NON-FERROUS METALS

Ferrous = Containing Iron

Much of the metal used on today's aircraft contains no
iron. The term that describes metals which have
elements other than iron as their base is nonferrous.
Aluminum, copper, titanium, and magnesium are
some of the more common nonferrous metals used in
aircraft construction and repair.

ALUMINUM AND ITS

ALLOYS
Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used for 
aircraft  construction.   However,   its  strength increases
considerably when it is alloyed, or mixed, with other
compatible metals. For example, when aluminum is mixed
with copper or zinc, the  resultant alloy is as strong as steel
with only one third the weight. Furthermore, the corrosion
resistance possessed by the aluminum carries over to the
newly formed alloy.
From the video, it had shown what aluminum alloys are, the
processes it goes through and where it is applied. Aluminum
is said to be corrosion resistant, more resistant than steel by
comparing it through a test. Seen also on the video is where
an aluminum alloy can be used on a component of an
aircraft  
 PURE ALUMINUM =
Lightweight and soft(low strength property)

ALUMINUM ALLOY =
Lightweight but with higher strength
properties 

ALLOYING AGENTS
Aluminum alloys are classified by their major alloying
ingredient. The elements most commonly used for
aluminum alloying are copper, magnesium, manganese,
and zinc. Wrought  aluminum and wrought aluminum
alloys are identified by a four-digit index system.
COMMON ALLOYING AGENTS
COPPER
MAGNESIUM
MANGANESE
ZINC

ALUMINUM ALLOY
DESIGNATION SYSTEM
Aluminum alloys can be categorized into a number of groups
based on the particular material’s characteristics such as its
ability to respond to thermal and mechanical treatment and the
primary alloying element added to the aluminum alloy. When we
consider the numbering/ identification system used for
aluminum alloys, the characteristics are identified. The wrought
and cast aluminums have different systems of identification; the
wrought having a 4-digit system, and the castings having a 3-
digit and 1-decimal place system.

The first digit (Xxxx) indicates the principal alloying

element, which has been added to the aluminum alloy
and is often used to describe the aluminum alloy series,
i.e., 1000 series, 2000 series, 3000 series, up to 8000
series 

The most common alloying elements used are as

follows:
Ixxx aluminum
2xxx copper
3xxx manganese
4xxx silicon
5xxx magnesium
6xxx magnesium and silicon
7xxx zinc
8xxx other elements

The second single digit (xXxx), if different from 0, indicates a

modification of the specific alloy, and the third and fourth digits
(xxXX) are arbitrary numbers given to identify a specific alloy in
the series. Example: In alloy 5183, the number 5 indicates that
it is of the magnesium alloy series, the 1 indicates that it is the
1st modification to the original alloy 5083, and the 83 identifies it
in the 5xxx series.
The only exception to this alloy numbering system is with
the 1xxx series aluminum alloys (pure aluminums) in
which case, the last 2 digits provide the minimum
aluminum percentage above 99%, i.e., Alloy 1350
(99.50% minimum aluminum).

1XXX SERIES
The lxxx series of aluminum alloys represents
commercially pure aluminum, of 99 percent or higher
purity. Pure aluminum offers high corrosion resistance,
excellent thermal and electrical  properties, and is easily
worked. However, pure aluminum is very low in strength.

2XXX SERIES
Alloys within the 2xxx series utilize copper as the principal alloying
agent. When aluminum is mixed with copper, certain metallic
changes take place in the resultant alloy's grain structure. For the
most part, these changes are beneficial and produce greater
strength. However, a major drawback to  aluminum-copper alloys is
their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion when improperly heat-
treated. Most aluminum alloy used in aircraft structures is an
aluminum-copper alloy. Two of the most commonly used in the
construction of skins and rivets are 2017 and 2024.

3XXX SERIES
The 3xxx series alloys have manganese as
the  principal alloying element, and are
generally considered non-heat treatable. The
most common variation is 3003, which offers
moderate strength and has good working
characteristics.

4XXX SERIES
The 4xxx series aluminum is alloyed
with  silicon, which lowers a metal's
melting temperature. This results in
an alloy that works well for welding
and brazing.
5XXX SERIES
Magnesium is used to produce the 5xxx series
alloys. These alloys possess good welding and
corrosion-resistance characteristics. However,
if the metal is exposed to high temperatures or
excessive cold working, its susceptibility to  
corrosion increases.

6XXX SERIES
If silicon and magnesium are added to    aluminum,
the resultant alloy carries a 6xxx series
designation. In these alloys, the silicon and mag-
nesium form magnesium silicide which makes the
alloy heat-treatable. Furthermore, the 6xxx series
has medium strength with good forming and
corrosion-resistance properties.

