy assemblies,
andcontractions spring washers are assembled with plain facing washers
- Applies drag or resistance to turning between the spring washer and the component, to prevent
damage to the surface of the component or the protective
There are several types of locking washers in general use treatment when the spring washer is compressed. Often,
consisting of spring washers, cup washers, Shake proof however, particularly in steel assemblies, plain washers are not
washers, crinkle washers and tab washers. specified. It is good practice to renew spring washers during
overhaul or repair. This is essential in engines and engine
Spring Washers
components, and units with reciprocating parts, such as
compressors or pumps.
These washers are available in two forms.

- Single coil Cup Washers

- Double coil
These washers are manufactured in spring steel and are dished
to form a spring of high rating; assembly should be in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

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Shake Proof Washers

Flat washers of this type (steel, phosphor bronze) are

sometimes used instead of spring washers and in certain
circumstances; conical Shake proof washers (steel) are used for
locking countersunk screws. Either the internal diameter (AGS
2035 and 2037) or external diameter (AGS 2034 and 2036) is
Fig. 22 Cup Washer serrated, the serrations being set to bite into the component and
nut to prevent rotation. Shake proof washers should only be
used once.
Crinkle/ Wave Washers

These washers (copper alloy and corrosion resisting steel) are

often used in moderate loaded applications in instrument and
electrical installations. Often used as cushion springs or spacers
on a shaft linear load-deflection characteristics to approximately
80% of maximum deflection.
Fig. 24 Shake Proof Washer

Tab Washers

They are thin metal washer with two or more tabs and
projections; one tab is bent over the work or fitted into a pre-
Fig. 23 Wave Washer
drilled hole in the work or against a projection, whilst the other is
bent against the face of the nut. It not permissible to straighten
the tabs of a tab washer and re-use.

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Fig. 25 Tab Washer

LOCKING PLATES
Fig. 26 Locking Plate
Locking plates are usually manufactured from steel. They are
placed over hexagonal nuts or bolt heads after these items have
been tightened down, and secured, usually by a screw, to an
adjacent part of the structure.

Locking plates may be used repeatedly provided they remain a

good fit around the hexagon of the nut or bolt head. In certain
instances, particularly where vibration is likely, locking plate
screws are fitted with spring or Shake proof washers. Some
plates may be located by countersunk screws, which may be
locked by peening. Plates may also be provided with a retaining
screw slot, which permits a limited amount of angular
adjustment to suit the position of the nut.

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WIRE LOCKING
There should be no untwisted lengths in excess of 9.5 mm (3/8
Wire locking means connecting an item to be locked by a metal inch) and lengths of unsupported wire should not normally
wire to another item or to a stationary structural component. exceed 76 mm (3 inches).
The use of wire for locking has been a feature of aircraft The angle of approach of the wire should not be less than 45° to
engineering. It should be understood that there is more than the rotational axis of the component to be locked whilst the line
one reason why wire may be used. Wire may be used to lock of approach should be tangential to the parts being locked. The
components, to prevent inadvertent operation of a control or
lay of the wire must always be such as to resist any tendency of
switch or to show whether a control or switch has been
the locked part or parts to become loose, and for this reason it
operated. The different uses are known as
is essential to ascertain whether the parts have left or right hand
 Standard wire locking threads before fitting the wire. In instances where the method of
 Tell-Tale wire. wire locking is not indicated on the drawing, great care is
 Tell-tale restraint wire. necessary when deciding on a locking method to ensure that
 Restraint wire there is no possibility of the parts becoming loose. It may be
specified that the adaptor is locked additionally to some external
Corrosion resisting steel and heat resisting nickel alloy are the point. When locking tabs are used, they should be fitted in such
materials normally recommended for wire locking, except in the a way that the tabs and the wire are in complete alignment.
circumstances described under the wire sealing method. Care Whenever possible; the closed end of the wire should be in the
should be taken to ensure that the wire used is to the correct tab and the open end at the component to be locked. Some wire
specification and gauge required by the relevant drawing. In the locking is done with a single strand of the specified wire,
normal twisting method of wire locking, a suitable length of wire particularly in instances of complete ring or similar formations of
should be cut from the coil and passed through the hole nuts. The wire is passed in sequence through the nut slots and
provided for the purpose in the component. The wire should be bolt/stud holes around the formation until the wire ends meet.
twisted over the length required to reach the locking point, The ends are cut to suit and twisted together to tension the
through which one end of the wire should be passed, and then loop. The wire direction through all nuts must be such that any
twisted for not less than a further 13 mm (1/2 inch) whilst being loosening of a nut will further tension the wire.
pulled taut. It is necessary to pull the wire taut to ensure that the
final twists are close to the locking hole, but neither this nor the
twisting should be too severe. After surplus wire has been
removed, the twisted ends should be bent in such a manner as
to prevent their catching in clothing, cleaning cloths, etc.

