Module 6 (Materials & Hardware) SubModule 6.3 (Aircraft Mate

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non Metallic
MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.3
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS –COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC
ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 00
6.3 - i Mar 2014
Contents
6.3.1 COMPOSITE and NON-METALLIC OTHER THAN
WOOD 1
(A) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF
COMMON COMPOSITES AND NON-METALLIC MATERIALS OHER THAN
WOOD USED IN AIRCRAFT .................................................................... 1
SEALANTS AND BONDING AGENTS ..................................................... 15
(B) THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS/DETERIORATION IN
COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIAL ..................................... 17
REPAIR OF COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIALS ................. 25
6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURE......................................................... 41
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF WOOD AND GLUE
USED IN AEROPLANE........................................................................... 41
CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF WOODEN AIRFRAME STRUCTURES .... 47
PRESERVATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WOODEN STRUCTURE........ 51
REPAIROF WOODEN STRUCTURES ..................................................... 54
THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WOODEN STRUCTURE ..................... 54
6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING ............................................................... 56
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF FABRIC USED IN
AEROPLANES ....................................................................................... 58
INSTALLATION OF FABRIC ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE ........................ 60
TESTING METHODS ............................................................................. 62
REPAIR OF FABRIC COVERINGS ........................................................... 64

6.3 - ii Mar 2014
6.3.1 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC OTHER THAN The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos – to mould,
WOOD and plasticity (as was discussed in The Properties of Metals) is
the ability to retain a deformation after the load, producing it,
(A) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND has been removed. Plastics are particularly useful for
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON COMPOSITES AND applications, which involve relatively low-stress levels, where
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS OHER THAN WOOD USED lightness is important, and where low electrical or thermal
IN AIRCRAFT conductivity is required.
A composite is something, which is made up from many parts, The earliest plastic materials (before the synthetics) were those
and this term could be applied to a wide range of engineering made from the sap, or latex, of certain trees (gutta-percha), the
materials. These would include not only the metallic alloys, but
secretions of tiny, scaly insects (shellac) and the softened,
also the most earliest of all composite materials used by man, –
wood (the tough, fibrous, xylem, or water-conducting tissue, of moulded parts of the horns of animals.
shrubs and trees, which contains lignin and cellulose). Brick,
concrete, and glass are among the many other materials, which Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify
could be considered as composites. various materials (natural and synthetic), based on long-chain
molecules (polymers) of carbon, that can be cast, extruded or
In the aerospace industry, the term ‘composite’ is used when moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments to be
referring to materials, which, in turn, are a combination of
used as fibers.
fibrous and synthetic resin materials that provide many
advantages by their great strength-to-weight ratios.
While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic
This topic covers a number of different materials, including and Thermosetting compositions, the manufacture of synthetic
plastics, resins, natural and synthetic rubbers, adhesives and rubbers (called Elastomers) is also considered to be part of the
sealants. Most of these materials will be found in use on plastics industry.
modern aircraft.
THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS
PLASTICS

6.3 - 1 Mar 2014
Thermoplastic materials, in their normal state, are hard but Thermoplastics are, normally, used where there are no unusual
become soft and pliable when heated (the Greek word thermo – temperature changes and the majority of all plastics production
heat). When softened, thermoplastic materials can be moulded is thermoplastics, which include:
and shaped, and they retain their new shape when cooled.
Unless their heat limit is exceeded, this process can be  Acetate - widely used for tool handles, and electrical
repeated many times without damaging the material. goods.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for
aircraft windshields and side windows, and are usually referred
 Poly-Ethylene - commonly known as polythene. Its uses
to as cellulose acetate and acrylic.
include flexible tubing, cable insulation and packaging.
Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its  Poly-Propylene - stronger, harder and more rigid than
transparency and light-weight. A disadvantage of cellulose polythene. Used for such items as high-pressure air
acetate is its tendency to shrink and discolor with time, which piping.
has led to it being phased out almost completely.
 Poly-Vinyl-Chloride - commonly known as PVC. Varying
Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint degrees of rigidity/flexibility are achievable by varying the
(especially when aged), and by the fact that a scrap of it will amount of plasticiser used. Rigid, moulded sections or
burn with a sputtering flame and give off black smoke. It will piping can be produced and also flexible electric cable
also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials, such insulation
as acetone.  Polystyrene - can be produced in rigid form, but is more
familiar in the expanded form, when it is useful for
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex thermal insulation, buoyancy or shock-resistant
(UK) and Plexi glass (USA). It is stiffer than cellulose acetate, packaging.
more transparent and practically colorless. Acrylic burns with a
clear flame and gives off a fairly pleasant odour. Acetone, if
applied, will cause white marks but will leave the material as
hard as it previously was.
USE OF THERMOPLASTICS

6.3 - 2 Mar 2014
 Acrylics - these are particularly useful where light  Nylon - belongs to the polyamide family and is an
transmission is necessary. Perspex and Plexiglas belong extremely useful and versatile material. It is strong,
to this family. They have excellent light transmission tough and also has low friction properties. It can be
properties and are also resistant to splintering. There is a used as a fibre or produced as a moulding. Popular
tendency for some fine craze-cracking to develop if uses include textiles, furnishings, ropes, tyre
exposed for long periods to ultra violet light. These
reinforcement, bushes, pulleys, gears, and
transparent plastics may be solid or laminated. When
laminated two or more layers are bonded together with a
lightweight mouldings such as brackets, handles etc.
clear adhesive and, in this form, they are more shatter-  Poly-Tetra-Fluoro-Ethylene - commonly known as ‘PTFE’,
resistant and are ideally suited to pressurised aircraft it is similar to nylon in appearance but is denser, whiter
windows. and much more expensive. It has a wax-like surface and
An even stronger and more shatterproof transparent this characteristic results in very low friction properties,
plastic can be achieved by stretching the acrylic in both which make it suitable for bushes and gears. It also has a
directions before final shaping. These improved high temperature capability (over 300ºC) and is
properties, result from the stretching operation causing a extensively used as a non-stick coating e.g. Teflon. PTFE
preferential alignment of the long-chain molecules. tape is often used as a thread sealant for oxygen pipe
Extreme care should be taken when handling acrylics, as threads, and as backing rings for hydraulic seals.
they are they are easily scratched. The acrylics are
supplied with a paper or rubberised film, which should not
be removed, until required for use. If dirty, they should be
cleaned with cold water or soapy water. Care should also
be taken when using solvents in the vicinity of acrylics.
Some solvents, or their vapours, may cause crazing of the
material. , Reference to the appropriate Manuals or
manufacturers’ specification sheets are essential.
 Poly-Carbonates - these have similar uses to the acrylics
(Perspex etc) but are more temperature-resistant and
also have superior impact strength. They are also more
expensive.

6.3 - 3 Mar 2014
THERMOSETTING MATERIALS RESINS
Thermosetting materials (also called Thermosets) will, initially, Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain
soften when heated, but will remain soft for only a short time trees and other plants and as clear, translucent, yellow (amber),
and will set (and harden) if the heat continues to be applied. brown, solid, or semisolid agents, they are used in inks,
lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and, of course, plastics.
The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when heated, is
called ‘curing’ and curing can also be achieved by chemical While the words plastics and resins are often used
(exothermic) reactions. synonymously, they are, in fact, quite different, in that plastics
refers to the material in the finished items while resins are the
During the curing process, the long-chain molecules of the raw materials which may be found in the form of flakes, pellets,
material cross-link (link together between chains) and, once the powder, or a syrup.
cross-links are formed, the plastic becomes hard and cannot be
re-softened by heating. Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually,
additives are employed with them, to assist in the moulding
Thermosets are, thus, chosen where a plastic component will
characteristics, or to enhance the properties of the finished
be exposed to relatively high temperatures, as some of them
product.
can tolerate temperatures in excess of 250C before beginning
to char.
The resin may be thickened and given more ‘body’ by the
Note: Thermosetting materials are generally stronger, have a addition of inert fillers, which may be used to fill gaps and voids
lower ductility and lower impact properties than the in the structure. Typical fillers are micro-balloons, cotton and
Thermoplastics. glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).
Reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, flame-

retardants, smoke suppressants and processing aids, such as
lubricants and coupling agents, are among the other additives
used with resins.

6.3 - 4 Mar 2014
Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually,
to impregnate linen, paper, and ‘cloths’ made up from various cure into a solid mass, so inhibitors are added to delay this
synthetic fibers. For many years, aircraft control cable pulleys curing process and to improve shelf life.
have been made from thermosetting resins, reinforced with
layers of linen cloth. These pulleys are cured in a mould, at high A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no
temperature, and have high strength without causing wear to longer wanted and the curing process is to be started and an
the control cables. accelerator will appreciably shorten the curing time of the resin,
depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.
When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting
resin such as phenol-formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical
can be moulded into flat sheets or other shapes. Once reaction between the catalyst and accelerator generates heat
hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical insulator within the resin. This (exothermic reaction can be seen when a
and can be found in use as terminal strips and printed circuit thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.
boards.
Epoxy Resin
Polyester Resin
Polyester resin can be extruded into fine filaments and woven Another type of resin that can be used in place of polyester in
into fabric (like nylon) or cast into shape and it is also useful as laminated structures isepoxy resin. Epoxy resin has a low
a heat-resistant lacquer. percentage of shrinkage, high strength for its weight and the
ability to adhere to a wide range of materials.
Glass fibers and mat, for example, have great strength for their
weight, but lack rigidity so, to convert glass fiber into a useful Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst, epoxy resins
structural material, it is impregnated with polyester resin and require a hardener or curing agent without recourse to heating.
moulded into a desired form.
There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between polyester
Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from and epoxy resins. For polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to
materials, which cure by the evaporation of an oil or solvent. As catalyst whilst, for epoxy resin, the ratio is 4:1, resin to
polyester is thick and unmanageable, a styrene monomer is hardener.
added to make it thinner and easier to work.

6.3 - 5 Mar 2014
ELASTOMERS  Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent

elastic recovery qualities. It is also solvent-resistant and,
From the Greek word elastos – elastic, Elastomers may be therefore, has a wide range of applications as fuel and
natural or, synthetic materials (polymers) which have hydraulic seals and gaskets. However, because of its
considerable elastic properties. special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited
to diaphragms and hydraulic seals.
Because they may also be moulded into shapes, which they
retain, they qualify to be included in the category of plastics.  Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively
Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their poor physical properties, it has exceptionally high
original size and shape, in a similar way to natural rubber resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining or
sealing fuel tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals
Some of the more common Elastomers, to be found in the and hoses, which come into contact with fuels or oils.
aerospace industry include: This compound is commonly known under the trade
names of PRC or Thiokol.
 Buna ‘N’ - also known as Nitrile. A synthetic rubber, made
(initially in Germany) by the polymerisation of butadiene  Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-
and sodium (hence Buna), it has excellent resistance to temperature properties (-80ºC to + 200ºC). It is often
fuels and oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, used for seals, but is also used for the potting of electrical
and seals. This material also has low ‘stiction’ properties, circuits, because of its ability to retain its rubbery state,
when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly even at low temperatures.
suited to ‘moving-seal’ applications.
 Buna - ‘S’ relatively cheap material, also with a
performance similar to natural rubber. It is often used for
tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to
fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable for seals.
 Fluoro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-
temperature properties and can be used at 250ºC. They
are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-
temperature seals. A common name for these materials
is Viton. These materials are expensive.

