PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.3

Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

Contents

(a) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
USED IN AIRCRAFT; ............... 1

HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF NON-FERROUS

AMTERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT............................................ 6

(b) TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METERIALS FOR

HARDENESS, TENSILE STRENGTH, FATIGUE STRENGTH
AND IMPACT RESISTANCE .................................................. 15

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

(a) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS used for special work in high-grade electrical instruments,
MATERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT; aircraft windshields and, of course, space vehicles.

Mercury (quicksilver) – the only metal to remain liquid at room

NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
temperature – may be found in certain types of barometers,
A metal in which there is little or no iron is said to be non- discharge lamps, small, electrical circuit breakers, pressure
ferrous. The list of non-ferrous metals is quite impressive – and gauges and vacuum pumps (it can also be found in the
their uses make very interesting reading, if it is intended to detonators of some explosive devices).
follow a career in metallurgy – but, for the purposes of this
In a similar manner to steels, it has been discovered that
course, the topics must be confined to the more common non-
tremendous advantages are to be gained by alloying non-
ferrous metals, their qualities and their uses in aerospace
ferrous metals with each other and, indeed, with other (ferrous)
engineering.
metals and elements.
PURE METALS
Aluminum, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminum, copper and the more common non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft
lead, are used in the commercially ‘pure’ state for engineering construction and repair.
purposes – usually in the form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin
coatings on other metals.

Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to
provide protective coatings on other metals in order to retard the
effects of corrosion.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

PURE ALUMINIUM nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the
construction of aircraft.
Pure aluminum is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite
(named after the town of Les Baux, in France, where it was first PURE MAGNESIUM
found) .It is a soft, weak, ductile and malleable metal. Aluminum
is approximately one third the weight of steel and has WARNING;- WATER MUST NOT BE USED TO EXTINGUISH
approximately one third the stiffness of steel .while its strength MAGNESIUM FIRES.
may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-strength Two thirds the weight of aluminum (with a relative density of
material. Aluminum is highly corrosion-resistant, due to the 1.74), no metal can be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as
rapid formation of a thin, but very dense oxide surface film, magnesium – provided that certain precautions are taken to
which limits further corrosion and it is an excellent conductor of prevent it over-heating.
electricity (and heat).
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust.
PURE COPPER Great care must be taken when filing and grinding this metal
Copper also has the ability to retard the progress of corrosion, and, if a fire should occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand
by developing a patina of green copper carbonate (also called or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER MUST NOT
verdigris or aerugo) on its surface. BE USED.

With a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only to silver, Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater
and having the ability to be beaten, cast, drawn, forged, or brine from deep wells. In its pure state it lacks sufficient
pressed, rolled or spun into many different (and often strength and characteristics for use as a structural metal. It can,
complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal. however, be alloyed with a range of other elements to greatly
improve its strength. These elements include aluminum,
Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper’s ductility and manganese, thorium, zirconium, and zinc.
malleability allow it to be used in electrical systems (in bus bars,
bonding, electrical motors, wiring etc.), though neither copper,

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

PURE TITANIUM

WARNING:- TITANIUM FIRES MUST BE EXTINGUISHED Aluminum alloys may be designated as being either heat-
WITH THE CORRECT EXTINGUISHANT (DRY ASBESTOS treatable or as non-heat-treatable, though both types can be
WOOL AND CHALK POWDER) AND NOT WATER. strengthened and hardened through work-hardening (or strain-
hardening). This process requires mechanically working an alloy
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless at a temperature below its critical range and can be achieved by
steel, has almost the same strength as iron. It is highly rolling, drawing or pressing.
resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic and is readily shaped by
all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft Note: - Alloys, which have aluminum or magnesium as their
and ductile. base elements, are referred to as Light Alloys, while the
remainder are termed Heavy Alloys.
Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires
usually start through high-speed rubbing. The low thermal
conductivity of titanium prevents the rapid dissipation of heat,
which progressively builds up locally, until ignition finally occurs.
Accumulations of small particles of swarf and dust are a
possible fire risk and all such accumulations should be avoided.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Because pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used for

aircraft construction and, to achieve medium/high-strength
properties, aluminum must be alloyed with other elements. The
most common alloying elements in the wrought aluminums
alloys are copper, manganese, magnesium and zinc. A
common element used when casting aluminum is silicon.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS The 2xxx to 8xxx groups use the last two digits to identify the
different alloys in the group.
Various national Standards Institutions have evolved their
individual systems for identifying the many variants of aluminum Table 1
alloys (in a similar manner to that shown with SAE Steels).
American System of Identifying Alloying Elements with
While it would be impossible (and unsafe) to attempt to Aluminium
memories them all, these notes provide examples of the
American system of identifying aluminum (or aluminum) alloys.