7XXX SERIES
When parts require more strength and little  forming, harder
aluminum alloys are employed. The 7xxx series aluminum
alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc.
Some widely used forms of zinc-aluminum alloys are 7075 and
7178. The aluminum-zinc alloy 7075 has a tensile strength of 77
KSI and a bearing strength of 139 KSI. However, the alloy is
very hard and is difficult to bend. An even stronger zinc alloy is
7178 which has a tensile strength of 84 KSI and a bearing
strength of 151 KSI

THREE-DIGIT INDEX
SYSTEM(FOR CAST)
The cast alloy designation system is based on a 3
digit-plus decimal designation xxx.x (i.e. 356.0). The
first digit (Xxx.x) indicates the principal alloying
element, which has been added to the aluminum
alloy 
Ixx.x 99.000% minimum aluminum
2xx.x copper
3xx.x silicon plus copper and or magnesium
4xx.x silicon
5xx.x magnesium
 6xx.x unused series
7xx.x zinc
8xx.x other elements

The second and third digits (xXX.x) are arbitrary numbers given to
identify a specific alloy in the series. The number following the
decimal point indicates whether the alloy is a casting (.0) or an ingot
(.1 or .2). A capital letter prefix indicates a modification to a specific
alloy

Example: Alloy - A356.0 the capital A (Axxx.x) indicates a

modification of alloy 356.0. The number 3 (A3xx.x) indicates
that it is of the silicon plus copper and/or magnesium series.
The 56 (Ax56.0) identifies the alloy within the 3xx.x series,
and the .0 (Axxx.0) indicates that it is a final shape casting
and not an ingot.
 CLAD ALUMINUM
Most external aircraft surfaces are made of Alclad aluminum. Alclad
is a pure aluminum coating that is rolled on to the surface of heat-
treated aluminum alloy. The thickness of this coating is
approximately 5 percent of the alloy's thickness on each side. For
example, if an alclad sheet of aluminum is .040 inches thick, 5
percent, or .002 inches of pure   aluminum is applied to each side.
This results in an alloy thickness of .036 inches.

This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance

of an aluminum alloy. However, if it is penetrated, corrosive
agents can attack the alloy within. For this reason, sheet
metal should be  protected from scratches and abrasions. In
addition to providing a starting point for corrosion, abrasions
create potential stress points.
 HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and
cooling of metals in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal
more useful,   serviceable, and safe for a definite purpose. By heat
treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to
impact. Heat treating can also make a metal softer and more ductile.
However, one heat-treating operation cannot produce all these
characteristics. In fact, some properties are often improved at the
expense of others. In being hardened, for example, a metal may become
brittle.
ADVANTAGES
HARDER METAL
STRONGER METAL
MORE IMPACT RESISTANT
CAN MAKE METAL DUCTILE OF SOFT
All heat-treating processes are similar in that
they involve the heating and cooling of
metals. They  differ, however, in the
temperatures to which the metal is heated
and the rate at which it is cooled.

There are two types of heat treatments used on  aluminum

alloys. One is called solution heat   treatment, and the other
is known as precipitation heat treatment. Some alloys, such
as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of
solution heat treatment followed by about 4 days of cooling,
or aging, at room temperature. However, other alloys, such
as 2014 and 7075, require both heat treatments.

MAJOR TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT
PRECIPITATION HEAT TREATMENT

SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT

When aluminum is alloyed with materials such as copper,
magnesium, or zinc, the resultant alloys are much stronger
than aluminum. To understand why this happens, it is
necessary to examine the  microscopic structure of
aluminum. Pure aluminum has a molecular structure that is
composed of weakly bonded aluminum atoms and,
therefore, is extremely soft.

Aluminum alloys, on the other hand, consist of a base

metal of aluminum and an alloying element that is
dispersed throughout the structure. In this
configuration, when the aluminum alloy is subjected to
stress, these alloying particles adhere to the
aluminum molecules and resist  deformation.

However, special processes must be used to allow the base

metal and alloy to mix properly. For example, when aluminum is
alloyed with copper through conventional processes,
approximately .5 percent of the copper dissolves, or mixes with
the aluminum. The remaining copper takes the form of the
compound CuAl . However, when the aluminum alloy is heated
2

sufficiently, the remaining copper enters the base metal and

hardens the alloy.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS SHOULD BE HEATED AT THE RIGHT
TEMPERATURE FOR THE ALLOYING AGENTS TO BE MIXED
PROPERLY TO THE ALUMINUM. 