6.3 - 6 Mar 2014
PRIMARY ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS  Relatively Low Cost – because, although some of the
materials may not be particularly cheap, the lack of
Plastics are being used on an ever-increasing scale and are machining necessary and the high production rates
frequently replacing some of the more conventional materials possible, keeps the costs down.
such as metals, wood and natural rubbers. Plastics have  Light Transmission - some plastics are naturally clear,
properties, which make them a popular choice over whilst other are opaque. These characteristics,
conventional aircraft materials. Some of the more important consequently, provide the possibility for a range of light-
transmission properties. Optical properties can also be
characteristics of plastics, which help to explain their popularity,
achieved with some plastics.
are:
 Vibration Damping - many plastics are naturally resistant
 Lightness - most plastics have specific gravities of 1.1 to to fatigue and, because of the high value of internal
1.6 whereas the more common engineering materials, damping present, resonances will tend to be of relatively
such as aluminium and steel, have values of 2.7 and 7.8 low amplitude.
respectively.
 Corrosion Resistance - plastics will tolerate hostile
corrosion environments and many of them resist acid
attack.
 Low Thermal Conductivity - this property makes many
plastics ideal for thermal insulators.
 Electrical Resistance - plastics are used in enormous
quantities for electrical insulation applications.
 Formability -many plastics are easily formed into the
finished product, by casting moulding or extrusion, often
in a single operation.
 Surface Finish - excellent surface finishes can be
achieved in the basic forming operation, so finishing
operations are not necessary.

6.3 - 7 Mar 2014
PRIMARY DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS  Ultra Violet Light - some plastics deteriorate when
exposed to UV light for long periods. Increased
Although plastics are extremely useful materials, some brittleness and loss of strength can occur.
shortcomings inevitably exist, particularly when compared to
some metals. Plastics major deficiencies are:
 Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than

metals and mild steel has approximately six times the
strength of nylon. Mild steel, however, is six times the
weight of nylon so, on a strength/weight ratio, they are
comparable.
 Low Stiffness - plastics have a very inferior value of
Young’s Modulus compared with the common metals.
 Low Impact Strength - many plastics have poor impact
strength, but there are a few exceptions, such as with
certain polycarbonates.
 Poor Dimensional Stability - mainly due to high values of
thermal coefficient of expansion.
 Poor High-Temperature Capability - metals are generally
capable of retaining reasonable strength at much higher
temperatures than the plastics. The long-term maximum
operating temperature, for the better plastics, is not
usually above 250ºC. High-temperature metals can
operate for long periods well in excess of 800ºC.
 Moisture Absorption - many types of plastic absorb
moisture, which can result in a significant loss of strength
in a humid environment.

6.3 - 8 Mar 2014
COMPOSITES USED IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE steel if the fibre form and lay-up is near optimum. It is however,
considerably less stiff than steel or even aluminum.
The principal types of composite materials are those involving
fibrous elements which may be used as strands, or be woven A graphic example of GFRP flexibility is the enormous
into fine ‘tapes’ and ‘cloths’ (or coarser ‘mats’), held in a suitable deflection, which takes place in the pole during a pole vault. As
resin matrix and formed into the required shapes. the glass fibres are about a hundred times stronger than the
resin, it is obviously necessary to get as much fibre packed into
GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (GFRP) the moulding as possible.
The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and used Non-structural items may be made from, or include, a
for fire-proof curtains or (when extremely pure glass is used), percentage of chopped strand mat, (i.e. glass fibres in a
made into fibres which are able to transmit light over long random, non- woven state) but, where considerable strength is
distances. required, uni-directional glass cloth is used.
The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can
diameter glass fibres is extremely high, although the strength is be layed up at 90º to each other, in a similar manner to the grain
reduced significantly if the fibres are slightly damaged. in plywood. Sometimes such sheets are used as facings for an
internal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a very
In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre or efficient structure in terms of strength, stiffness and weight.
fiberglass, when glass fibres (in various forms) are bonded
together by appropriate resins. The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already
impregnated with resin and partially cured (‘Pre-preg’), in which
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also, of case it is necessary to keep the material in refrigerated storage.
considerably lower strength but, nevertheless, good GFRP Resin curing is usually done at elevated temperatures (120C -
structures are stronger than mild steel and, on a simple 170ºC), with the GRP component in its mould and, often, under
strength-for-weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile pressure, in an autoclave.
The main reasons for using GFRP are:

6.3 - 9 Mar 2014
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite,
 in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar the Young's Modulus (‘E’) value can be higher than steel. CFRP
domes or other non-electrical conducting applications) is not only six times stiffer than GFRP but is also over 50%
 the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength
 to provide good strength/weight ratio aluminum alloy and three times the stiffness.
 its ability to produce selected directional strength.
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in
The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness
diameter and are produced by subjecting a fine thread of a
and, as such, is not suitable for applications subject to high
suitable nylon-type plastic to a very high temperature (to
structural loadings.
decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with
the exception of carbon. The carbon thread is then stretched, at
Ceramic Fibres
white heat (2000C-3000ºC), to develop strength. Unfortunately,
the process is complex and very costly.
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic
fibres are a form of glass fibre, used in high-temperature
applications. They can be used at temperatures up to1650C Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFRP can
and are suited for use around engine and exhaust systems. offer considerable weight savings over conventional materials.
Ceramic fibres are heavy (and expensive) and are only used CFRP components are generally made from ‘Pre-preg’ sheet
where no other materials are suitable. (fibres impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only
require heat and pressure to cure). Some specialist items are
CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (CFRP) made by a laborious, but ideal, process called ‘Filament
Winding’, in which a carbon fibre string is wound over a former
CFRP (also referred to as ‘Graphite’) is a composite material, in the shape of the work piece whilst bonded with resin.
which was primarily developed to retain (or improve upon) the
high strength-to-weight ratio characteristics exhibited by GFRP, Because of CFRP's high stiffness modulus, it is also used
but with very much greater stiffness values. extensively to stiffen GFRP or aluminum alloy structures.

6.3 - 10 Mar 2014
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also Better known under its trade name – Kevlar –in cloth form, it is a
graphitised), is used for the rotors and stators on brake units. It soft, yellow, organic fibre that is extremely light, strong and
offers a significant weight saving, as well as high efficiency, due tough. Its great impact-resistance makes it useful in areas,
to the fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly. which are liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in areas
around engine reverse-thrust buckets. Kevlar is used to
Replacing 40% of an aluminum alloy structure by CFRP would manufacture bullet-proof jackets and, also, as a reinforcement,
result in a 40% saving in total structural weight and CFRP is in aircraft fuel tanks.
used on such items as the wings, horizontal (and vertical)
stabilizers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft. LAMINATED, SANDWICH AND MONOLITHIC STRUCTURES
The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor Laminated plastics consist of layers of synthetic resin-
blades, has led to significant increases in their life and, in some impregnated fibres (or other, coated, fillers), which are bonded
cases, they may have an unlimited life span (subject to together (usually heated and under pressure), to form a single
laminate or sheet of composite material. Plastic laminates are
damage). The modern blade is highly complex and may be
used to ‘face’ other structural materials, in order to;
comprised of CFRP, GFRP, stainless steel, a honeycomb core
and a foam filling.  provide a more durable surface to a softer (less expensive)
material
ARAMID FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (AFRP)  enhance the surface appearance (color, porosity,
smoothness etc.)
The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type of  increase the strength and rigidity of many non-metallic
synthetic fibres and are well known for their superior toughness, structures
strength-to-weight characteristics and heat-resistance. Tyres,  produce other desirable surface characteristics such as
when acid- or corrosion- resistance, non-conductivity, non-
reinforced with aramid fibres are comparable to those reinforced magnetisability or the ease of keeping a surface clean is
with steel cords. required

6.3 - 11 Mar 2014
To provide a light-weight structure, which possesses strength heat-resistance is important or when sound-absorption qualities
and rigidity, one of several structural materials, is sandwiched are desired.
between two laminated composites.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES
The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid
material, such as wood, or a series of thin corrugations of a Some of the many advantages for using composite materials
material, which are joined and placed end-on (in the form of the are:
cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.
 High strength to weight ratio
Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of
low-density balsa wood, which has been cut across the grain  Fibber-to-fibber transfer of stress allowed by chemical
and sandwiched between two layers of reinforced resin (or a bonding
metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet strong
 Modulus (stiffness to density ratio) 3.5 to 5times that of
material, which can be used as floor panels, wall panels and,
steel or aluminium
occasionally, aircraft skins.
 Longer life than metals
The cellular core, used for laminated honeycomb material, may
be made from resin-impregnated paper, or from one of the  Higher corrosion resistance
many fibre cloths. The core is formed or shaped and then  Tensile strength 4 to 6 times that of steel or aluminium
bonded between two face sheets of resin-impregnated cloth.
The finished sandwich structure is very rigid, has a high  Greater design flexibility
strength-to-weight ratio, and is transparent to electromagnetic  Bonded construction eliminates joints and fasteners
(radar/radio) waves, making it ideal for radomes of all kinds.
 Easily repairable
Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless
steel), are also sandwiched between two face sheets of fibre- The disadvantages of composites include:
reinforced resins. On other occasions the metal honeycombs
may be found sandwiched between sheets of light alloy,  Inspection methods difficult to conduct, especially
stainless steel or titanium. This type of core is referred to as delaminations detection(Advancements in technology will
‘metal-faced honeycomb’ and is used where abrasion- and eventually correct this problem.)

6.3 - 12 Mar 2014
 Lack of long term design database, relatively new composite material scan prevent serious health issues or even
technology methods death.
 Cost Respirator particle protection is very important to protecting the
 Very expensive processing equipment lungs from permanent damage from tiny glass bubbles and fiber
pieces. At a minimum, a dust mask approved for fiberglass is a
 Lack of standardized system of methodology necessity. The best protection is a respirator with dust filters.
 Great variety of materials, processes, and techniques The proper fit of a respirator or dust mask is very important
because if the air around the seal is breathed, the mask cannot
 General lack of repair knowledge and expertise protect the wearer’s lungs. When working with resins, it is
 Products often toxic and hazardous important to use vapor protection.
 Lack of standardized methodology for construction and Charcoal filters in a respirator will remove the vapors for a
repairs period of time. If you can smell the resin vapors after placing the
mask back on after a break, replace the filters immediately.
The increased strength and the ability to design for the Sometimes, charcoal filters last less than 4 hours. Store the
performance needs of the product makes composites -much respirator in a sealed bag when not in use. If working with toxic
superior to the traditional materials used in today’s aircraft. As materials for an extended period of time, a supplied air mask
more and more composites are used, the costs, design, and hood are recommended.
inspection ease, and information about strength to weight
advantages will help composites become the material of choice Avoid skin contact with the fibers and other particles by wearing
for aircraft construction. long pants and long sleeves along with gloves or barrier
creams. The eyes must be protected using leak-proof goggles
COMPOSITE SAFETY (no vent holes) when working with resins or solvents because
chemical damage to the eyes is usually irreversible.
Composite products can be very harmful to the skin ,eyes, and
lungs. In the long or short term, people can become sensitized
to the materials with serious irritation and health issues.
Personal protection is often uncomfortable, hot, and difficult to
wear; however, a little discomfort while working with the

6.3 - 13 Mar 2014
NON-METALLIC COMPONENTS
In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft

structure, non-metallic materials are used in many aircraft
components and systems. Many of these materials require
specialist knowledge and understanding, during aircraft
maintenance.
SEALS
Seals or packing rings (refer to Fig. 01) serve to retain fluids

and gases, within their respective systems, as well as to
exclude air, moisture and contaminants. They also have to
withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and,
because of this, they have to be manufactured in a variety of
shapes and materials.
The most common materials, from which seals are

manufactured, are natural rubber, synthetic rubber and Teflon
(trade name for politetrafluoroethane or PTFE). O-ring seals
effectively seal in both directions of movement. They are used
to prevent both internal and external leakage, and are the most
commonly used seals in aviation
Fig. 01