American aluminum alloys are classified by a code, which refers Code Major Alloying
to the element that makes up the major percentage of the alloy. Element

As previously stated, the elements most commonly used for 1xxx aluminium
alloying with aluminum are copper, manganese, silicon, 2xxx copper
magnesium, and zinc. 3xxx manganese
4xxx silicon
Table 1 shows a four-digit number, which identifies aluminum, 5xxx magnesium
either in its commercially ‘pure’, or in its alloyed state. The first 6xxx Mg and Si
digit of the designating code represents the major alloying 7xxx zinc
element, while the second digit of the code indicates a specific 8xxx other elements
alloy modification, such as controls over impurities.

The last two numbers of the 1xxx group indicate the hundredths
of 1% above the 99% of pure aluminum. For example, if 75
were the last two digits, the metal would be 99.75%pure.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

In the 1xxx group, commercially ‘pure’ aluminium (over 99% The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the
pure) is good for corrosion resistance, has good electrical and aluminium. This makes the alloy heat-treatable and with good
thermal conduction properties, is easy to work but is not very forming and corrosion resistance properties.
strong.
The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of
The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The zinc. These are difficult to bend and are more often used where
major benefit of copper is a large increase in strength, although flat plates are required.
if the alloy is not correctly heat- treated, intergranular corrosion
can occur between the aluminium and copper grains within the CLAD MATERIALS
metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys Though strong, aluminium alloys are not as resistant to
used in aircraft construction. corrosion as pure aluminium and, for external use such as
The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and skins, the high-strength sheet has a thin layer of pure aluminium
it is not possible to heat-treat. hot-rolled onto the surfaces. These are then known as clad
materials with commercial names such as Alclad, and
The 4xxx series utilises silicon as its major element. This lowers Pureclad.
its melting point and improves its welding and brazing
capabilities. Alclad is a ‘pure’ aluminium coating that is rolled onto the
surface of an aluminium alloy, which may, then, be heat-treated.
The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element. The thickness of the coating is approximately 5% of the material
This is good for welding and corrosion resistance although, if thickness on each side. For example, if an alclad sheet of
exposed to high temperature or cold working, it can corrode aluminium alloy has a thickness of 1.2 mm (0.047”), then 0.06
quite badly. mm (0.0024”) of ‘pure’ aluminium is applied to each side.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF NON-FERROUS
an aluminium alloy. If, however, the cladding is penetrated, AMTERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT
corrosive agents can attack the alloy under the cladding. For
this reason, sheet metal should be protected from scratches
WARNING: - SAFETY PRECAUTIONS MUST BE OBEYED
and abrasions. In addition to providing a starting point for
WHENEVER YOU ARE INVOLVED WITH HEAT-
corrosion, abrasions can create potential ‘stress raisers’ (points
TREATMENTS.
from which cracking can initiate).
BATHS, OVENS AND FURNACES ALL PRESENT DANGERS
A simple test can be carried out to determine duralumin from
– FROM CORROSIVE AGENTS, HEAT AND
aluminum by applying a caustic soda solution to the surface of
ELECTROCUTION –
the specimen to be tested. The results being
EXERCISE EXTREME CAUTION WITH THESE METHODS
- If it turns black then it is duralumin.
AND WEAR ADEQUATE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING (APRONS,
- If no effect on the metal then it is aluminum FACE MASKS, GOGGLES AND GLOVES) WHERE
NECESSARY AND ENSURE THE CORRECT FIRE-FIGHTING
The reason for the Dural turning black, where solution is applied APPLIANCES ARE AVAILABLE.
is because of the copper content (3% to 4.5%) in duralumin.
Caustic soda solution has no effect on pure aluminum but will Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating
remain in as white powder. and subsequent cooling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose
is to make the metal harder, stronger and more resistant to
If this test has to be carried out on Alclad duralumin the impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for
solution should be applied on a cut edge and the results working into a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment
will indicate a black centre with white edges. cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are
achieved at the expense of others when, for example, a
hardened material usually becomes more brittle.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it Accurate thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on
is only the time and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys temperatures are specified (typically plus or minus 5ºC).
have two main heat-treatments, which are referred to as
solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment. Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to
avoid delay between removing from the heating source and
The procedures for heat-treating aluminium alloys are critical if quenching. Most quench tanks contain cold water but hot water
correct properties are to be obtained. is sometimes specified (especially for heavy sections e.g. large
forgings). Limits are also stipulated for the permissible period
Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are between heating and quenching which is known as the lag-time
used: (typically 10 seconds max.). If these lag-times are exceeded,
a muffle furnace material properties or corrosion resistance may be adversely
affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too slow this
or a salt bath may also affect the corrosion resistance.