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3. The maximum number of items that can be safe tied

together (with single wire) are those that can be locked
with a 24 in. (610 mm) length of wire.

4. The usual procedure to install lock wire is to use a length

of wire which is bent (into equal lengths) and then
twisted together. Each twist is made when the wires are
twisted through an arc of 180 degrees (which is
equivalent to half of one full turn) .The number of twists
that must occur in each 1 in. (25,4 mm) of wire is related
Fig. 27 Locking Wire angle to the diameter of the wire. Use the wire diameters that
follow as an aid to the number of turns necessary for the
different diameter wires:
Installation Of Locking wire
a. If 0.02 in. (0,5 mm) diameter wire is twisted
correctly, there will be 10 to 13 twists in each 1
in. (25,4 mm) of wire.
1. The maximum locking wire span between tension points b. If 0.031 in. (0,8 mm) diameter wire is twisted
is 3 in. (76 mm) unless specified in the applicable task. correctly, there will be 6 to 12 twists in each 1 in.
(25,4 mm) of wire.
2. The maximum number of items that can be safetied
together (with double-twist wire) are those that can be 5. Always be careful when you twist the lockwire to make
locked with a 12 in. (305 mm) length of wire. sure the wire is in tension: But not stressed too much.
Light damage caused by the approved type of lockwire
pliers can be accepted. The surfaces of approved
lockwire pliers which hold the wire must have rounded
edges to prevent too much damage to the wire.

Fig. 28 (a) Locking Wire Installation

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a. Do a check of the items to be safe tied to make sure

they are correctly torque.

Fig. 28 (b) Locking Wire Installation

5. The lock wire must be installed so that it cannot become

chafed or damaged by vibration.

6. Where a tube adaptor is used, the tube connector must

be safe tied to the component and not to the adaptor
(Ref. View J).

7. Used lock wire must be discarded after removal. New

lock wire must always be used for assembly.

8. Where the lock wire is wound around the component to

the locked.

9. When you safety items with lock wire, use the

procedure that follows:

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CIRCLIPS Standard Internal Circlip

Many of these locking devices are standard AGS

partsmanufactured from spring steel wire, sheet or plate, but The most common form of axially fitted circlips forbores with
theymay also be specially designed for a particular application. grooves. The circlip has a large free diameter andgap width;
Allare hardened and tempered to give inward or outward spring consequently it fits more tightly into the groove andprovides
forlocking screwed parts together, for locking grub screws higher and more uniform thrust load capacity. Lugs withholes
(isdescribed later in the notes), or for locating components are provided for rapid fitting or removal with circlip pliers.
withinbores or housings.

Standard External Circlip

The most common form of axially fitted circlip forshafts with

grooves. Constructed as curved beams of uniformstrength, the
radial width is reduced towards the free ends sothat a Fig. 30 Internal Circlip
constantly round shape is maintained throughoutcontinuous
use.
Heavy Duty External Circlip

Design is based upon the standard external series but

withincreased thickness and in the case of the American
Fig. 29 External Circlip seriesincreased section depth. Heavy duties Circlips areused to
withstand shock loads and also to resist conicaldeformation
where, for example, large abutment radii arepresent.
This form of circlip often used in assembliessubjected to strong
centrifugal forces, is also secure against highrotational speeds.
Lugs with holes are provided for rapid fitting orremoval with
circlip pliers.

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KEYS AND KEYWAYS

Where considerable mechanical power has to be transmitted

from a shaft to a hub, or vice versa, the two components are
socked together and are secured by means of one or more keys
Fig. 31 Heavy External Circlip and keyways. The key is a solid piece of metal, of rectangular or
square cross-section, uniform width, and uniform or tapered
Standard E-Type Circlip thickness; it fits into a matching recess, which is formed
between the shaft and the hub. This fastening device is
produced in many variations, some of which are described in
The most common form of radially fitted circlips for shafts subsequent paragraphs; they are generally acceptable in
withgrooves. Provide a large shoulder on a relatively smallshaft circumstances that do not call for frequent removal of the shaft
diameter. This range can be supplied stacked on rods foruse from the hub. Key way and key seat is indicated in the figure
with applicators and dispensers for rapid installation,
thusresulting in sharply reduced assembly costs. Only the Taper Keys
groovesize is critical with this type of circlip, the shaft diameter
can bevaried widely.
These are made with standard taper of 1 in 100 on the
thickness, the tapering face of the key matching the taper of the
recess of the key formed in the bore of the hub. The ability of
the key to resist relative axial movement between the hub and
the shaft depends on the snugness of the fit of the key in
thekeyway; careful fitting is essential, and the key, after having
been fitted, should remain undisturbed except in emergency.
Fig. 32 E-Type Circlip The following types of the taper keys are in common use.