6.3 - 14 Mar 2014
Where installations operate at pressures above 10.34 x 10³ Barrier Coating – A layer of quick-drying sealant is applied
kN/m² (1500 psi), additional back-up rings can be used to over a layer of slow-drying sealant before this sealant has fully
prevent the O-ring from being forced out or extruded. These cured. This is usually done to prevent swarf and other repair
back-up rings are usually made from Teflon, which does not debris sticking to the original sealant, this allows the repair work
deteriorate with age, is unaffected by system fluids and vapors’ to continue, if necessary, after a short time of carrying out the
and tolerates temperatures well in excess of those found in sealant job.
high-pressure hydraulic systems.
Protective Coating – A protective coating may be applied to
O-rings are available in many different materials and sizes (both protect the sealant in service. One example of such a protective
diameter and thickness). They are supplied in individual, overcoat is Flexible Polyurethane paint coating, which is used to
hermetically-sealed, envelopes with all the necessary protect the sealant against the effects of phosphate ester
information marked on the packaging. This system has hydraulic fluid.
generally replaced the previously used, color-coding of seals,
which had severe limitations. Cure – This refers to the change of a sealant from its original
mixed condition to its final condition. This is usually caused by a
For applications (such as in actuators) that subject a seal to chemical action when the two parts of a sealant are mixed
pressure from two sides, two back-up rings can be used but, together.
when the pressure is from one side only, a single back-up ring
is adequate. Fillet – Referred to as a bead and is formed when sealant is
applied into gaps or corners in the structure. The bead can be
SEALANTS AND BONDING AGENTS formed from sealant that is applied for this purpose, or from the
interfay sealant that is squeezed out when a joint is assembled.
TERMINOLOGIES:
Initial Cure Time – This is the minimum period of time required
Application Life – This the period of time that is often referred before a sealant is cured enough to permit a sealed joint to be
to as 'Pot Life', and is the time that a sealant remains suitable for pressure tested.
application after it has been mixed.
Interfay Sealant – A layer of sealant applied to the contacting
(faying) surfaces of repair parts before they are assembled.

6.3 - 15 Mar 2014
Leak Path – This is the path along which a fluid, for example, Curing time of a particular sealant can be reduced by following
fuel or water, can get out of or into a sealed area. special curing procedures such as heating the repaired area
Over-coating - This term refers to the application of a brushing using appropriate means.
thickness sealant over a joint.
SEALANTS Sealants are grouped depending on the base material or the
major constituent of the composition such as, Epoxy based
A sealant is a substance that is used to seal holes, cracks or sealants, Poly sulphide sealants, Silicon rubber/Synthetic
gaps. It could be used to identify sealing compounds, bonding rubber sealants, Flouro silicone sealants, Viton base sealants,
agents, adhesives and sometimes even fillers. Almost all etc.
sealants used in general aviation today are non-metallic except
a few varieties in to which metallic particles are mixed to gain SEALANT USAGE
certain physical properties.
There are many uses for sealants on the aircraft. Some of these
At the completion of surface preparation, there are sealants, usages are listed below and the methods of application of
which can be used straight out of the container while others sealant for the below mentioned purposes.
require a certain amount of preparation before application. In
this regard sealants can be grouped as  Sealing the fuselage structure to make sure that the
necessary internal pressure is kept during the flight
• Single part sealants – Direct application (pressure sealing)
• Two part sealants – Require mixing
• Multi part sealants – Require mixing or sequenced  Sealing the fuel tanks or for the repair of fuel tank
application sealing
Once applied the curing time of a sealant depend upon the type  Sealing the external joints of the aircraft structure to
of sealant used and the curing process adopted. It is useful to make sure that water does not go into the structure
note that the curing time has a direct connection with the type of (weather sealing) and to make the structure
sealant used (other than compatibility implications) for a repair aerodynamically smooth (aerodynamic cleanliness)
and the curing time especially when the repair is to be
completed in a given time frame such as in a repair prior to a  Sealing riveted and bolted joints to make sure that
departure. liquids do not go into the joints (corrosion prevention)

6.3 - 16 Mar 2014
 Sealing sandwich structures to make sure that moisture (B) THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS/DETERIORATION IN
does not go into the structure. COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIAL
 To prevent corrosion (galvanic action) between different While composites do not suffer the corrosion and cracking
Metals problems, associated with metals and also have good fatigue
characteristics, they do, however, require regular inspection for
 To prevent corrosion between different materials, the defects to which they are particularly prone.
especially between CFRP and aluminum alloys
 To prevent fretting corrosion caused by fatigue stress or The areas to be inspected are, usually well known and they will
vibration between parts of the structure be detailed in the relevant chapter (51-57 for Airframe topics,
61-61 for Propellers) of the Aircraft Maintenance Manual
 To fill cavities (AMM). The inspection methods to be used will be found in the
Non-destructive Testing Manual (NTM) and the approved repair
 To provide protect for the surfaces on housings, procedures will be outlined in the Structural Repair Manual
channels, tubes, electrical cables electrical components (SRM).
and even already applied sealants (over coating)
Repairs in unexpected areas, or damage, which is not covered
in the SRM, will necessitate the request of specific repair
drawings from the aircraft manufacturer.
Causes of Damage
If a sharp object strikes a thermosetting plastic, the plastic is

liable to crack and shatter, like glass, with straight sharp edges.
The reason for this is that, once a crack starts in the plastic, it
travels very easily and quickly in a straight line. Damage of this
kind would be disastrous in a load-bearing component.

6.3 - 17 Mar 2014
The damage appears as a ‘star’ in the composite, providing it modes. Each strand of fibre acts as a trap, to stop cracks
has no surface finish applied to it. An important point about this travelling through the plastic (refer to Fig. 02). A travelling
type of damage is that there is little loss of strength in the crack quickly reaches a fibre, which is difficult to break so,
overall material, in addition to the absence of the shattering that instead, the crack travels along the fibre. Eventually the
occurs without fibre reinforcement. crack reaches another fibre and is deflected again. This
process continues until the failure is divided into many
The majority of damage to composite structures occurs during small cracks, which will not have propagated far from the
ground handling (such as from dropped tools), and damage initial damage.
from ground equipment. Bird-strike damage can also require
extensive repairs. Damage to composite structures may result
from a number of other causes such as:
 Erosion caused by rain, hail, dust etc.

 Fire
 Overload caused by heavy landings, flight through
turbulent air and excessive ‘g’ loading.
 Lightning strikes and static discharge.
 Chafing against internal fittings such as pipes and cables.
Types of Damage
The types of damage, which may affect fibre-reinforced

structures are:
 Cracks which may simply affect the outer lamination or

may penetrate through the skin.
Fibre reinforced plastics however, apart from being much

stronger than normal plastics, have different failure

6.3 - 18 Mar 2014
Fig. 02 Crack propagation in composites

6.3 - 19 Mar 2014
 Delaminations - which involves separation of the fibre

glass layers and may affect single or multiple layers.
 Deboning - when honeycomb sandwich structures are

damaged, the effect usually entails separation of the
honeycomb from the skin. The reason for this is that the
bonding of the skin to the honeycomb walls is along very
fine lines, and this bond is fairly easily broken.
Once there is separation, the strength of the whole

structure is reduced by a significant amount. Greater
damage can be due to the crushing of the honeycomb
core itself, which may require extensive repair or even
replacement of the complete component.
 Blisters - which usually indicate a breakdown in the bond

within the outer laminations and may be caused by
moisture penetration through a small hole, or by poor
initial bonding.
 Holes - these may range from small pits, affecting one or

two outer layers, to holes, which completely penetrate the
component. Holes may be caused by lightning strikes or
by static discharge.

6.3 - 20 Mar 2014
COMPOSITE INSPECTION
Today's composite inspection techniques and non-destructive

testing (NDT) methods typically involve the use of multiple
methods to accurately determine the airworthiness of an aircraft
structure. Fortunately, many metal inspection and NDT methods
transfer to composite applications. Composite structures require
ongoing inspection intervals along with non-scheduled damage
inspection and testing.
When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be

thoroughly inspected to determine the extent of the damage,
which often extends beyond the immediate apparent defect.
Proper inspection and testing methods help determine the
classification of damage, which is, whether the damage is
repairable or whether the part must be replaced. In addition,
classifying the damage helps to determine the proper method of
repair. The manufacturer's structural repair manual outlines
inspection procedures, damage classification factors, and
recommended repair methods.
Some of the more common composite inspection and testing

methods are visual inspection, tap testing, and ultrasonic testing
along with several other more advanced NDT methods.

6.3 - 21 Mar 2014
VISUAL INSPECTION use of additional, more advanced methods of inspection when

damage is suspected.
Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection method
in aviation. Ideally, pilots, ground crew and maintenance
technicians visually inspect the aircraft on a daily basis. Where TAPTEST / RING TEST
composite materials are concerned visual inspection is
generally used to detect resin-rich areas, resin starvation, edge This is one of the simplest methods used to detect damage in
delaminations, fiber breakage, cracks, blistering, and other bonded parts. The laminated part is tapped with a coin or small
types of surface irregularities. A strong light and magnifying metallic object, such as a ring or a tap hammer to detect
glass are useful tools for visual inspection. In extremely critical delaminations. The tap test is an acoustic test, one in which you
cases a small microscope is helpful in determining whether the listen for sound differences in the part, and is not the most
fibers in a cracked surface are broken, or if the crack affects accurate test method. The tap test detects delaminations close
resin only. to the surface in addition to transitions to different internal
structures. A properly prepared, undamaged laminated area
Shining a strong light through the structure, called backlighting,
produces a sharp, even pitch as compared to a delaminated
helps in the identification of cracked or broken fibers, and, in
some cases, delaminations. The delaminated area may appear area, which produces a dull sound. However, changes in the
as a bubble, an indentation in the surface, or a change in color if thickness of the part, reinforcements, fasteners and previous
viewed from the side opposite the light. However, backlighting repairs may give false readings when using the tap test. Tap
does not detect entrapped water. In addition, to properly inspect testing will not indicate subsurface delaminations if the defect is
a composite using the backlight method, you must strip the well below the surface, especially in thick laminated parts.
surface of all paint. Thus tap test should be limited to near surface inspection of
bond-line defects. Inspection of the bond-line by tap testing
Many times, visual inspection alone is not adequate to becomes less and less effective as the depth of the bond-line
accurately determine the soundness of a composite structure. In from the surface increases. As shown in the figure
the case of visually inspecting a sandwich structure, many times
core crush is not evident from the surface. The surface may not
show any residual damage and may have sprung back to its
original shape and location, which is one of the main problems
with inspecting composite materials. Internal damage is not
always evident from the surface, which further necessitates the

6.3 - 22 Mar 2014
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Ultrasonic inspection is the most common instrumental NDT

method used on composites today. An ultrasonic tester is useful
for detecting internal damage such as delaminations, core
crush, and other subsurface defects.
Two common methods of ultrasonic testing are;
Pulse echo
Through transmission
methods as shown in the figure below.
In the pulse echo method, the tester generates ultrasonic

pulses, sends them through the part, and receives the return
echo. The echo patterns are displayed on an oscilloscope. An
advantage to the pulse echo method is that it only requires
access to one side of the structure. However, near-surface
defects do not readily allow sound to pass through them,
making it difficult to detect defects located under the first defect.
The pulse echo method works well on laminates because they
do not reduce the magnitude of sound waves as much as a
bonded core structure. The through transmission method uses
two transducers. One transducer emits ultrasonic waves
through the part and the other receives them. Defects located at
multiple levels throughout the structure are more easily detected
Fig. 03 Tap Test because the receiver, located on the backside of the part,
receives the reduced amount of sound waves that pass through
the defects. The ratio of the magnitudes of sound vibrations
transmitted and received determines the structure's reliability.