The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an Thorough washing of the material is essential after salt bath
inner chamber in which the aluminium alloy is placed. heat-treatment to remove any salt residue.

The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may
evaporate long before the required temperatures were reached. be carried out on normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the
The salts (usually nitrate of soda or similar) are solid at room material is clad with pure aluminium, for corrosion resistance
temperature, but become liquid when they are electrically (Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments is imposed.
heated. Gradual heating of the bath is necessary to avoid
spattering or spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to This is to limit the migration of copper, from the alloyed material,
avoid spattering) can then be submerged within the heated into the pure aluminium cladding, which would significantly
liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is to avoid any reduce its corrosion resistance.
adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

SOLUTION TREATMENT

Solution treatment is sometimes called ‘re-crystallisation H.T’. Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common
This operation serves to distribute the copper uniformly age-hardened, high-strength metals, they are not unique.
throughout the aluminium (i.e. to create a solid solution). The Aluminium, when alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc, is also able to be
heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven or, age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/
more commonly (to obtain better overall heating), in a bath of copper type and is the highest-strength aluminium alloy in
special, molten salts. However, although the aluminium can general use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded applications
accommodate 5% or so of copper in solid solution at high such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and Main plane Attachment
temperature, this condition is unstable at lower temperatures brackets etc.
and, after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the
copper slowly comes out of solution and separates into local ANNEALING
`islands' of copper aluminide. Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to
By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the enable it to be worked without cracking. Even in this condition,
copper becomes trapped'in solution', making the aluminium very ageing will gradually occur and 24 hours is the normal limit for
strong. working after annealing, although this can be extended if the
material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the
AGE-HARDENING ageing process. A temperature of -5ºC will provide
approximately 2 days’ delay while one of -20ºC will provide
The gradual formation of the copper alumide ‘islands’ (also approximately 1 week’s delay in the age-hardening process
referred to as ‘slip’), causes an increase in hardness and
strength and these properties reach maximum values after The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -
several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time 20°C.
lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed ‘age-
hardening’. Although copper may be the major alloying element
(in the ‘2000 series’ alloys) other elements, including
magnesium and manganese can also be present.

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Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the Alternatively, following quenching, by re-heating the metal to a
temperature of the alloy to between 340°C and 410C. The alloy lower temperature than that employed for the solution treatment
is then cooled slowly at about 10C per hour (rates will differ and allowing it to ‘soak’ at that heat for a period of time, the
with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined ageing process (and, thus, the hardening of the alloy) can be
temperature. At this point it is allowed to cool naturally. accelerated. This process is referred to as artificial ageing
orprecipitation treatment.
These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an
aircraft structure while in the annealed state, since material
properties and corrosion resistance will be severely affected.

Note: Alloys, in the annealed state, are very prone to corrosion.

PRECIPITATION TREATMENT

Solution-treated aluminium alloys are comparatively soft,

immediately following quenching although, with time, the metal
gradually becomes harder and gains strength.

When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching,

the hardening process (natural ageing), andcan take from
several hours to several weeks. An aluminium/copper alloy, for
example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes of quench,
but is at maximum strength after four or five days.