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Hollow Saddle Key Plain Taper And Gip-Headed Key

This key is hollowed to suit the radius of the shaft; when driven These forms a taper fit into keyways, which are formed partly in
into position its taper provides a friction grip between hub and the hub; they are capable of transmitting much greater power
shaft that is capable of taking a moderate load. The absence of than either of the saddle types. The gip-headed key shown in
any form of keyway on the shaft should be noted. the figure is used in circumstances where it is not practicable to
use a key drift for eventual removal of the key when the
Flat Saddle Key occasion arises.

This form of the taper key is rectangular or square in section,

and it bears on a flat formed on the shaft. It provides a more
positive grip between shaft and hub than is achieved by the
hollow saddle key.

Fig. 39 Plain Saddle Key

Fig. 38 Flat Saddle Key

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Feather Key Woodruff Key

Keys of this type are used in circumstances where it is require This key is made in the form of a segment of parallel-sided disc;
to allow axial movement between shaft and hub. For example a it fits into a keyway, of similar shape, which is formed partly in
feather key might be used if it is necessary for a pulley to the shaft and partly in the hub. The cavity in the shaft conforms
gearwheel to move along a shaft while still being driven. The closely to the rounded portion of the key, while an axial groove.
hub keyway is cut to allow for side and top clearance round the
key, so permitting a sliding fit of the key in the keyway.

Fig. 41 Woodruff Key

Fig. 40 Feather Key

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QUICK RELEASE FASTENERS When something is fastened with Dzus fasteners, care must be
taken that the stud in every fastener straddles each of the
Turnlock fasteners are used to secure inspection plates, doors, springs rather than passing beside them. In order to be sure
cowlings, and other removable panels on aircraft. The most that all "of the fasteners are properly locked, the slots should all
desirable feature of these fasteners is that they permit quick and be lined up. Furthermore, when a Dzus fastener is fastened, a
easy removal of access panels for inspection and servicing distinct click is heard when the spring drops over the hump into
purposes. Turnlock fasteners are manufactured and supplied by the locked position. To aid in assuring that no stud misses the
a number of manufacturers under various trade names. Some spring, special receptacle-type fasteners are available that
of the most commonly used are the c Dzus, Airloc, and Camloc. guide the stud over the spring.

Dzus Fasteners

Cowling and other inspection access doors that must be opened

frequently can be held with Dzus fasteners that require only a
quarter of a turn to lock or unlock. With a Dzus fastener a hard
spring-steel wire is riveted across an opening on a fixed part of
a fuselage, and a stud is mounted on the removable panel with
a metal grommet. When the panel is closed, a slot in the stud
straddles the spring. Turning the stud a quarter of a turn pulls
the spring up into the slanted slot and locks it as the spring
passes over the hump in the slot.

Fig. 42 (b) Dzuss Fastener

Fig. 42 (a) Dzuss Fastener

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Airloc Fastener
Camlock Fastener

An Airloc fastener consists of a steel stud and cross pin in a

removable cowling or door and a sheet spring-steel receptacle The stud assembly of a Camlock fastener consists of a housing
in the stationary member. containing a spring and a stud with a steel pin. This assembly is
held onto the removable portion of the cowling or access door
To Iock this type of fastener, the stud slips into the receptacle with a metal grommet. The stud fits into a pressed steel
and is rotated a quarter of a turn. The pin drops into an receptacle' and a quarter of a turn locks the steel pin in a groove
indentation in the receptacle spring and holds the fastener in the bottom of the receptacle.
locked.

Fig. 43 Airloc Fastener Fig. 44 Camlock Fastener

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Oddie Fasteners
This type of fasteners consists of a body which houses a
springlocated click washer, a cotter located by slots in the body
This comprises a central stud held in position in the andcentrally threaded to take a locking screw, and a back
outercomponent by a rubber washer or coil spring and two- anchorplates riveted or welded to the inner component. When
leggedspring clip, riveted to the inner component. The stud is lockedthe body is turned so that the ends of the cotter are
bulletshaped and has two recesses near its pointed end. The positionedbetween the projecting legs of the back anchor plate
fasteneris locked by positioning the recesses on the stud in line and thelocking screw tightened, to hold the parts securely
with thespring lugs, and pressing the stud with the finger. There together. Thefastener is unlocked by first unscrewing the
must bea definite click as the finger engages. The fastener is locking screw abouttwo turns, then pressing the locking screw
unlockedby turning the stud a quarter turn in either direction, inwards to free thecotter from the lugs on the back anchor plate.
thus turningthe recesses out of engagement with the lugs of the The body is thenturned a quarter turn in the anti-clockwise
spring. direction to free thefastener.