6.3 - 23 Mar 2014
Testing bonded-core structures usually requires the through

transmission method due to the fact that sound waves reduce in
magnitude as they travel through the sandwich structure. To
effectively test this type of structure, the use of a receiver on the
backside of the part dramatically increases the likelihood of
detecting a defect.
RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography or x-ray inspection is used to detect differences in

the thickness or physical density compared to the surrounding
material of a composite. It can be used to detect surface as well
as internal cracks. Radiography also detects entrapped water
inside honeycomb core cells. In addition to detecting the actual
defect, it can also detect the extent and size of the damage,
unlike ultrasonic or tap testing. X-ray inspection will also detect
foreign objects in the composite structure if the object's density
is different from the composite structure.
THERMOGRAPHY
Thermography locates flaws by temperature variations at the

surface of a damaged part. Heat is applied to the part and the
temperature gradients are measured using an infrared camera.
Thermography requires knowledge of the thermal conductivity

of the test specimen and a reference standard for comparison
purposes.

6.3 - 24 Mar 2014
DYE PENETRANT REPAIR OF COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
Dye penetrant successfully detects cracks and other defects in The newer advanced composites use stronger fabrics and resin
metallic surfaces, but should not be used on composite matrices, which cannot be repaired in the same way as
structure unless called for by the manufacturer of that particular fiberglass. A common misconception of advanced composites is
part. If a dye penetrant is used on the composite structure and that they can be repaired in the same way as the older
allowed to sit on the surface, the wicking action of the fibers fiberglass structures. To repair an advanced composite
may absorb the penetrant. Absorbed penetrant does not allow structure using the materials and techniques traditionally used
fibers to bond to new material. The entire area affected by the for fiberglass repairs may result in an un airworthy repair. Such
dye penetrant would have to be removed before a patch could traditional fiberglass repairs allow for excessive weight,
be applied, which could extend the damaged area of the part to increased susceptibility to material fatigue and decreased
a size that would make the part unserviceable. flexibility.
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING Depending on the manufacturer of the aircraft, classification of

damage is usually placed in one of three categories as,
Another nondestructive testing technique used to detect
composite defects is acoustic emission testing. Presently, this - Negligible damage
type of test is more commonly found in production facilities
rather than in maintenance. Acoustic emission testing is a - Repairable damage
comparison test. Thus to detect flaws a good test sample must
be available to compare the test results of the composite - Non-repairable damage
structure. It measures the sounds of a structure and any
subsequent defects. Basically, acoustic emission testing picks Negligible damage may be corrected by a simple procedure
up the "noise" of the defect and displays it on an oscilloscope. with no flight restrictions. Repairable damage is damage to the
skin, bond, or core that cannot be repaired without placing
This type of testing detects entrapped water, cracks, de restrictions on the aircraft or structure. A composite structure
lamination, and other subsurface flaws. that is damaged beyond limits is must be replaced unless a
structurally sound repair can be designed by a structural
engineer. If a particular damage cannot be repaired using such

6.3 - 25 Mar 2014
a structurally sound repair scheme that damage is considered

as a non repairable damage.

6.3 - 26 Mar 2014
TYPES OF REPAIRS This type of repair involves removing the damaged plies, and
laminating on new ones.
The exact procedures for repair of various laminated composite
structures depend partly on the type of damage incurred. The
damage can range from a relatively simple surface scratch, to
damage completely through all internal plies and core
honeycomb material. There are four types of composite repairs:
- Bolted metal or cured composite patches
- Bonded metal or cured composite patches
- Resin injection
- Laminating new repair plies to the damage
Bolted and bonded surface patches are not usually

recommended due to the fact that these types of patches do not
restore the strength characteristics of the original structure. A
bolted or bonded patch that is attached to the surface also
causes undesirable aerodynamic changes.
Resin injection repairs are used to fill holes or voids. They are
accomplished by injecting resin into the hole of a damaged area
using a needle and syringe. This type of repair is usually done
on non-structural parts. The injected resin does not restore the
original strength, and, in some cases, expands the
delaminations.
The most desirable type of permanent repair to composite

structure is to laminate new repair plies in the damaged area.

6.3 - 27 Mar 2014
ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION
All repairs must be performed correctly, based on the type and

extent of damage, in addition to the function of the damaged
structure. Several of the more common reasons that composite
repairs fail are poor surface preparation, and contamination of
the reinforcing fabric or matrices used in the repair. Additionally,
repairs may fail if the measuring and mixing requirements of the
matrices are not explicitly followed. Failure may also occur if the
cure times or temperatures are not adhered to explicitly. Finally,
repairs may fail if inadequate pressure is applied to the repair
during the curing process.
In order to ensure that composite repairs do not fail from the

items described above, proper damage assessment and repair
preparation are a must. Steps such as the initial damage
assessment and classification, materials preparation, surface
preparation, damage removal, cleaning, and water removal are
essential to achieve an airworthy composite repair.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Before starting any repair, a complete and total assessment of

the damage must be made. It is important to evaluate the
damage to determine such information as the type of defect,
depth, size and location on the aircraft. With any type of
assessment, the most important tool an aircraft maintenance
technician has is his or her critical judgment, based on
experience. A general guideline to follow when assessing
damage includes the following steps.

6.3 - 28 Mar 2014
- Visually examine the part to determine the type and extent of complete list of items including the number of plies, type of
damage. material, and ply orientation.
- Check the damaged area for water, oil, fuel, dirt or other
foreign matter contamination.
- Check for delaminations around the damaged area.
- Check for subsurface damage, if warranted, with other forms

of advanced nondestructive testing methods.
- Determine the repairable damage limits as found in the

manufacturer's repair manual.
- Determine the proper repair procedure, if approved, as

outlined in the manufacturer's repair manual.
Several of the more common types of composite damages

include cosmetic defects, impact damage, cracks, and holes. It
is important to understand and be able to identify each of these
types of damage to properly classify and subsequently repair
them.
MATERIAL PREPARATION
A proper composite repair begins by gathering the materials

needed for the repair. The structural repair manual provides a

6.3 - 29 Mar 2014
Following is a list of steps commonly performed in the materials

preparation phase of a composite repair. Check the structural
repair manual and determine the needed composite materials
specific to the area that was damaged on the aircraft. Following
details should be looked into,
- Material type, class, and style
- Number of plies, orientation and stacking sequence
- Adhesive and matrix systems
- Type of core material, ribbon direction, core splicing adhesive

and potting compound
- Check the shelf-life limits of all needed resins, adhesives, and

pre-impregnated materials.
Identify and understand all deviations from the original

manufacturing materials. For example, repairs to aramid
material may use another type of reinforcing fabric to prevent
the blistering problems that occur with aramid. However, when
deviating from the manufacturer's recommended materials list,
be aware of the potential problems if the proper item is not
chosen.
Identify the proper cure system and ensure that the correct tools
are available such as hot patch bonding machines, heat
blankets, vacuum bagging equipment, etc. Weigh and mix the
resins according to the manufacturer's mixing requirements.

6.3 - 30 Mar 2014
SURFACE PREPARATION DAMAGE REMOVAL
Proper surface preparation is a key element to a good When preparing for a composite repair, the damaged area must
composite repair. It is one area that can cause a repair to fail. be completely removed to provide a strong adhesion area. If
Therefore, be sure to remove all surface contaminates such as damage has occurred to the core material of a sandwich
exhaust residue, hydraulic fluid, and other dirt by using a structure, it must be removed prior to step cutting the laminate
suitable soap and water solution followed by an approved face sheets. Routers are routinely used to remove honeycomb
solvent. After cleaning the surface, the paint must be removed core damage. In the case of laminated composite structures,
from the damaged area in order to allow adhesion. Leftover step and scarf cutting are done to remove specific plies.
paint in the repair area does not allow the resins to properly
adhere, which compromises the repair. Do not use paint ROUTING
strippers, which deteriorate most epoxy resins within the
structure. This may expose the reinforcing fabric, which allows Air-driven routers are specially suited for repairing bonded
the absorption of more stripper into the structure. honeycomb structures. Handheld routers spin the cutting blade
10,000-20,000 r.p.m. The collar and support bracket allow for
Sanding the surface is generally performed to smoothen and the adjustment of the cutter so it can cut through the core
prepare the surface for finishing. If sanding is performed, take material without damaging the opposite face sheet.
care not to remove too much material. Over sanding may make
the damage more extensive, and, in some cases, the part to be STEP CUTTING
irreparable. If the surrounding plies are damaged during the
sanding process, the repair must be enlarged to include this To properly step cut a laminated structure, each successive
area. layer of fiber and matrix must be removed without damaging the
underlying layer. Great care must be exercised during this
Once the surface finish has been removed from the damaged process to avoid damaging the surrounding fibers. Using
area, other areas should be masked off for protection. This sanding as the method of step cutting provides the most control.
portion of the repair preparation defines the area that will be The proper amount of space for each step cut should be
removed to accommodate the repair patch. marked off by using the following procedures
- Outline the entire damaged area that must be cut out and
removed

6.3 - 31 Mar 2014
- Expand the repair radius (assuming the repair is circular) by MECHANICALLY FASTENED REPAIRS WITH PRE-CURED
half an inch for each ply that must be repaired PATCHES
- Extend the radius by an additional one-inch if an overlap patch At times, the facilities and bagging equipment are not available
is called for Step cutting is accomplished by sanding away to produce a proper composite repair. In this case, a temporary
approximately one-half inch of each layer with tapering down to repair made of a pre-cured patch inserted with blind fasteners
the center of the repair. Initially, Aramid (Kevlar) will fuzz and may be used. However, this type of repair does not produce a
carbon will produce a fine powder as each layer is sanded structure with the same strength as the original, and it may
through. cause vibration because it is not a flush repair. If composite
patches are required, kits with pre-cured patches may be
Eventually, the materials will show a gloss area for each ply available. Pre-cured patches come in several sizes and are
removed. The gloss indicates the next layer. When the gloss produced to have the fibers of each layer in the correct
effect is seen, sanding must be stopped, otherwise the next orientation.
layer may be damaged. Another way to determine if one layer
has been sanded is to look for a change in fiber direction, which
is only possible when the warp has been placed in alternating
positions.
SCARF CUTTING
Scarf cutting is used to remove damaged material with a

tapered cutout. Dimensions of the scarf are based on the ratio
of the total height of the plies to a given length. The scarf should
taper down to the center of the repair. By shining a light on the
surface of a scarf cut, you can identify the layer transitions

6.3 - 32 Mar 2014
In addition, some manufacturers offer various sizes of core

materials that are bonded to pre-cured laminates. The
technician can route out the damaged area and simply insert
this type of core and laminate patch. This type of repair may
have a type of adhesive pre-applied to help it bond. These types
of patches are usually stabilized using some type of mechanical
blind fastener, which is drilled through the patch and into the
original part. The problem with using any type of rivet is that
they have a tendency to crush the core and produce
delaminations.
These types of repairs must be performed using the correct type

of fasteners. Hole expanding fasteners such as MS20470 rivets
should not be used in composite structures because of the
possibility of causing damage. Impact damage and delamination
may occur due to the pressure of the rivet gun and bucking bar
and the expansion of the rivet. In addition, you must also make
sure metallic fasteners will not react with the composite and
cause galvanic corrosion. For example, metal fasteners used
with carbon/graphite composites must be made of corrosion
resistant steel or titanium to prevent this electrolytic action.
Fig. 04 Mechanically fastened repair with pre-cured patches