We have already discussed how the natural ageing process can

be drastically retarded (allowing the metal to be kept in a soft
condition until required for use), by storing the alloys at sub-zero
temperatures (refrigeration) for prescribed periods of time.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

IDENTIFICATION OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS Table 2

IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS OF HEAT-TREATED
Aluminium alloys that have been subjected to heat-treatment ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
are usually identified by markings that indicate the heat-
treatments involved. Three typical identification systems are
those of the British Standards Institute (BS), the Ministry of BS Meaning
Supply (MoS), and the American systems as can be seen in Syste
Table 2. m
M As manufactured state
O Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated

MoS Meaning
Syste
m
A Annealed state
N Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, and requires precipitation
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated

Americ
an Meaning
Syste
m

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T3 Solution-treated and cold worked Examples of some of these aircraft BS codes are:
T4 Solution-treated only (naturally aged)
T6 Solution-treated and artificially aged L159 DURAL Solution-Treated - Artificially aged
T8 Solution-treated, cold worked and artificially aged L163 ALCLAD Solution-Treated - Naturally aged
T9 Solution-treated, artificially aged and cold worked
DURAL is, actually, a Trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy,
originally manufactured by the Duren Aluminium Company
An example of one of these marking systems would be an alloy (Germany), but it tends to be used as a generic name for similar
with the designation 2024-T4, which indicates an alloys, regardless of source of manufacture.
aluminium/copper alloy that has been solution-treated only, and
then naturally aged. D.T.D. Specifications: - these are material identification
numbers issued by the Directorate of Technical Development (a
Apart from these systems, many other exist world-wide, but the Ministry Department) for specialised applications. i.e. when
British systems are, broadly, confined to three basic ones for widespread use is not anticipated.
light alloys.
If such a material finally becomes commonly used, a British
British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In Standards specification is compiled and issued.
this series the prefix N is used to denote non-heat-treatable
aluminium alloys and prefix H for the heat-treatable alloys. CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

British Standards for aerospace use: BS X LXX. (The "L" series) These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their
e.g. BS 3 L72 indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 lack of strength, poor fatigue characteristics and lack of
spec. elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminium alloys.

LM - indicates a cast material the wrought materials are

commonly abbreviated to L71, L72, and L 73 etc.

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The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex considerably
without cracking. WARNING;- WATER MUST NOT BE USED TO EXTINGUISH
MAGNESIUM ALLOY FIRES.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast
aluminium alloys are used extensively on engines, where there Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought
is a need to produce complex cored shapes such as form, are available as sheet, bar, tubing and extrusions. They
crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method are among the lightest metals having sufficient strength and
than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft structures.
be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust There are some serious disadvantages to using magnesium
castings of adequate stiffness. alloys in aircraft construction. These include a high susceptibility
Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace to corrosion and cracking.
applications and, for high-duty engine casings and pistons, The corrosion problem is minimized by treating the surface of
some very strong, temperature-resistant alloys exist. One of the the metal with chemicals, which form an oxide film, to prevent
most common in the category is RR 58 (sometimes known as
oxygen reaching the metal.
`Y' Alloy), which is an age-hardening material containing
approximately 2½% copper, l½% magnesium, 1½% nickel, and Another way of minimizing corrosion is to use hardware such as
l% iron. A derivative of this material was also used (in wrought rivets, nuts, bolts and screws that are made from compatible
form) for the skin of the supersonic Concord aircraft, due to the materials.
high metal temperatures encountered.
The cracking problem contributes to the difficulty in shaping
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high magnesium alloys and, thus, limits its use. One method used to
fluidity and, thus, is good for producing complex shapes. It also overcome the tendency for cracking is to form the metal whilst it
reduces the coefficient of linear expansion, so is often included is hot.
in piston castings.

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Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated, which will almost as strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminium
improve their tensile strength, ductility and resistance to shock. bronzes are found in bearings and pump parts
To improve their hardness and yield strength they can also be
precipitation heat-treated after the solution heat- treatment. Probably, the most common of these is Beryllium Bronze. This
contains 97% copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel
COPPER ALLOYS to increase its strength. Once it has been heat-treated, beryllium
bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is used for
Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses and diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball bearing
various bronzes are the primary types used on aircraft. cages and spring washers.
Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminium, Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines.
iron, lead and other elements such as manganese, nickel (and The very high pressures (and speeds) tend to squeeze the
even very small amounts of tin!). Depending on the percentage lubricant out of normal journal bearings, so the addition of lead
content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30%-35% Zn) or acts as a sort of lubricant in the event of the oil film breaking
strong (45% Zn). down.
Bronze is a copper alloy that contains comparatively higher Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals
percentages of tin and is usually found in the form of castings. A together. The principal types are ‘soft solder’ (which is a mainly
true bronze contains up to 25% tin, and bronze, along with lead-tin alloy), and ‘hard solder’ which is an alloy of copper,
brass, is used in bushings, bearings, valves and valve seats. silver and zinc.
Bronzes with less than 11% tin are normally used for tubes and
pipes.