Fig. 45 Oddie Fastener

Fig. 46 (a) Amal Fastener

The locked position of most types of fasteners is

clearlyindicated by the screwdriver slot being in line with short
Amal Fasteners
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black orwhite lines painted on the cowling; this is not applicable

to Amalfasteners as the slot in the body must align with the
pointedlines. Because the majority of indicating lines are in
onedirection, it does not imply that they are the same for all
thefasteners on the aircraft. Each fastener must be
carefullyexamined to ensure that the indicating lines do in
factcorrespond to the position of the slot when the fastener is in
thelocked position.

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6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS SOLID RIVETS

There are a number of different types of rivet head, the most

An aircraft, even though made of the best materials and common being the mushroom and round heads (refer to Fig.
strongest parts, would be of doubtful value unless those parts 01). Both of these rivets project above the surface of the metal
were firmly held together. Several methods are used to hold that is being riveted. The countersunk head, however, provides
parts together; welding or soldering, threaded fasteners and a flush and smooth surface, when closed and the flat (or pan)
riveting being three of the main methods. The use of threaded head can be used internally, when a flat head will make closing
fasteners, and soldering, has been mentioned previously. the rivet easier.

Rivets are an alternative method of fastening structure, a rivet

being a metal pin on which a head is formed, during
manufacture. The rivet is inserted into a pre-drilled hole and the
plain end of its shank is deformed (‘set’ or ‘closed’) by the use of
a hand- or power-tool.

Rivets create a joint at least as strong as the material that is

being joined. Rivets are normally strong in shear, but they
should not be subjected to excessive tensile loads.

There are two main categories of rivet:

 Solid rivets: which are ‘set’ using a riveting gun on the Fig. 01
manufactured head and a reaction (bucking) bar on the remote
side
 Blind rivets: which may be installed where access is
restricted to the shank end of the rivet.

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The majority of aircraft rivets are manufactured from aluminium

alloys. Rivets can also be made from other materials such as
Solid Rivets (British)
steel, Monel metal, titanium or copper.
Standards for British Solid rivets are issued by the Society of
Material specifications for British and American rivets are not
British Aerospace SBAC (AS series) or the British Standards
identical. The manufacturer’s publications (AMM or CMM) will
Institute (SP series). The standards overlap to a certain extent,
give details on which rivets can be used if the specified ones
with obsolete rivets, in the AS range, being replaced by SP
are unavailable.
rivets.

The dimensions that identify the size of a rivet are simply its
length and diameter. Other identifying features are the shape of Solid Rivet Identification (British)
the head, (including the countersink angle, if applicable) and the
material from which the rivet is made. This latter requirement
A standard number and a part number are used to identify
involves many different identifying marks and letters.
rivets. The standard number identifies the head shape, material
and finish. This is followed by a three or four figure code, the
SPECIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION first one or two figures indicating the shank diameter in thirty-
seconds of an inch and the last two, the length in sixteenths of
an inch.
The identification of solid rivets covers a multitude of marks and
letters that indicate, not only the material, but also the heat Example:
treatment, (if any), that the rivet has gone through.
A British rivet, with the identifying code AS 162-408, would be a
The American rivets are, usually, ‘natural’ (gold) or grey in 90° countersunk, aluminium alloy (5% magnesium) rivet, of 1/8
colour and have head markings, whilst British rivets, generally, inch diameter and 1/2 inch long. The AS 162 indicates the head
use a combination of colour and alpha/numeric codes. type and material, while the ‘-4’ indicates that it has a 4/32 inch

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(1/8 inch) diameter and ‘08’ indicates it has a length of 8/16 inch
(1/2 inch).

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Rivet Material Identification (British)

Tables 01 and 02 give details on materials and identification

marks for the various types of AS rivets. Many of these rivets
are obsolescent and have been superseded by rivets
conforming to SP standards.

Table 03 gives details of material and identification information Table 01

for SP rivets with the standard numbers shown in Table 04. SP
rivets are also available in metric sizes.

Note: The colour coding (of both British systems) of solid rivets
is generally the same as that used for the similar material in the

other system. For example (in both systems) pure aluminium

rivets are black, Hidiminium rivets are violet, Monel rivets are
natural and 5% magnesium rivets are green. This way of coding
allows material types to be more easily identified.

Table 02

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Solid Rivets (American)

These are generally used in normal construction and repair

work. They are identified by the kind of material from which they
are made, their head type, shank size and temper condition.
Typical head types (refer to Fig. 02) are Roundhead, Brazier
head, 100º Countersunk head, Flat head and Universal head.