6.3 - 33 Mar 2014
POTTED REPAIRS LAMINATE STRUCTURE REPAIR
Potted repairs use a filler to complete the composite repair Laminated structures are susceptible to several different types
process. They provide an alternative to installing a core material of damage such as surface scratches, delaminations, impact,
plug but do not provide as much strength as a core material. and puncture damage. Each type of damage requires a different
repair procedure. Following are several basic laminate
Filling a hole with a resin and filler mixture adds weight and composite repair procedures.
decreases the flexibility of the part. However, many structural
repair manuals still list the potted repair as a viable repair for LAMINATE COSMETIC REPAIR
composite structures.
A cosmetic defect is a surface scratch that does not penetrate
the first structural ply. This type of damage is classified as
Most potted repairs are appropriate for honeycomb core negligible damage. Superficial scratches, abrasions, or rain
sandwich structures with damage up to one inch in diameter. In erosion can generally be repaired by applying one or more
some cases, it is permissible to drill a small hole into a coats of resin to the surface. The general process for repairing a
delaminated area and inject resin to strengthen the part. A cosmetic defect follows.
typical potted repair procedure requires the technician to:
- Clean the repair area with MEK (Methyl Ethyl Ketone) or other
- Clean the damaged area. approved solvent.
- Sand out the delaminated area. - Remove the paint from the repair area and feather the edges
- Fill the core area with a resin and micro balloon mixture. - Scuff-sand the damaged area to provide a good bond surface
- Prepare and install repair patches. - Clean the repair area with solvent to remove all sanding
residue
- Apply pressure and cure.
- Mix resin and filler or approved surface putty
- Refinish the part
- Apply resin/filler mixture to repair area using a squeegee,
brush, or fairing tool

6.3 - 34 Mar 2014
- Cover repair area with cellophane and work out all air bubbles - Cure according to the manufacturer's instructions
- Cure the repair according to the manufacturer's instructions
- Re-finish the part
DELAMINATION REPAIR
Delaminations occurs when the laminate layers become

separated or when the plies separate from the core material. It
can be caused by sonic vibration, entrapped moisture, and
manufacturing defects. Delaminations is sometimes referred to
as un bonding, or dis bonding and, in some cases, can be
detected by shining a light over the part and looking at the
damaged area at an angle. Delaminations may look like a
bubble or indentation on the surface of the part.
In some cases, internal delaminations is minor enough to repair

using a potting compound. It can sometimes be repaired by
simply injecting resin into the cavity that was caused by the ply
separation. If the delaminations is severe enough, it must be
removed and repaired or replaced; always check the
manufacturer's repair limitations. A typical de lamination
injection repair procedure for minor delaminations is as follows
- Inject mixed resin into one hole allowing air to vent from the
other
- Clean excess resin from the surface of the part

6.3 - 35 Mar 2014
LAMINATE DAMAGE TO ONE SURFACE
This type of repair calls for the removal and replacement of the
damaged laminate plies. Fiber damage to one side of the
surface that does not completely penetrate the part may be
repaired as follows
- Prepare the surface by removing the paint and cleaning
- Remove the damage by scarf or step-cutting the plies
- Mix the resin and prepare the bonding patches
- Apply pressure and cure the part
LAMINATE DAMAGE THROUGH THE PART
• Damage that run through all the laminate layers can be

repaired in several ways depending on the number of plies, the
location of the damage and the size of the damage. Check the
manufacturers repair manual for the exact limitations regarding
each type of damage.

6.3 - 36 Mar 2014
• Repairable damage can be fixed in several different ways.
The damage can be repaired by using a step cut that starts

from one side of the part to the other or for thicker laminated
structures using a step cut that starts from both the sides
which, meets at the center of the structure.

6.3 - 37 Mar 2014
SANDWICH STRUCTURE REPAIRS
Sandwich structures are vulnerable to impact and puncture

damage primarily because these types of structures usually
incorporate relatively thin face sheets. Because the face sheets
of sandwich structures are relatively thin, de laminations
commonly occur at the point where the face sheet bonds to the
core material. Puncture damage may be repaired in several
different ways depending on the size, extent, and location of the
damage. Two of the more common types of sandwich structure
repair are described below.
PUNCTURE REPAIR
Small punctures that penetrate one side and into the core
material may be repaired using a resin and filler mixture. Check
the repair manual for damage limitations before proceeding with
this type of repair. Generally, small punctures can be repaired
using the following procedure.
- Determine the extent of the damage and check the repair

limitations
-Vacuum out the hole
-Prepare the resin and filler (milled glass fibers)
- Work the resin/filler mixture into the hole
-Cure the resin in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions
- Sand the surface with fine sandpaper
- Prepare the surface for finishing using an approved solvent

6.3 - 38 Mar 2014
HONEYCOMB CORE REPAIRS
As discussed previously, potted repairs may be made to areas

of damage of up to one-inch diameter. If the damaged area is
larger than an inch or in a more critical area, a balsa wood or
composite honeycomb plug may be cut and bonded in place. If
balsa is used, cut the plug so the grain is perpendicular to the
skin. If honeycomb material is used, it should be the same
density as the original core material.

6.3 - 39 Mar 2014
Aluminum alloy-faced honeycomb repairs of a simple puncture

of an aluminum alloy-faced honeycomb panel can be
accomplished by covering with a doubler plate. The plate should
be cut from a piece of aluminum the same or up to one and
one-half times the thickness of the original skin thickness.
Additionally, doubler should be tapered at a ratio of about 100:1
MAINTENANCE ENTRIES
After performing any repair, a proper maintenance entry is

required before the job is complete.. Several items specific to
composite repair should be included in the description of work
performed such as the time, temperature and pressure used in
the cure cycle. In addition to that type of fabric, core material
matrix, and adhesives used also must be mentioned.

6.3 - 40 Mar 2014
6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURE has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which makes it a very
desirable structural material for use in aircraft construction.
Introduction Softwood is usually used as a solid wood for spars, cap strips,
and compression members and as a veneer for plywood cores.
Wood aircraft structures combine many of the attributes Woods included in the softwoods used in aircraft are Sitka
associated with metal and composite structures, such as light spruce, Douglas fir, Port Oxford white cedar, and western
weight, low cost, and high strength, while requiring only the hemlock. Sitka spruce is the wood used as a reference material
minimum of special equipment for proper maintenance and to establish the suitability of other softwoods for use in aircraft
repair. For this reason, many of the lighter aircraft that have construction and repair.
been produced have made use of wood primary and secondary
components, such as wing spars, ribs, and control surfaces. A HARDWOODS
great many of these aircraft are still in operation, and a few
designs are still in production using wooden structural Hardwoods come from trees that have broad leaves and are
components. classified as deciduous because they lose their leaves each fall.
The wood of these trees is composed of a mixture of large cells,
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF WOOD causing pores in the wood, distributed among the smaller
AND GLUE USED IN AEROPLANE fibrous cells. These pores are often visible when the wood is cut
smoothly. Hardwoods are generally heavier than softwoods
and are used where their strength advantage makes the extra
There are two principal types of wood, hardwoods and weight acceptable over the softwoods. Hardwoods are
softwoods, and all woods may be classed as one or the other. commonly used as solid wood for support blocks and tip bows
The distinction between hardwoods and softwoods is not based and as veneers for the facing and core material of plywood.
on the "hardness" of the wood but rather on the cellular Hardwoods commonly used in aircraft structures include
structure of the wood. mahogany, birch, and white ash
SOFTWOODS WOODS TERMINOLOGY

Softwoods come from trees that have needle like or scale like Even though the aircraft technician may not have occasion to
leaves and are classified as evergreens or conifers. The wood use standard terminology for woods very often, as shown in
of these trees is composed primarily of fibrous cells and has a figure 3.2
smooth, even appearance when cut in cross section. Softwood

6.3 - 41 Mar 2014
Annual rings Concentric layers of wood that can be seen at the Decay a biological growth living off of the wood and causing a
end of a tree trunk that has been cut perpendicular to its length. breakdown in the strength of the wood. Discoloration may also
The rings are caused by the different rates of growth during be present.
each year as the seasons change. Knot The base of a limb inside the tree. A knot will cause a
deviation of the grain lines as they form around the knot.
Bark The external covering of a tree trunk or branch. Heartwood The center part of a tree trunk, which is dead and
carries no sap. This part of the tree serves only to support the
Grain The lines in wood caused by the annual rings. Grain also refers tree.
to the direction of the wood fibres.
Moisture content The weight of water contained in a wood
sample compared to the weight of the wood sample if all the
water was removed from it.
Sapwood The part of a tree that is alive or partially alive and

carries sap. Sapwoods begin immediately under the bark and
extend to the heartwood. The sapwood is often lighter in color
than the heartwood.
Shake A separation between the annual ring layers.
Split A crack in the wood resulting from rough handling.
Spring wood The soft, light colored part of the annual ring. This
wood ring is normally wider than the summerwood ring because
of the rapid tree growth during the spring season.
Summer wood The harder and usually darker part of each

annual ring. This wood is formed during the slow summer
Check A radial crack that cuts across the grain lines. season growth.

6.3 - 42 Mar 2014
AIRCRAFT WOOD EVALUATION
The primary requirement for wood that is to be used in aircraft

structures is that it is sufficiently sound and of such quality that it
will provide the strength required for the structure. It has been
determined through research that Sitka spruce is generally the
best wood for use in aircraft structures because of its
combination of lightness, strength, stiffness per unit weight, and
toughness when compared to other species. Because of Fig. 02 Classification of water in wood
specific requirements, other species may be used due to unique
qualities within the general evaluation criteria. Aircraft woods are kiln-dried to remove all the free water and a
portion of the cell water, so the resulting moisture content is
The following paragraphs discuss the wood characteristics that between 8 and 12 percent. Moisture content above or below this
the technician must consider when selecting wood of the range is not considered acceptable.
desired species.
Kiln-dried wood is dried by placing the boards of fresh- cut wood
There are two classifications of water in wood, in a precisely controlled oven and raising the temperature to a
1. free water specified level for a specified period of time. Not only does this
process reduce the moisture content to the desired level, but it
2. cell water also kills the insects and decay- producing organisms that may
have infected the wood.
free water is the water that flows up and down the tree carrying
nutrients. WOOD SUBSTITUTIONS
Cell water is water trapped within the walls of the wood cells' When repairing or rebuilding wood components, species
structure and is part of the structure of the tree. substitution may be allowed if the structural strength of the
component is not reduced. Note that the choice of a substitution

6.3 - 43 Mar 2014
may have to take into account changes in size, different gluing

qualities, and different working qualities.
Plywood:
Laminated Wood
Plywood is composed of an uneven number of layers (plies) of
wood veneer assembled with the grain of each layer at an angle Laminated wood is several layers of solid wood bonded
of 45° to 90° to the adjacent layers. The outside layers are together with an adhesive. Laminated wood differs from
called the faces, or the face and back, and the inner layers are plywood in that each layer of wood has the grain running in the
called the core and cross bands. The core is the center ply, and same direction, whereas plywood has the grain direction of
the layers between the core and outer layers are the cross each layer at a large angle to the previous layer. Laminated
bands. Wood tends to be more rigid than a piece of solid wood of the
same size. Laminated wood is used for components that require
Plywood has a number of advantages over solid wood in that it a curved shape, such as wing-tip bows and fuselage formers,
is not likely to warp, it is highly resistant to cracking, and its and is used in place of solid wood, such as for solid-type wing
strength is almost equal in any direction when stresses are spars.
applied along the length or width of a panel. Its change in
dimension is negligible with changes in moisture content. GLUES AND GLUING PROCEDURES
The most commonly used types of plywood for aircraft

manufacture are mahogany and birch. The core and cross Glues are used almost exclusively for joining wood in aircraft
bands may be made of basswood or a similar wood that construction and repair. A part is regarded as satisfactorily
provides adequate strength. Mahogany has a reddish-brown glued if the strength of the joint is equal to the strength of the
appearance, whereas birch is of a light yellow or cream color. wood. In a strong joint, there is complete contact of glue and
Mahogany offers a better gluing surface than birch because of wood surfaces over the entire area of the joint and a thin,
its porosity. When selecting or ordering plywood for aircraft use, continuous film of glue between the wood layers unbroken by
the technician should make sure that the wood is of aircraft foreign particles or air bubbles.
quality.
Types of Glues
There are two broad categories of glue used in aircraft wood