There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and
yet are still referred to as ‘bronzes’. High-Tensile Brass, for
instance, because of its manganese content is called
‘Manganese Bronze’, while Phosphor and Silicon bronzes also
contain practically no tin. Wrought aluminium bronzes are

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TITANIUM ALLOYS

WARNING:- TITANIUM ALLOY FIRES MUST BE In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel. Two
EXTINGUISHED WITH THE CORRECT EXTINGUISHANT practical methods of identification apart from weight are:
(DRY ASBESTOS WOOL AND CHALK POWDER) AND NOT
WATER. Spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a
brilliant white trace, ending in a brilliant white burst.
Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden Moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of glass - this
atmosphere. To prevent reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in will leave a dark line similar to a pencil mark.
its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.

There are three types of titanium, which are called alpha, alpha-
beta and beta. They have different strength and forming
properties, depending on their heat-treatments. Commercially
pure titanium is ‘non-heat-treatable’ (It can be annealed, but its
strength/hardness cannot be improved by heat-treatment).

When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-

treatable. The strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-
hardening material.

Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines,

but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners,
and high temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields,
hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.

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(b) TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METERIALS FOR where:

HARDENESS, TENSILE STRENGTH, FATIGUE STRENGTH
AND IMPACT RESISTANCE P = applied force (kgf)

D = diameter of indenter (mm)

HARDNESS TESTING
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

The Brinell hardness test gives the largest indentation of all the
hardness tests and is able to reflect the full feature of the
material being tested. The test is unaffected by the un-
evenness of the material and is hence an accurate test of
hardness.

Brinell hardness testing is used commonly in metallurgy,

forging, casting, un-tempered steel and in the non-ferrous
metals industry.

The typical test uses a 10 millimetres (0.39 in) diameter steel

ball as an indenter with a 3,000 kgf (29 kN; 6,600 lbf) force.

For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder

materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.

The indentation is measured and hardness calculated as:

Fig. 01 Brinell hardness test

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PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 15 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L.

Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative
to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The
Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests
since the required calculations are independent of the size of
the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials
(ferrous, non- ferrous) irrespective of hardness.

The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness,

is to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic
deformation from a standard source.

The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the
widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given
by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH).

The hardness number can be converted into units of pascals,

but should not be confused with a pressure, which also has
units of pascals. The hardness number is determined by the
load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area
normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.

Fig. 02 Vickers tester

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 16 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Rockwell hardness testing is suitable for measuring the

hardness of ferrous, non-ferrous and plastic materials.

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material

involves the application of a minor load followed by a major
load, and then noting the depth of penetration from a dial, on
which a harder material gives a higher number.

The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to

display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious
calculations involved in other hardness measurement
techniques. Fig. 03 Rockwell Hardness Test
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece Clad aluminum alloy sheets cannot be tested directly with any
should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation. accuracy with a Rockwell hardness tester. If the hardness value
of the base metal is desired, the pure aluminum coating must be
Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular
removed from the area to be checked prior to testing.
surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A
correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex
surface is to be measured.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 17 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

BARCOL TESTER Each tester is supplied with a test disk for checking the
condition of the point. To check the point, press the instrument
The Barcol tester is a portable unit designed for testing down on the test disk. When the downward pressure brings the
aluminum alloys, copper, brass, or other relatively soft end of the lower plunger guide against the surface of the disk,
materials. It should not be used on aircraft steels. Approximate the indicator reading should be within the range shown on the
range of the tester is 25 to100 Brinell. The unit can be used in test desk.
any position and in any space that will allow for the operator’s
hand. It is of great value in the hardness testing of assembled or
installed parts, especially to check for proper heattreatment.
The hardness is indicated on a dial conveniently divided into
100 graduations.

The design of the Barcol tester is such that operating

experience is not necessary. It is only necessary to exert a light
pressure against the instrument to drive the spring loaded
indenter into the material to be tested. The hardness reading is
instantly indicated on the dial.

Several typical readings for aluminum alloys are listed in table.

Note that the harder the material is, the higher the Barcol
number will be. To prevent damage to the point, avoid sliding or
scraping when it is in contact with the material being tested. If
the point should become damaged, it must be replaced with a
new one. Do not attempt to grind the point.