Table 03

Table 04

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Rivet Identification (American)

The rivets, shown in Fig. 02, are of the AN (Air Force-Navy)

designation and are merely used to illustrate a typical coding
system. The other most common standard for American rivets is
the MS (Military Standards) system which, whilst having slight
differences from the AN system, uses similar terminology to
describe the many forms of rivets.

AN Rivet Head Types A part number (using the standard letters AN or MS) identifies
each type of rivet, so that the user can select the correct rivet
for the task. After the standard letters, there follows a number,
which indicates the particular type of rivet head,

Next comes a letter (or letters), denoting the material

composition, which is followed by another figure expressing the
diameter of the rivet shank in 32ndsof an inch. The last
Plain Dimple Raised Dot 2 Raised Cross
number(s), separated by a dash from the diameter number,
express the length of the rivet shank in 16ths of an inch.

A AD D DD B
Example:

AN Material Identification and Code Letters An American AN system rivet with the identifying code AN470
AD 3-5, would be a Universal head, aluminium alloy (2117-T)
Fig. 02 rivet, of 3/32 inch diameter with a shank length of 5/16 inch.

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Note: With countersunk rivets, the length is the overall length. received and needs no further heat-treatment. It also has a high
resistance to corrosion.

Head markings, using dimples and raised dots (or dashes and The 2017-T (D) and 2024-T (DD) rivets are made from high
rings) are also used as an aid to indicate the material content of strength heat- treatable aluminium alloys. They are used where
the rivets. more strength is required than that obtained from the ‘field’ rivet.
The rivets need to be heat-treated and, if not required
Protective surface coatings, used by the manufacturers, are immediately, they should be refrigerated until needed. The
shown by colours, where zinc chromate is usually yellow, an 2017-T rivet should be driven within 1 hour of removal from
anodised rivet is usually pearl grey and a metal sprayed rivet refrigeration (or following heat-treatment) and the 2024-T must
has a silvery grey colour. be driven within 10-20 minutes.

The 5056 (B) rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy

Rivet Material Identification (American)
structures, because of its galvanic compatibility with magnesium
As previously stated, the material used for the majority of (to reduce the risk of corrosion).
aircraft solid rivets is aluminium alloy. Digits and letters identify
the degree of temper condition, of aluminium alloy rivets, in a Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts while Corrosion
similar manner to that used for sheet aluminium alloy. The Resistant Steel rivets are used for riveting CRS components in
normal material grades are 1100, 2017-T, 2024-T, 2117-T and fire-walls and exhaust areas etc.
5056.
Note: The absence of a letter following the AN standard number
The 1100 (A) rivet is 99.45% pure aluminium and, as such, is indicates a rivet manufactured from mild steel.
very soft. It would be used for riveting lightweight, soft,
aluminium structures, where strength is not a factor. Monel (M) rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys. They
may also be used as a substitute for CRS rivets when specified.
The 2117-T (AD) rivet is made from aluminium alloy and (as has
previously been mentioned) is known as the ‘field’ rivet. It is the
most commonly used rivet, mainly because it is ready to use as
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Copper (C) rivets are also available, but their use is limited on treated during manufacture and remain easy to close whilst
aircraft. They may only be used on copper alloys or non-metallic possessing adequate strength.
materials, such as leather.

Note: Most metals, including aircraft rivets, are subject to

corrosion. This may be the result of local climatic conditions or Where rivets of a stronger material are required, then ‘D’ and
the fabrication process used. It can be reduced to a minimum by ‘DD’ rivets can be used. These are also made from aluminium
using the correct materials and by the use of protective coatings alloys, but to different (AN) specifications. They are heat-
treated, just prior to use, and either formed within a short time
on the structure and the rivets. The use of dissimilar metals
period of time (in which they ‘age-harden’), or they are stored, in
should be avoided where possible and, as previously stated, the a refrigerator, at temperatures well below zero degrees Celsius
rivet manufacturers usually apply a protective coating on the (which retards the age-hardening process), until required for
rivets, which may be either of a zinc chromate, a metal spray or use. They are known as ‘icebox’ rivets in the USA.
an anodic film finish.
Heat Treatment
HEAT-TREATMENT/REFRIGERATION OF SOLID RIVETS
Metal temper is important in the riveting process, especially with
The action of closing a rivet, and the strength required on aluminium alloy rivets. These generally have the same heat-
completion, dictates whether any heat-treatment will be required treating characteristics as sheet alloys and can be annealed
prior to closing. As previously discussed, some rivets, for non- and hardened in much the same manner. The rivet must be
structural applications, can be manufactured from pure soft, or comparatively soft before a good head can be formed.
aluminium. These are given no heat-treatment and are soft,
both before and after closing. The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets must be solution-treated before
being driven and then they harden with age.
Among the most common rivets in use (and which are made of
aluminium alloy) are those already identified, in the American The process of heat-treatment of rivets (normalising) may be
AN specification system, as ‘AD’ rivets. AD rivets are heat- achieved in either an electric, air furnace or in a salt bath. The