structure, casein and synthetic resin. The synthetic resin glues

6.3 - 44 Mar 2014
are commonly used in modern construction and repair  In preparation for mixing, the ingredients are measured out
operations. in the proper proportions. These proportions may be either
by weight or by volume.
Casein glues are manufactured from milk products, are highly
water-resistant, and require the addition of sodium salts and  The sequence of mixing may call for the powder to be added
lime to prevent attack by micro organisms. to water, water to be added to the powder, or two liquid
components to be mixed in some specific sequence, such
Synthetic glues are of the urea formaldehyde, resorcinol as adding a liquid catalyst to liquid glue.
formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, and epoxy types.
Depending on the formulation of the glue, it may be water  For mixing glues properly, the room temperature generally
resistant or waterproof and may be purchased in a liquid or must be at or above 70oF [21°C]. The process of mixing the
powdered form. Synthetic glues are not attacked by micro glue requires that the speed of mixing be slow enough so
organisms. that air is not whipped into the mixture. Air would result in a
weak glue joint.
Mixing Glues
 Once the glue is mixed, it may have to stand for some
The mixing of glues must be done in accordance with the glue period of time to allow the components of the glue to interact
manufacturer's instructions to assure that the full strength of the before a proper glue joint can be formed.
glue will be available. The following discussion is meant to
present guidelines for mixing glues so that the technician will  Once the glue is ready to be used, it has a specific working
have an idea of mixing requirements. life, during which it can be applied with assurance that a
proper glue bond will form. This time is influenced by the
 The container used for mixing glues must be of a material room temperature, with higher temperatures resulting in a
that will not react with the chemicals that make up the glue. shorter working life. If the ambient temperature is high, the
working life of the glue can be extended by placing the glue
 The container and mixing tools must be clean and free of container in a water bath of cool water (no lower than 70°F
any contaminants or old glue. [21°C]). The average working life of glues is 4 to 5 h at 70°F
[21°C].
Surface Preparation for Gluing

6.3 - 45 Mar 2014
moisture content of the wood; therefore, the moisture added in

Wood surfaces to be glued should be smooth and true. this manner must dry out or distribute itself in the wood before
Chapped or loosened grain, machine marks, and other surface the part can be machined or finished.
irregularities are objectionable. Joints of maximum strength are
made between two planed or smoothly sawed surfaces that are
equally true.
Softwoods should not be sanded when preparing the surface for

gluing. Sanding fills the wood pores with wood dust and Gluing Pressure
prevents the glue from properly penetrating the surface.
However, hardwoods can be sanded prior to gluing without any The functions of pressure on a glue joint are as follows:
detrimental effects on the glue bond. With either type of wood,
filing and planning are considered proper methods to prepare 1. To squeeze the glue into a thin, continuous film between
the surface for gluing. the wood layers.
The surface to be glued should be free of any paints, oils, 2. To force air from the joint.
waxes, marks, or particles that would interfere in any .way with
the proper bonding of the glue to the wood surface. The 3. To bring the wood surfaces into intimate contact with the
presence of wax on a surface can be detected by placing water glue.
drops on the surface. If they bead up, then wax is present and
must be removed prior to gluing. This may be particularly useful 4. To hold the surfaces in intimate contact during the
in determining the surface condition of ply woods that may have setting of the glue.
been protected with a waxed paper.
A light pressure is used with thin glue and a heavy pressure is
Moisture content at the time of gluing that is between 8 and 12 used with thick glue.
percent is generally regarded as satisfactory, but the higher the
moisture content within this range, the better will be the joint. If The method of applying pressure depends on the size, shape
the moisture content is too low, the glue cannot wet the surface ,and contour of the surface. Pressure can be applied by the use
properly, and it sometimes produces what are called starved of clamps, nails, weights, nail strips, or screws.
joints-that is, joints not adequately bonded. Gluing increases the

6.3 - 46 Mar 2014
CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF WOODEN AIRFRAME

STRUCTURES
Before attempting to repair a damaged wooden aircraft

structure, the technician must understand the nature of the
required repair and have the correct materials and technical
information required at hand to make the repair.
Bending and Forming Wood
Bending of wood is necessary to achieve the desired shape of Fig. 03Wooden Aircraft Structure
components while maintaining the structural strength of a
straight piece of wood. Any type of wood may be bent, with the
degree of shaping depending upon the size of the piece, the Solid wood is normally bent only over a very large radius and
type of wood, and the technique used in preparing the wood for then only when the wood is of a small cross-sectional area.
bending. Typical airframe components made of bent solid wood include
wing-tip bows, rib cap strips, and fuselage stringers.
Laminated wood structures are commonly used to form any

severely bent structure because of the ease with which the thin
laminations can be formed and because of the high strength of

6.3 - 47 Mar 2014
the finished laminated structure. Curved laminated structures

are used for items such as tip bows, formers, and bulkheads.
Plywood is formed to make leading-edge coverings and surface

panels. Most curved plywood components start out as flat
sheets and, through various bending operations, are formed to
the desired shape.
While solid and laminated structures are normally bent in only

one direction, plywood is often bent in two planes by stretching
it over formers, resulting in a double curvature. This double
curvature is often found in areas such as fairings and wing tips.
Wood may be bent in a dry condition or after being soaked in

water for some period of time. Dry bending allows the least
amount of bending, whereas soaking the wood in cold water
makes the wood more flexible. Fig. 04Forming and Bending of wood
To in crease the flexibility of the wood, it can be soaked in hot WING SPAR CONSTRUCTION
water or, for maximum flexibility; it can be heated in a steam Wooden wing spars are constructed using several different
chamber. techniques, depending on the size of spar required and the
structural strength requirements. Some aircraft may include
The wood should be exposed to the steam for I hour per inch several different construction techniques along the length of one
[2.54 cm] of thickness, with a maximum of 4 h exposure. spar as the required structural strength changes. Based on the
Excessive heating causes the wood to break down structurally. materials used in the structure, spars can be divided into two
Immediately after steaming, the wooden part must be bent. If broad categories: solid spars and built-up spars.
the curvature is slight, the part may be bent by hand over a form
of the desired shape. Solid spars use solid wood as the primary components. These
spars may be made of one piece of wood that is rectangular in
cross section, several pieces of solid wood laminated together,

6.3 - 48 Mar 2014
an externally routed solid piece, or an internally routed spar width. Therefore, the ribs of tapered wings vary in size from
formed by routing out portions of two boards and then joining wing tip to wing root, although the cross sectional shape (airfoil
the routed sides of the boards together to form a spar. section) of each rib is the same throughout in most designs.
A wood rib is usually assembled in a rib jig. The rib jig is made
Built-up spars include a combination of solid wood and by drawing a pattern of the rib on a smooth, flat plank and then
plywood components. Built-up spars can be divided into three nailing small blocks of wood to the plank so that they outline the
basic types: rib pattern. During assembly, the cap strips are inserted
 C-beam between the blocks to hold them in the proper position for
 I-beam attachment of the vertical and diagonal members and the
 box-beam plywood gussets. Gussets are attached to the cap strips,
C-beam and I-beam spars consist of a plywood web as the verticals, and diagonals with nails and glue. Figure 05 shows a
principal vertical member running the length of the spar. At the rib assembled in the jig and a completed rib.
top and bottom of this web are located solid wood cap strips.
For a C-beam, the cap strips are on only one side of the The components of the rib are cut so that they are a "push" fit,
spar, whereas an I-beam has cap strips on both sides of the with perfect alignment between all contact surfaces. There
web. should not be any visible gap between components, and none
of the components should require more than a gentle push to
A box-beam spar consists of a top and bottom solid-wood cap position them onto the jig board.
strip, plywood webs on the outside of the cap strips, and
intercostals and blocks used for strength, stiffness, and
attachment of fittings.
RIB CONSTRUCTION
Ribs give the wing and other airfoil sections the desired cross
sectional shape. In some wings, certain ribs take the
compression load between the front and rear spars, in which
case they replace the compression struts that would otherwise
be used to separate members. A tapered wing may be tapered
in width, tapered in thickness, or tapered in both thickness and

6.3 - 49 Mar 2014
of the ribs. Ribs should not be attached by nailing through the

rib cap strips (top and bottom pieces), as this will significantly
weaken the ribs. Some rib installations make use of comer
blocks glued and nailed to the spars and the ribs to hold the ribs
in position. After the ribs are attached to the spars, a cap strip
may be placed on the top and bottom of the spars between the
ribs to further stabilize the ribs on the spars.
Wing-Tip Bow Construction and Repair
A wing tip may have any of several shapes. For example, it may
be square, elliptical, or circular in plan form. If the wing tip is
elliptical or circular, a wooden or metal wing-tip bow is required
for attaching the plywood or fabric covering. A wooden bow for
this purpose may be made of solid wood or laminations
Fig. 05Rib assembled in the jig and bent to the required shape.
Once all the components are cut and their fit is checked by
positioning them on the jig, glue is applied to all the contact
surfaces and the rib is assembled in the jig. Nails are used to
apply pressure to the glue joints covered by the gussets. Once
the glue has set, the rib is removed from the jig, excess glue is
removed, and gussets are added to the opposite side of the rib.
The rib is finished first by filing down any overhang of the

gussets and then by varnishing the rib. Care must be exercised
to prevent any varnish from getting on the wood in the areas
where the rib will be glued to the spars.
Wood ribs are commonly attached to the spar by the use of glue
and then nailing the rib to the spar through the vertical members

6.3 - 50 Mar 2014
PRESERVATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WOODEN

STRUCTURE
The earliest models of successful aircraft were constructed

largely with wood structures. Fuselages were then changed to
welded steel structures, but the airplane was still equipped with
wood structured wings and control surfaces. The maintenance
and care of these airplanes were handled remarkably well by
the technicians in both civil and military areas. The key to
success in the maintenance of the wood structures was the
selection of the best woods for aircraft structures and the proper
finishing of the woods to prevent the absorption of moisture.
Control Of Moisture
Moisture is the deadliest enemy of wood. Wood that is kept dry

Fig. 06Wing bow section will seldom, if ever, deteriorate over a period of many years.
Dry, in this sense, means that it holds no more moisture than its
Three types of wing-bow cross sections with the plywood natural content under dry-air conditions. On the other hand,
surface and the tip bow indicated in each. when unprotected wood is exposed to water for an appreciable
length of time, fungus begins to grow and penetrate the wood
A wing-tip bow that has been badly damaged should be cells. This fungus is the cause of decay, dry rot, or whatever
removed and replaced. A cracked or broken bow may be term is used to describe deterioration due to fungus. Moisture
repaired by splicing in a new piece. The new piece may be also has the effect of causing wood to swell. If wood is
spliced in at the spar. It should have the same contour as the alternately wet and dry over a period of time, it will crack and
original bow, and the splices should meet the requirements of a warp; this will reduce its structural strength and cause stresses
scarf joint. of various kinds.