Table 03 Typical Barcol Readings For Aluminium Alloy:

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PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 18 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

TENSILE TESTING OF NON-FERROUS MATERIALS

Electromechanical testing instruments are widely used

throughout the metals industry for evaluating important
properties such as Tensile strength, Young’s modulus of
elasticity, yield strength, Poisson’s ratio, elastic and plastic
deformation, and strain hardening behavior.
The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
specimen geometry and testing conditions.

Steel, aluminum, iron, titanium, tin, copper and zinc and their
alloys are metals that are mostly used for the production of
appliances, devices, machinery and buildings. The wide
spectrum of metal properties also determines the essential need
for a wide range testing.

Tensile testing is the most commonly used test to determine

mechanical properties of metals. Electromechanical testing
instruments are widely used throughout the metals industry for
evaluating important properties such as Tensile strength,
Young’s modulus of elasticity, yield strength, Poisson’s ratio,
elastic and plastic deformation, and strain hardening behavior.

Fig. 04 Barcol Portable Hardness tester

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PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 19 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

Also many components such as springs, pipes, containers, etc. High cycle fatigue creates stress levels that are under the yield
rely on compression tests that provide data on force versus strength of a given material. It results from vibrations or strain
deformation. The mechanical requirements for many metals are from high cycles that can reach thousands of cycles per second,
typically specified as “tensile strength”, “yield point” and at frequencies that can be induced by many sources. Low cycle
“%elongation” in addition to other properties. fatigue is associated with high vibration or strain conditions. Low
cycle fatigue failure generally occurs in a relatively small
The strength of a material under tension has long been number of fatigue cycles.
regarded as one of the most important characteristics required
for design, production quality control and life prediction of Endurance limit is the limit below which repeated stress does
industrial plants. The uni-axial tensile test is the primary method not induce failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles
used for quality control and certification of virtually all metallic of load.
materials produced by casting, rolling and forging processes.
Tensile or axial fatigue testing is a common method used to
FATIGUE TESTING determine mechanical properties of metals, such as young’s
modulus, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and other
Fatigue is the loss of strength and energy resulting from tensile properties. tensile loading is used to determine how a
physical work. Fatigue testing is the applying of continuous material will behave under axial stretch loading. in tensile
loading to a test specimen in order to determine how it performs fatigue testing a continuous small axial load is applied
under repeated vibration or strain conditions. The fatigue life of constantly so that the fatigue limit of a specimen can be
the specimen is the number of cycles of fluctuating stress and determined.
strain that a specimen can withstand before failure occurs.

The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
specimen geometry and testing conditions. Fatigue behavior is
classified into two domains, high cycle and low cycle fatigue.
High cycle fatigue is associated with low strain conditions and a
fatigue life greater than 104 to 105 cycles.

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PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 20 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

S-N CURVES
Stress
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an
S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between
the amount of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number
of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the
material.

Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material. It can be seen

that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater
number of stress cycles. The graph also shows that a point is Fatigue
40 – 60 % Limit
eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually
UTS
horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an infinite
number of cycles at a particular stress level.

This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels,
the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the Number of
value of the static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.) Cycles (N)

S-N CURVE FOR A STEEL MATERIAL

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit
as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if
subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at
very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an
endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles
is quoted instead.

It follows that components made from such materials must be

designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service
at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete
airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this
philosophy.

Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit
as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if
subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at
very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an
endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles
is quoted instead.
An S-N Curve for an Aluminium Alloy
It follows that components made from such materials must be
designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service
at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete
airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this
philosophy.

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PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 22 Mar 2014
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

CAUSES OF FATIGUE FAILURE

As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of
(or can be ascertained), it would seem reasonable to suppose cycles to cause cracking of a given material, are affected by
that fatigue failure, due to lack of suitable allowances in design, many other variables, such as stress concentration points
should not occur. (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface
finish, material imperfections etc.
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the
most sophisticated engineering product does not possess
immunity from this mode of failure. Such failures are often due
to unforeseen factors in design, environmental or operating
conditions, material, and manufacturing processes.

Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a

material are:

An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or

without an applied steady stress).

A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.

The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time

intervals, as experienced in aircraft cabin pressurisation, during
each take-off (e.g. daily), or they may have a relatively short
time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic
buffeting/vibration of a wing panel. The former example would
be considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-
cycle fatigue.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.2 - 23 Mar 2014