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temperature range, depending on the alloy, is in the region of  Roundhead Rivets

495ºC - 505ºC. For convenient handling, the rivets are heated  Flat Head Rivets
on a tray or in a wire basket and, after heating for the required  Brazier Head Rivet
period, they are finally quenched in cold water.  Universal Head Rivets

Countersunk Head
Refrigeration

The heat-treated rivet will begin to age harden immediately after The countersunk head rivet is flat topped and bevelled toward
treatment and, if the rivets are not to be set immediately, they the shank so that it fits into a countersunk or dimpled hole and
may be refrigerated to delay the age-hardening process. The is flush with the material's surface. The angle at which the head
solution-treated rivets are stored at low temperature (below slopes may vary from 78° to 120°. The 100° rivet is the most
freezing) and, under these conditions, will remain soft enough commonly used type. These rivets are used to fasten sheets
over which other sheets must fit. They are also used on exterior
for driving for up to 2 weeks. Any rivets not used in that period
surfaces of the aircraft because they offer only slight resistance
should be removed and re-heat treated. to the slipstream and help to minimize turbulent airflow.

It should be noted that refrigeration only delays age-hardening Roundhead Rivets

and that age- hardening will continue at a rapid rate as soon as
the rivets are removed from the refrigerator.
Roundhead rivets are used in the interior of the aircraft, except
where clearance is required for adjacent members. The
2017-T rivets must be driven within 1 hour of refrigeration and roundhead rivet has a deep, rounded top surface. The head is
2024-T rivets, within 10 minutes. large enough to strengthen the sheet around the hole and, at
the same time, offer resistance to tension.
USAGE OF DIFFERENT HEAD STYLE

 Countersunk Head Flathead Rivet

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The flathead rivet, like the roundhead rivet, is used on interior There are many places in an aircraft where access to both sides
structures. It is used where maximum strength is needed and of the structure is impossible, or where limited space will not
where there isn't sufficient clearance to use a roundhead rivet. It
permit the use of a reaction (bucking) bar. Also, in the
is seldom, if ever, used on external surfaces.
attachment of many non-structural parts, such as aircraft interior
furnishings, flooring material, de-icer boots etc, the full strength
of solid shank rivets may not be necessary. For use in such
places, special rivets have been designed which can be set
Brazier Head Rivet from one side only.

These rivets are often lighter than solid rivets, yet amply strong
The brazier head rivet has a head of large diameter, which enough for their intended use. The rivets are produced by
makes it particularly adaptable for riveting thin sheet stock several manufacturers, and have unique characteristics
(skin). The brazier head rivet offers only slight resistance to the
airflow, and because of this factor, it is frequently used for requiring special installation tools and procedures. The same,
riveting skin on exterior surfaces, especially on aft sections of general, basic information, relating to their fabrication,
the fuselage and empennage. It is used for riveting thin sheets composition, uses, selection, installation, inspection and
exposed to the slipstream. A modified brazier head rivet is also removal procedures applies to most of them.
manufactured; it is simply a brazier head of reduced diameter.

Universal Head Rivet Hollow rivets that can be closed by pulling a mandrel through
them are often known as ‘blind’ rivets and these in turn can be
described as Mechanically Expanded Rivets. They can fall into
The universal head rivet is a combination of the roundhead, one of three main types:
flathead, and brazier head. It is used in aircraft construction and
repair in both interior and exterior locations. When replacement  Self-Plugging (friction lock) rivets
is necessary for protruding head rivets round head, flathead, or
brazier head-they can be replaced by universal head rivets.  Self-Plugging (mechanical lock) rivets
 Pull-Through rivets

BLIND AND HOLLOW RIVETS

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Where blind or hollow rivets are installed in place of solid rivets,

(due, perhaps, to the lack of access to the both sides of the
joint), they must, in the absence of specific instructions, be of Note: With this type of rivet, the stem is often designed to break
the same material as the original solid rivet, and be of above the rivet head, necessitating a further action, which
equivalent shear strength. The shear strength, of the rivet, may entails cutting off the extra portion of the stem with snips (or a
be increased, by using a form of ‘plug’ to fill the hollow shank of specialised pneumatic gun) and milling the exposed portion
the rivet.
flush with the head. This type of rivet is going out of style
because of the extra work involved with setting it.