The process of heating certain aluminum alloys to

allow the alloying element to mix with the base metal
is called solution heat treating. In this  procedure,
metal is heated in either a molten sodium or
potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air furnace to a
temperature just below its melting point.
The temperature is then held to within about plus or
minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature and
the base metal is soaked until the alloying element is
uniform throughout. Once the metal has sufficiently
soaked, it is removed from the furnace and cooled or
quenched.

Quenching involves the rapid cooling of a

metal to adjust the mechanical properties of
its original state
It is extremely important that no more than about
ten seconds elapse between removal of an alloy
from the furnace and the quench. The reason for
this is that when metal leaves the furnace and
starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to pre-
cipitate out of the base metal. If this process is
not stopped, large grains of alloy become
suspended in the aluminum and weaken the
alloy. Excessive precipitation also increases the
likelihood of inter granular corrosion.
To help minimize the amount of alloying element that
precipitates out of a base metal, a quenching medium
is selected to ensure the proper cooling rate. 
For example, a water spray or bath provides the appropriate cooling
rate for aluminum alloys. However, large forgings are typically
quenched in hot water to minimize thermal shock that could cause
cracking. Thin sheet metal normally warps and distorts when it is
quenched, so it must be straightened immediately after it is
removed from the quench. After the quench, all metals must be
rinsed thoroughly since the salt residue from the sodium or
potassium nitrate bath can lead to  corrosion if left on the alloy.

Heat-treatable aluminum alloys are comparatively soft when first

removed from a quench. With time, however,the metal becomes
hard and gains strength. When an alloy is allowed to cool at room
temperature, it is referred to as natural aging and can take several
hours or several weeks. For  example, aluminum alloyed with
copper gains about 90 percent of its strength in the first half-hour
after it is removed from the quench, and becomes fully hard in about
four or five days.
An alloy's aging process time can be lengthened or shortened. For
example, the aging process can be slowed by storing a metal at a sub-
freezing  temperature immediately after it is removed from the quench.
On the other hand, the aging process can be accelerated by reheating a
metal and allowing it to soak for a specified period of time. This type of
aging is identified by several terms such as artificial age-hardening,
percipitation-hardening or precipitation heat treatment. This process
develops hardness, strength, and corrosion resistance by locking a
metal's grain structure together.

PRECIPITATION HEAT
TREATMENT
Naturally aged alloys, such as the copper-zinc-  mag-
nesium alloys, derive their full strength at room
temperature in a relatively short period and require no
further heat treatment. However, other alloys,
particularly those with a high zinc content, need
thermal treatment to develop full strength. These
alloys are called artificially aged alloys.

ANNEALING
Annealing is a process that softens a metal and
decreases internal stress. In general, annealing
is the opposite of hardening. To anneal an
aluminum alloy, the metal's temperature is raised
to an  annealing temperature and held there until
the metal becomes thoroughly heat soaked.
Annealing temperature for Aluminum Alloy:
570°F to 770°F

When annealing clad aluminum metals, they

should be heated as quickly and as carefully
as possible. The reason for this is that if clad
aluminum is exposed to excessive heat, some
of the core material tends to mix with the
cladding. This reduces the metal's corrosion
resistance.

NON-HEATREATABLE ALLOYS 
Commercially pure aluminum does not benefit from heat
treatment since there are no alloying materials in its
structure. By the same token, 3003 is an almost identical
metal and, except for a small amount of manganese, does
not benefit from being heat treated. Both of these metals
are lightweight and somewhat corrosion resistant.
However, neither has a great deal of strength and,
therefore, their use in aircraft is limited to nonstructural
components such as fairings and streamlined enclosures
that carry little or no load.

NON-HEATREATABLE ALLOYS
Alloy 5052 is perhaps the most important of
the non heat-treatable aluminum alloys. It
contains about 2.5 percent magnesium and
a small amount of chromium. It is used for
welded parts such as  gasoline or oil tanks,
and for rigid fluid lines. Its strength is
increased by cold working.

HEAT TREATMENT
IDENTIFICATION
Heat-treatable alloys have their hardness
condition designated by the letter -T followed
by one or more numbers.
 HEAT TREATMENT
IDENTIFICATION
T      Solution heat treated
T2    Annealed (cast products only)
T3 Solution heat-treated, followed by strain hardening. Different amounts of
strain hardening of the heat-treated alloy are indicated by a second digit.
For example, -T36 indicates that the material has been solution heat-
treated and has had its thickness reduced 6 percent by cold rolling.
T4 Solution heat-treated, followed by natural aging at room temperature to
a stable condition.
T5 Artificially aged after being rapidly cooled during a fabrication process
such as extrusion or casting
T6    Solution heat-treated,  followed by artificial aging
(precipitation heat-treated).
T7    Solution heat-treated and then stabilized to control its growth
and distortion.
T8    Solution heat-treated,   strain  hardened,  and then artificially
aged.
T9    Solution  heat-treated,   artificially  aged,   and then strain-
hardened.
T10 Artificially aged and then cold worked.