6.3 - 51 Mar 2014
Temperature changes, although not as critical as moisture,

cause stresses and dimensional changes that can lead to
cracks, looseness of fittings, and deterioration of finishes.
It is apparent from the preceding that one of the primary
considerations in the care of airplanes with wood structures is to Desert conditions, with extremes of temperature and low
ensure that the wood is finished with an effective, water humidity, can cause a maximum of shrinkage in wood
resistant coating. Spar varnishes of the phenol formaldehyde structures. This can lead to loose fittings and separation of
type (MIL-V-6893) or glycerol phthalate type (MIL- V -6894) are some glued joints. It is incumbent upon technicians, under such
commonly employed for the finishing of wood structures. circumstances, to be particularly alert to detect these conditions.
Synthetic finishes with a polyurethane base are becoming
increasingly popular for finishing purposes. High temperatures also lead to deterioration of finishes. These
temperatures lead to the evaporation of plasticizers in coatings,
An important factor in preventing moisture from affecting wood and this causes brittleness and cracking. In such cases, it is
structures is to ensure that drain holes are provided in all low necessary to remove or rejuvenate finishes and restore them to
points and that the holes are kept open. The drain holes will optimum condition.
permit collected water to drain out and the area to dry. It is
important to consider drain holes when repairing or recovering Low temperatures are likely to cause damage if moisture is
an airplane. Sometimes a technician may fail to take note of the present. Freezing of wet structures can cause rupture of fibers
position of all drain holes, with the result that some critical areas and cells, thus weakening the parts affected.
may not have drain holes.
One of the best methods for extending the 'Service life of an

airplane with wood structures is to store it in a dry, well
ventilated hangar then it is not in use. This, of course, is not
always possible; however, the practice may well pay for itself in
reduced maintenance costs.
Effects of Temperature
Operation and Handling

6.3 - 52 Mar 2014
As with any type of airplane, having wood structures can be

damaged by improper operation and handling. Pilots must not
exceed flight limits set forth for the aircraft and should use great
care in landing and taxiing. Careless operation can lead to
broken or cracked spars and other wood structures.
Moving an aircraft on the ground must be done with care to

avoid cracking or breaking ribs and other structures in the wings
and control surfaces.
Note: Approved walkways and steps must be utilized when it is

necessary to climb upon the aircraft. Lifting and pushing must
be accomplished by applying force only to solid structures that
can withstand the forces applied.

6.3 - 53 Mar 2014
REPAIROF WOODEN STRUCTURES
The inspection of wood structures requires a great amount of Separated glue joints: Wherever a glue joint is found open or
care on the part of the technician. Because of the nature of separated, the structure must be rebuilt.
wood, it tends to hide the beginnings of deterioration and
cracks. The following discussion is designed to make the Deteriorated glue joints: Deterioration of glue joints is caused
technician aware of some of the problems that may be by aging and deterioration of the glue. Casein glue that was not
encountered when inspecting wood structures and some treated to prevent fungus will deteriorate in the presence of
methods that can be used to detect these problems. moisture. Synthetic resin glues are not generally subject to this
type of deterioration. Deteriorated glue joints require rebuilding
THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WOODEN STRUCTURE of the structure affected.
During the inspection of an airplane with wood structures, the Cracks: Shrinkage of the wood or stress applied to it can cause
technician must know what to look for that will indicate a cracks. Whatever the cause, the cracked member must be
defective or weak structure and the necessity for repair. The replaced.
following are defects most commonly found when performing a
complete inspection. Compression failure: Compression failure is caused by
compressive force acting essentially parallel to the grain of the
wood. Compression failure is indicated by a line or lines
Dry rot and decay: Dry rot and decay are essentially the same
extending across the; grain where the wood fibers have been
and are caused by fungus in damp or wet wood. The wood may
crushed. A test for a compression failure is to apply a small
be black, brown, grey or some combination of the three colors.
amount of free-running ink to the wood near the suspected
It may be breaking down into particles, or there may be a
break. The ink will flow along the normal grain until it reaches a
softening of the surface. Dry rot and decay can also be detected
compression failure. At this point it will flow cross-grain along
by pressing a sharp-pointed instrument such as a scribe into the
the failure.
wood to determine the force necessary to penetrate the wood. If
the force required is less than that required for the same depth
Surface crushing: Surface crushing is caused when the wood
of penetration in sound wood, it is a sign that deterioration has
is struck by a hard object. This produces indentation, abrasion,
taken place. These conditions require replacement of the
and rupture of the wood fibers. Damaged parts should be
defective part.
replaced or repaired.

6.3 - 54 Mar 2014
Staining: Stains that are caused by moisture indicate that a

glue joint has failed or that the protective coating is
deteriorating. This type of stain is usually dark in color and
tends to expand along the grain of the wood. When water stains
are found, the cause must be corrected and the affected parts
replaced or repaired. Surface stains that are easily removed
without removing wood do not usually require replacement of
affected parts. The protective coating on such parts must be
restored.
Corrosion: Corrosion of attachment bolts, screws, nails, and

fittings in or on wood structures indicates the presence of
moisture. Corroded parts should be replaced, and the cause of
moisture intrusion should be eliminated.

6.3 - 55 Mar 2014
6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING
FABRIC TERMINOLOGY
To be able to handle, inspect, and install fabrics properly

requires that the technician be familiar with some of the basic
terminology used with woven fabrics. Although this list is not
complete, it will serve as a basis for terms presented in later
Warp
The threads which run the length of the fabric as it comes off
the bolt are referred to as the warp. The warp direction is
designated at 0 degrees. In a woven application, there are
typically more threads woven into the warp than the fill direction.
This material will be stronger in the warp direction than the fill
direction.
Since the warp direction is often critical in fabricating or

repairing composites, it may be identified by inserting another
type of thread at periodic intervals. The plastic backing of the Fig. 01Fabric Terminology
underside of pre-pregs may also be marked to identify the warp
threads. Selvage
Weft A tightly woven edge produced by the weaver to prevent the
The weft threads are those that run perpendicular to the warp edges from raveling is referred to as the selvage edge. It is
fibres. They are designated as 90 degrees. The fill, or weft, parallel to the warp threads. The selvage edge is removed for
threads are the threads which interweave with the warp threads. all fabrication and repair work because the weave is different
from the body of the fabric and would not give the same
strength as the rest of the fabric.

6.3 - 56 Mar 2014
Bias
The bias is when the weft threads are at a 45 degree angle to
the warp threads. Fabric can be formed into contoured shapes
by using the bias. Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias
but seldom along the warp or weft. This is important should it
be necessary to wrap a fabric around a contoured shape.
Sizing A textile glue used to stiffen and protect fabrics and

threads. It gives "body" to a material.
Thread count The number of threads, either warp or fill, on the

edge of a piece of fabric. The thread count uses a unit of
measurement of threads per inch.
Bleaching A chemical process used to whiten textile materials. Fig. 02 Fabric Terminology
Grade A airplane fabric is not bleached and is usually a light Mercerizing A chemical process in which cotton is exposed to
cream color. Bleaching, if not properly done, can weaken a the action of a strong caustic solution that tends to shrink the
material and make it unfit for use. material and give it a silky appearance.
Calendaring A process of ironing fabric by threading it wet

between a series of heated and cold rollers to produce a
smooth finish. Calendaring causes the nap to lay close to the
surface. The nap is the "fuzzy" surface caused by the
thousands of ends of individual fibers.

6.3 - 57 Mar 2014
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF FABRIC

USED IN AEROPLANES
INORGANIC FABRICS
ORGANIC FABRICS
An inorganic fabric is one that requires chemical processing to
Organic fabrics are those made from plant materials. These create the fiber. Once the fiber is created, it is woven in the
include two grades of cotton fabrics and linen. same manner as used for organic material. The inorganic
fabrics have two advantages over organic fabrics in that they
For many years, the standard approved aircraft covering has resist deterioration by the ultraviolet rays of the sun and they
been grade A mercerized cotton cloth. This material is identified resist attack by micro-organisms. The only significant
by the SAE number AMS 3806. disadvantage associated with inorganic fabrics is the care
required to assure proper bonding of the dopes and finishing
However, with the advent of inorganic covering materials, grade products to the fabric.
A cotton may not be used on an aircraft originally covered with
an inorganic fabric unless approval is obtained from the aircraft There are two types of inorganic fabrics used to cover aircraft
manufacturer. To determine the original fabric covering material polyesters(Dacron-type materials) and fiberglass.
used on an aircraft, check the aircraft service manual. Grade A
fabric must have a thread count of 80 to 84 threads per inch in Polyester fabrics are manufactured under the trade names of
both length and width. Stits Poly-Fiber and Ceconite.
For many years early in the history of aviation, linen was These fabrics have become very popular as replacements for
commonly used for the covering of aircraft. Linen, being woven the organic materials due to their ease of installation and
from flax fiber, is strong, light, and durable. Aircraft linen is an resistance to deterioration when compared to organic materials.
especially fine grade of linen cloth, and if it com- plies with the
requirements of TSO C15, it is suitable for use on certificated Razorback is the most widely used type of fiberglass material
aircraft originally covered with organic fabric. The British for covering aircraft. It has an advantage over all other types of
specification 7Fl meets all the requirements of TSO C15. materials in that it is impervious to deterioration, heat, and most
chemicals. As a result, it is often the fabric of choice for aircraft
subject to exposure to chemical environments such as
agricultural operations.

6.3 - 58 Mar 2014
FIBRE ORIENTATION
In aircraft construction, reinforcing fabric is generally available in Mats

three styles:
Chopped fibers that are compressed together are often called
 Unidirectional mats. These mats are typically used in combination with other
 Bi-directional woven or unidirectional layers of fabric. A mat is usually not as
 Mats strong as a unidirectional or bidirectional fabric, and not
commonly used in repair work.
Unidirectional
DOPES AND FINISHING MATERIALS
Fiber orientation in which all of the major fibers run in one
direction, giving strength in that direction are known as Aircraft dope has been defined as a colloidal solution of
unidirectional. This type of fabric is not woven together i.e. cellulose acetate butyrate or cellulose nitrate.
there is no weft. Sometimes small cross threads are used to
hold the major fibers bundles in place, but is not considered The function of dope is sealing, tautening, and protecting
woven together. airplane fabric coverings, and these can also properly be called
dopes.
Multi-directional
Dopes are supplied as a clear coating material and. as a
This type of fiber orientation calls for fibers to run in two or more pigmented material. Pigmented dopes have particles added that
directions (bidirectional). Usually these are woven together and give a color to the dope. The most prominent pigment material
may be seen in may different weaves. Again, the warp threads associated with aircraft is aluminum oxide, which gives the dope
usually have more fibers that are woven together than the weft, a silver color and is used to reflect1he sun's ultraviolet rays.
so it is important to line up the warp threads when doing a Other pigmenting materials include chemical compounds of
repair. There is usually more strength in the warp direction than titanium, chromium, and iron.
the fill direction.
NITRATE AND BUTYRATE DOPES

6.3 - 59 Mar 2014
Nitrate dopeis composed of nitrocellulose (similar to celluloid Any coating or finish, such as zinc chromate or spar varnish,
and gun cotton) combined with plasticizers and thinners. The should be covered with dope-proof paint, aluminum foil,
plasticizers are needed to provide flexibility and resistance to cellophane tape, or masking tape to avoid finishing products
cracking after the dope has cured. used on the fabric from attacking the protective coatings.
Nitrate dope is highly flammable in both liquid and dry states. Its
principal advantages over butyrate dope are low cost, ease of
application, and better adhesion.
Butyrate dopeis composed of cellulose acetate butyrate with

suitable plasticizers and thinners added .Butyrate dope is more
fire-resistant than nitrate dope and provides greater shrinkage
of fabric.
Care must be taken not to apply too many coats of butyrate

dope, because the fabric may become too tight and warp the
structure over which the covering is applied.
INSTALLATION OF FABRIC ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
PREPARING THE STRUCTURE
Prior to the installation of fabric on an aircraft structure, the

structural integrity should be checked and all necessary repairs Fig.03 Preparing fabric for installation
made.
All wires and cables should be in place.
All protrusions should be covered or cushioned so that they will

not puncture the fabric covering.