FRICTION LOCK RIVETS

These are generally fabricated in two parts, consisting of a rivet

head with a hollow shank and a stem that extends through the
hollow shank. They may, typically, be of the ‘friction lock’
protruding head or countersunk head styles of rivet (refer to Fig.
03). Several events occur in sequence when a pulling force is
applied to the stem of the rivet:

The stem is pulled into the rivet shank .The mandrel part of the
stem forces the rivet shank to expand
Fig. 03 (a) Friction lcok rivets

When friction (pulling action) becomes great enough, it caused

the stem to fracture at the weakest point. The bottom end of the
stem is retained in the shank, giving much greater shear
strength than could be obtained from a hollow rivet.

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Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets display all the strength of

solid rivets and, in most cases, can be substituted rivet for rivet.
Three operations are performed when the rivet is installed
(generally using a pneumatic gun):
 When pulling force is exerted on the stem, the stem is pulled
in, forming the blind head and clamping the sheets of metal
together.
 At a pre-determined point, the inner anvil, incorporated in
the gun, forces the locking collar into position.

The rivet stem snaps off approximately flush with the head of
the rivet.
Fig. 03 (b) Friction lcok rivets

MECHANICAL LOCK RIVETS

A mechanical lock-type of rivet (refer to Fig. 04), is similar in

design to the friction lock rivet previously described, except in
the manner in which the mandrel is retained in the rivet.

This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking collar, to

resist the vibrations that may cause the friction lock rivet
mandrels to loosen and fall out. In addition, the mechanical
locking-type rivet stem breaks off flush with the head and,
usually, does not require further stem trimming when properly
installed.
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HOLLOW/PULL-THROUGH RIVETS

When installed, the rivet mandrel is pulled through these rivets,

leaving a hollow rivet of much lower strength than the self-
plugging types.

Different types of these rivets are supplied, either complete with

individual mandrels or as individual rivets, used with a re-usable
steel mandrel, which is drawn completely through the rivets. In
some cases, the rivets may be plugged with sealing pins which,
as previously stated, give them additional strength as well as
sealing them.

Tucker ‘Pop’ Rivets

Tucker ‘Pop’ rivets (refer to Fig. 05 a & b) are supplied mounted

on steel mandrels. The head of the mandrel is pulled into the
rivet, expanding it, before the mandrel fractures at the waisted
portion. This waisted portion may either be near to the head of
the rivet, or part way up the stem. In the first case the rivet will
be classified as ‘Break Head’ (BH) and in the second case,
‘Break Stem’ (BS)
Fig. 04 Mechanical lcok rivets
The rivets are set, using a pair of ‘Pop’ pliers or by the use of a
hydro-pneumatic gun. ‘Pop’ rivets are less suitable for use on
aircraft as they tend to loosen with vibration and then become
increasingly difficult to remove, because of the looseness and

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the presence of the steel mandrel. (They also tend to spin when
attempts are made to drill them out).

Fig. 05 (b) Pop Rivet

Break head rivets must not be used if the structure is not

accessible to retrieve the mandrel heads. It is sometimes
permitted for the mandrels of Break Stem rivets to be dipped in
Fig. 05 (a)Pop Rivet
an adhesive, so that they will not vibrate loose after installation.
If Tucker ‘Pop’ rivets are to be used externally on aircraft, the
heads must be sealed to prevent the ingress of dirt and
moisture. Cellulose Metallic Filler is often recommended for this
purpose.

The rivets are manufactured in either aluminium alloy or

cadmium-plated Monel metal, with either dome heads or 100º
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and 120º countersunk heads. The AGS reference number

consists of the AGS number identifying the material and head
type, a three figure size code and letters specifying Break Head
or Break Stem. In the size code the first figure represents the
diameter, in increments of 1/32 inch while the last two figures
indicate the length in increments of 1/10 inch.

Avdel Rivets

Avdel rivets (refer to Fig. 06) are rarely used today, but may be
found on older aircraft. To close the rivet, the stem is pulled
through and, at a predetermined load, the stem breaks proud of Fig. 06 Avdel Rivet
the manufactured head of the rivet, plugging the rivet body.
Whilst the stems can be milled off on alloy rivets, those
manufactured of stainless steel or titanium break flush with the Cherry Rivets
rivet head. A flush finish is required for aerodynamic reasons.

Avdel rivets are pre-lubricated by the manufacturer, to facilitate Cherry Rivets (refer to Fig. 07) consist of a range of fasteners
forming the rivet. They should NEVER be de-greased in solvent including Cherry-Lok and Cherry-Max, which are manufactured
before use. in the USA. The primary difference between these and the rivets
mentioned previously is that the mandrel is locked in position,
after closing, instead of depending on friction alone.During the
final stages of closing, a locking collar, located in a recess in the
rivet head, is forced into a groove in the stem and prevents the
stem from any further movement. This method means that,

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when closed, the rivets have a shear and bearing strength high
enough to allow their use in place of solid-shank rivets.