REHEAT TREATMENT
Material which has been previously heat-treated can generally
be reheat treated any number of times. As an example, rivets
made of 2017 or 2024 are extremely hard and typically receive
several reheat treatments to make them soft enough to drive.
As discussed earlier, the number of solution heat-treatments
allowed for clad materials is limited due to the increased
diffusion of core material into the cladding. This diffusion results
in decreased corrosion resistance. As a result, clad material is
generally limited to no more than three reheat treatments.

STRAIN HARDENING
Both heat-treatable and nonheat-treatable alu-
minum alloys can be strengthened and hardened
through strain hardening, also referred to as cold
working or work hardening. This process
requires mechanically working a metal at a tem-
perature below its critical range. Strain hardening
alters the grain structure and hardens the metal.
The mechanical working can consist of rolling,
drawing, or pressing.
Heat-treatable alloys have their strength
increased by rolling after they have been
solution heat-treated. On the other hand,
nonheat-treatable alloys are hardened in the
manufacturing process when they are rolled to
their desired dimensions. However, at times
these alloys are hardened too much and must
be partially annealed.
 HARDNESS DESIGNATION
Where appropriate, a metal's hardness, or temper, is
indicated by a letter designation that is separated
from the alloy designation by a dash. When the basic
temper designation must be more specifically defined,
one or more numbers follow the letter designation.
These designations are as follows:
F      As fabricated.
O     Annealed,  recrystallized  (wrought
materials only).
H Strain hardened.
Hi Strain hardened only.
H2 Strain hardened and partially annealed.
H3 Strain hardened and stabilized.

The digit following the designations Hi, H2, and

H3 indicate the degree of strain hardening. For
example, the number 8 represents the maximum
tensile strength while O indicates an annealed
state. The most common designations include:
Hx2 Quarter-hard
Hx4 Half-hard
Hx6 Three-quarter hard
Hx8 Full-hard
Hx9 Extra-hard

MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in
its wrought form is available in sheets, bars,
tubing, and extrusions. Magnesium is one of
the lightest metals having sufficient strength
and suitable working characteristics for use in
aircraft structures. It has a density of 1.74,
compared with 2.69 for aluminum. In other
words, it weighs only about 2/3 as much as
aluminum.

Magnesium is obtained primarily from

electrolysis of sea water or brine from deep
wells, and lacks sufficient strength in its pure
state for use as a structural metal. However,
when it is alloyed with zinc, aluminum,
thorium, zirconium, or manganese, it
develops strength characteristics that make
it quite useful.
 MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of
sea water or brine from deep wells, and lacks
sufficient strength in its pure state for use as a
structural metal. However, when it is alloyed with zinc,
aluminum, thorium, zirconium, or manganese, it
develops strength characteristics that make it quite
useful.

Electrolysis is a process by which electric

current is passed through a substance to
effect a chemical change
Magnesium has some rather serious drawbacks that had to
be overcome before it could be used successfully. For
example, magnesium is highly susceptible to corrosion, and
tends to crack. The cracking contributes to its difficulty in
forming and limits its use for thin sheet metal parts.
However, this tendency is overcome to a great extent by
forming parts while the metal is hot. 
The corrosion problem is minimized by treating the surface
with chemicals that form an oxide film to prevent oxygen
from reaching the metal. When oxygen is excluded from the
surface, no corrosion can form. Another important step in
minimizing corrosion is to always use hardware such as
rivets, nuts, bolts, and screws that are made of a compatible
material.
In addition to cracking and corroding easily, magnesium
burns readily in a dust or small particle form. For this
reason, caution must be exercised when grinding and
machining magnesium. If a fire should occur, extinguish it by
smothering it with dry sand or some other dry material that
excludes air from the metal and cools its surface. If water is
used, it will only intensify the fire.

Solution heat-treatment of magnesium alloys increases tensile

strength, ductility, and resistance to shock. After a piece of
magnesium alloy has been solution heat-treated, it can be precipi-
tation heat treated by heating it to a temperature lower than that
used for solution heat treatment, and holding it at this temperature
for a period of several hours. This increases the metal's hardness
and yield strength.

The American Society for Testing Materials

(ASTM) has developed a classification system
for magnesium alloys that consists of a series
of letters and numbers to indicate alloying
agents and temper condition.