6.3 - 60 Mar 2014
material as it comes off the roll, strips of the material are sewed
together. The fabric is then wrapped around the structure and
closed along the open edge by hand sewing or using a doped
seam.
COVERING METHODS
INSTALLATION OF FABRIC
There are two methods that can be used to cover a structure,
the envelope method and the blanket method. Once the method of covering is determined and the structure is
prepared to receive the cover, the fabric is positioned on the
The envelope method involves making or buying a sleeve that structure.
can slide over the prepared structure. The sleeve has been
sewed together on a sewing machine, so only a small portion of If the covering material is organic or fibre glass, sliding an
the material must be closed by hand sewing. If an envelope envelope onto. the structure will require some care, since the
must be made, the component to be covered should be envelope will be a snug fit on the structure.
measured to determine the size of the envelope.
Polyester envelopes are loose-fitting and slide on easily.
Once the dimensions are available and the position of the
seams is determined, the fabric strips are sewed together. Regardless of the type of material, care will be required to
prevent snagging or tearing of the fabric as it is positioned on
Once the fabric strips are sewed together, the fabric is folded the structure.
over and sewed to form a tube. One end of the tube is normally
closed to complete the sleeve. The envelope is now ready to
install on the structure. SEWING THREADS AND LACING CORDS
The blanket method of covering involves the use of fabric as it Sewing thread, for either machine sewing or hand sewing, is
comes off the roll. It is cut to size and folded over the structure used to join two fabric edges together during the installation or
to be covered. If the structure is too large to be covered by the repair of fabric covering materials.

6.3 - 61 Mar 2014
The strength of the fabric is based on its tensile strength.

Cords are normally heavy threads used where a significant Nonnal testing techniques involve the use of a Seyboth or
amount of strength is required of each stitch, such as when Maule "punch" tester.
attaching a fabric covering to wing ribs or fuselage stringers.
The Seyboth tester penetrates the fabric and indicates the
strength of the fabric by a scale on the top of the tester.
Machine thread, also called machine-sewing thread, is used in

all machine sewing. The thread used with organic fabrics is
made of cotton, carries a specification number V - T -276b, and The Maule tester applies pressure to the fabric and is not
is described as 20/4 ply to indicate the size. It has a tensile normally used with enough force to penetrate airworthy fabric. A
strength of 5 lb per single strand. It is sometimes described as a scale on the side of the Maule tester indicates the force that is
white, silk-finish, no. 16, four-cord cotton thread with a Z twist. being applied in pounds per inch of tensile strength. The punch
tester is a popular tool for checking fabric condition. This
Hand-sewing thread for organic fabrics carries the specification method has gained acceptance with maintenance technicians
number V - T -276b, Type III B, and is used for all hand sewing. because the fabric is tested in the doped (as-is) condition. A
It is an unbleached, cotton silk-finish, no. 8, four-cord thread, sample need not be removed from the aircraft, making testing
with a tensile strength of 141b [62.27 N or 6.35 kg] for a single quicker and easier.
strand.
The twist of a thread or cord may be either right or left. The term
S twist designates a right-twist thread. The words machine,
machine twist, Z twist, and left twist all refer to a left twist
thread.
TESTING METHODS

6.3 - 62 Mar 2014
Fig.04 Seyboth Tester
Fig. 05 Comparison of Seyboth (left side) and Maule tester
When using the punch tester, it should be kept at right angles to

the fabric surface being checked, as shown in Fig. 06, and away
from the internal aircraft structure. Care should also be
exercised in selecting an area where two layers of fabric do not
exist, such as seams covered with surface tapes.

6.3 - 63 Mar 2014
REQUIRED TENSILE STRENGTH

The number of dope coats on the fabric's surface may affect the The minimum strength for an aircraft requiring grade A cotton is
punch tester's indication of fabric strength. For example, the 56 Ib/in [10 kg/cm]. For an aircraft requiring inter- mediate grade
tester would be accurate on aircraft fabric with the average cotton, the minimum strength is 461b/in [8.21 kg/cm]. Polyester
number of surface dope coats. Those aircraft with more than the fabrics should be tested to the minimum value required of the
average number of dope and/or paint coats may indicate original fabric covering, which may be a higher value than for
greater fabric strength, whereas the actual strength value is the organic materials. Razorback glass fabric does not have to
less. For this reason, punch testers are considered only an be tested for tensile strength.
approximate indication of fabric strength.
When the inspection is completed and if the fabric is airworthy,
the holes created by the fabric testing must be repaired before
returning the aircraft to service. Indentations left by the Maule
tester often return to a smooth surface of their own accord.
REPAIR OF FABRIC COVERINGS
Fig. 06Fabric Testing When fabric is damaged, the technician must consider several
factors to determine the method of repair. First, is the damage
To perform an exact test of fabric, a tensile test should be repairable or should the entire covering be replaced? Although
made. When performing this test, a sample of fabric is taken the damage may be repairable, if the remainder of the original
from the weakest area of the aircraft covering. Determine the fabric is only marginal in strength, it may be advisable to replace
weakest fabric on the aircraft by punch testing. A strip of fabric 1 the entire covering. Another important consideration concerning
in [2.54 cm] wide and several inches long is cut from the the type of repair that can be performed is the V ne of the aircraft.
installed material. All the dope is removed from the fabric. The Last, where are the internal structural members in relation to the
fabric is then clamped at one "end to a sup- porting fixture, and damaged area? These factors influence the selection of the
a clamp on the other end is attached to a load. The load is type of repair to be performed.
increased until the minimum standards are met or until the
fabric breaks.

6.3 - 64 Mar 2014
Fig. 07 Sewing a tear with a baseball stitch

TEARS IN FABRIC
Tears in a fabric covering can usually be repaired by sewing

and doping on a fabric patch. The objective is to restore the
original strength and finish to the repaired area. A single tear
should be repaired by removing all of the pigmented and
aluminized dope around the area to be covered with the patch
and then sewing the tear using a baseball stitch, as shown in
Fig. 07. The dope can be removed by softening and scraping or
by sanding. The most satisfactory method is to apply a heavy
coat of dope to the area and allow it to soften the old surface
dope, which can then be removed by scraping.

6.3 - 65 Mar 2014
Strong solvents such as acetone can be used to soften the old

dope, but care must be taken to see that the solvent does not patches extend over a rib, the patch must be cut to extend at
drip through the opening to the lower surface of the fabric, least 3 in [7.62 cm] beyond the rib.
where it will cause blisters. When the cleaned surface around
the tear has been sewn and the stitches locked every 8 to
10stitches, a piece of pinked- edge surface tape or fabric is
doped over the seam. The tape or fabric patch should extend at
least 1½ in [3.81 cm] beyond the tear in all directions.
Additional coats of dope are applied to the patch, sanding

between coats to produce a smooth finish. The final costs of
pigmented dope are applied and finished according to
procedures explained previously. The dope used must be
compatible with the original. If a tear is of the V type, the
procedure is the same as that just described; however, the
sewing should start at the apex of the V in order to hold the
fabric in place while the seams are completed.
DOPED REPAIRS Fig. 08Sewing method for a “V” type tear

Doped-on repair patches can be employed on all fabric-covered The patch is then laced to the rib over a new piece of reinforcing
aircraft that have a never-exceed speed not greater than 150 tape. The original lacing and reinforcing tape should not be
mph [241.35 km/h]. A doped-on patch can be used for a removed. A piece of surface tape is placed over the new lacing
damaged area that does not exceed 16 in [40.64 cm] in any on the top and bottom of the structure and the dope is built up
direction. A repair of this type is made by trimming the damaged using the sequence for a new fabric cover- clear coats,
area and then removing the old dope in the area where the aluminum coats, and pigmented coats.
patch is to be applied. The patch is cut to a size that will overlap
the old fabric at least 2 in [5.08 cm] for any patch not over 8 in
[20.32 cm] across. For holes between 8 and 116 in [40.64 cm],
the patch should overlap the original fabric by one quarter the
distance of the major dimension of the repair. Where doped-on

6.3 - 66 Mar 2014
reinforcing tape and edges of the panel. Finishing of the panel is

then accomplished in the normal manner.
DOPED-ON PANEL REPAIR
When the damage to an aircraft fabric surface is greater than 16

in [40.64 cm], a panel should be doped on. In this type of repair,
the old fabric is cut out along a line approximately 1 in [2.5 cm] SEWN-IN PANEL REPAIR
from the ribs nearest the repair. The fabric on the leading and If a panel repair cannot give the proper tautness by using the
trailing edges is not removed unless both the top and bottom of doped-on panel repair, a sewn-in panel repair can be
the wing are to be repaired. The surface tape is removed from performed. As with the doped-on panel, this repair is for dam-
the ribs adjacent to the repair, but the lacing and reinforcing age exceeding 16 in [40.64 cm] in anyone direction. To perform
tape are left intact. The patch panel is cut to a size that will the repair, remove the surface tape from the ribs, the leading
overlap the trailing edge by at least 1 in [2.54 cm], extend edge, and the trailing edge adjacent to the damaged panel. Trim
around the leading edge and back to the forward spar, and back the damaged fabric to within 1 in [2.54 cm] of the center
extend at least 3 in [7.62 cm] beyond the ribs on each side of line of the adjacent ribs. Fabric should not be removed from the
the repair. leading and trailing edges unless the repair involves both the
top and bottom fabric surfaces. Do not remove the reinforcing
If the leading edge of a wing is either metal- or wood- covered, tape and rib stitching at the ribs. A patch should be cut that will
the patch may be lapped over the old fabric at least 4 in [10 cm] extend 3 in [7.62 cm] beyond the ribs, to the trailing edge, and
at the nose of the leading edge. The area of the old fabric that is around the leading edge to the front spar on the opposite side of
to be covered by the patch must be thoroughly cleaned, and a the wing. Clean the area of the original fabric to be covered by
generous coat of new dope must be applied. The new panel is the patch and pin or tack-stitch the patch in place. Take care to
then put in place and pulled as taut as possible. A coat of dope pull the patch tight and eliminate any wrinkles. The patch is now
is applied to the patch where it overlaps the old fabric. After this attached to the original fabric by hand sewing with the edge of
coat has dried, a second coat of dope is applied to the the patch tucked under ½ in [1.27 cm]. After the patch is
overlapped area .Reinforcing tape is placed over the ribs under attached, new reinforcing tape is laid over the ribs and the patch
moderate tension and is laced to the ribs in the usual manner. is rib-stitched to the ribs. A coat of clear dope is now applied.
The rib stitches are placed between the original rib stitches. The Surface tapes are then laid along the sewed seam, over the rib-
new patch panel is then given a coat of dope and allowed to stitching, and at other areas appropriate for the aircraft are
dry. Surface tape is applied with a second coat of dope over the paired. The surface is finished following the regular doping

6.3 - 67 Mar 2014
procedures. This type of repair can be used to cover both the

top and bottom surfaces of one or more adjacent rib bays.

6.3 - 68 Mar 2014

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS –COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

THERMOSETTING MATERIALS RESINS

Reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, flame-

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ELASTOMERS  Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

 Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft

Seals or packing rings (refer to Fig. 01) serve to retain fluids

The most common materials, from which seals are

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

If a sharp object strikes a thermosetting plastic, the plastic is

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

 Erosion caused by rain, hail, dust etc.

The types of damage, which may affect fibre-reinforced

 Cracks which may simply affect the outer lamination or

Fibre reinforced plastics however, apart from being much

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Fig. 02 Crack propagation in composites

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

 Delaminations - which involves separation of the fibre

 Deboning - when honeycomb sandwich structures are

Once there is separation, the strength of the whole

 Blisters - which usually indicate a breakdown in the bond

 Holes - these may range from small pits, affecting one or

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Today's composite inspection techniques and non-destructive

When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be

Some of the more common composite inspection and testing

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

VISUAL INSPECTION use of additional, more advanced methods of inspection when

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Ultrasonic inspection is the most common instrumental NDT

Two common methods of ultrasonic testing are;

methods as shown in the figure below.

In the pulse echo method, the tester generates ultrasonic

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

Testing bonded-core structures usually requires the through

Radiography or x-ray inspection is used to detect differences in

Thermography locates flaws by temperature variations at the

Thermography requires knowledge of the thermal conductivity

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

DYE PENETRANT REPAIR OF COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIALS

ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING Depending on the manufacturer of the aircraft, classification of