MISCELLANEOUS FASTENERS

These fasteners are, basically, close-tolerance, metal pins that

combine the best features of a rivet and bolt. They usually
require access to both sides of the joint but are extremely strong
in shear, with a shear strength equal to a standard AN bolt of
the same size. Three typical types, considered here, are:

 Hi-Lok Fasteners
 Hi-Tigue Fasteners
 Hi-Shear Fasteners

Hi-Lok Fasteners

The Hi-Lok fastener (refer to Fig. 08) consists of a metal pin

(made from heat-treated steel) which has a thin, manufactured
head at one end and a part-threaded shank at the other. The
Fig. 07 Cherry Rivet
threaded end of the Hi-Lok fastener contains a hexagon-shaped
recess, for the insertion of an Allen Key.

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 Accurate pre-load and torque to within 10%.

 Minimum size and weight.
 Rapid, quiet, single-handed operation.

Hi-Tigue Fasteners

Hi-Tigue fasteners (refer to Fig. 09) are similar to Hi-Loks,

excepting that they possess a bead at the bottom of the shank,
adjacent to the threaded portion of the fastener. The bead
exerts a radial load to the side of the hole which serves to
strengthen the area surrounding the fastener hole. This reduces
the effect of cyclic loads on the fastener which, in turn, will
reduce the effect of the cold working of the joint and minimise
the likelihood of subsequent failure. Hi-Tigue fasteners are
Fig. 08 HI-Lock Fastener closed in exactly the same manner as the Hi-Lok types.

After the pin is located in its prepared hole, a hexagon-headed

collar is turned onto the threaded shank by a box wrench or an
ordinary spanner. An Allen Key engages in the recess in the
shank end, to prevent rotation of the pin whilst the collar is
being tightened and, when a pre-determined load is reached,
the hexagonal section of the collar shears off, leaving the pin
securely fastened in the hole. Because the collar breaks off at a
designated pre-load, the use of torque wrenches is eliminated
and three primary design advantages are:

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.5 - 70 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

Fig. 08 HI-Tigue Fastener

Fig. 09 HI-Shear Fastener

Hi-Shear Fasteners
SPECIAL PURPOSE FASTENERS

A Hi-Shear fastener (refer to Fig. 09) is a close-tolerance pin, In addition to the fasteners already described, other rivet-type
which is an interference fit and must be tapped into its hole fasteners are often used in the manufacture and repair of
before the locking collar is swaged on. There are two head aircraft. While some of these are designed for a specific use,
styles; one being flat while the other is countersunk. The rivets others may be categorised as ‘High Strength Fasteners’. Typical
are closed, either with a special pneumatic pulling tool or by a examples of these special purpose-type fasteners include Jo-
conventional riveting gun and a special, conical, gun-set. Bolts, Tubular Rivets and Rivnuts.

Jo-Bolts

This is the trade name for a fastener, which is used where a nut
and bolt would normally be fitted, but where access is available
only to one side of the work.

Jo-bolts (refer to Fig. 10) consist of three components; an alloy

steel nut (which may be of a hexagonal or countersunk headed
type), a hollow steel bolt and a stainless steel sleeve.

The fastener is installed with either a pneumatic or a hand-

operated tool, with which the bolt is rotated and the nut is held
stationary. This action expands the sleeve over the tapered end
of the nut and draws the fastened items together. At a pre-
determined torque, the bolt breaks off at a notch-weakened

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.5 - 71 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

point, flush with the head of the nut. A different tool is required
for each of the two head forms and for each particular diameter
bolt.

Fig. 10 Jo-bolt Fig. 11 (a) Riv Nut

Riv Nuts Installation is achieved by drilling a hole into the skin and a
small notch made on the edge of the hole to prevent the Rivnut
These fasteners were produced to attach rubber de-icing boots
rotating during closing
to aircraft wing and tail leading edges. Rivnuts can be either of
the countersunk or flat head types, of which, each can have
The nut on the thread of the ‘puller’ is inserted into the hole
open or sealed ends (refer to Fig. 11 a).
(refer to Fig. 11 b), and the key aligned with the notch. The
ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.5 - 72 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.5 – Fasteners

puller handle is squeezed, closing the nut and gripping the skin.
The tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded

hole that accepts standard machine screws, for attaching the

de-icer boots

Rivnuts are supplied in American thread sizes and in BA or BSF

thread forms, but to avoid confusion, only the American types
are considered here.

These Rivnuts are available in six grip ranges, the minimum grip
Rivnut having a plain head while the next size has a radial dash Fig. 11 (a) Riv Nut
mark on the head. Each succeeding grip range is indicated by
an additional radial mark on the head with the largest size
having five radial dash marks.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.5 - 73 Mar 2014