PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.3

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS –COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

Contents
(A) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON COMPOSITES AND NON-
METALLIC MATERIALS OHER THAN WOOD USED IN
AIRCRAFT ...................................................................................1
SEALANTS AND BONDING AGENTS .....................................14
(B) THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS/DETERIORATION
IN COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIAL ................16
tYPES oF DEFECTS .................................................................23
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF WOOD
AND GLUE USED IN AEROPLANE .........................................32
CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF WOODEN AIRFRAME
STRUCTURES ..........................................................................38
PRESERVATIONAND MAINTENANCE OFWOODEN
STRUCTURE .............................................................................41
repairOF WOODEN STRUCTURES ........................................42
THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WOODEN STRUCTURE42
6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING ...................................................44
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF FABRIC
USED IN AEROPLANES ...........................................................46
installation of fabric on aircraft structure....................................48
TESTING METHODS ................................................................49
REPAIR OF FABRIC COVERINGS ..........................................54

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

6.3.1 COMPOSITEAND NON-METALLIC OTHER THAN PLASTICS

WOOD
The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos – to mould,
(A) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND and plasticity (as was discussed in The Properties of Metals) is
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON COMPOSITES AND the ability to retain a deformation after the load, producing it,
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS OHER THAN WOOD USED has been removed. Plastics are particularly useful for
IN AIRCRAFT applications, which involve relatively low-stress levels, where
lightness is important, and where low electrical or thermal
A composite is something, which is made up from many parts, conductivity is required.
and this term could be applied to a wide range of engineering
materials. These would include not only the metallic alloys, but The earliest plastic materials (before the synthetics) were those
also the most earliest of all composite materials used by man, – made from the sap, or latex, of certain trees (gutta-percha), the
wood (the tough, fibrous, xylem, or water-conducting tissue, of secretions of tiny, scaly insects (shellac) and the softened,
shrubs and trees, which contains lignin and cellulose). Brick,
moulded parts of the horns of animals.
concrete, and glass are among the many other materials, which
could be considered as composites.
Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify
In the aerospace industry, the term ‘composite’ is used when various materials (natural and synthetic), based on long-chain
referring to materials, which, in turn, are a combination of molecules (polymers) of carbon, that can be cast, extruded or
fibrous and synthetic resin materials that provide many moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments to be
advantages by their great strength-to-weight ratios.
used as fibers.
This topic covers a number of different materials, including
plastics, resins, natural and synthetic rubbers, adhesives and While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic
sealants. Most of these materials will be found in use on and Thermosetting compositions, the manufacture of synthetic
modern aircraft. rubbers (called Elastomers) is also considered to be part of the
plastics industry.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS USE OF THERMOPLASTICS

Thermoplastic materials, in their normal state, are hard but Thermoplastics are, normally, used where there are no unusual
become soft and pliable when heated (the Greek word thermo –
temperature changes and the majority of all plastics production
heat). When softened, thermoplastic materials can be moulded
and shaped, and they retain their new shape when cooled. is thermoplastics, which include:
Unless their heat limit is exceeded, this process can be  Acetate - widely used for tool handles, and electrical
repeated many times without damaging the material. goods.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for
aircraft windshields and side windows, and are usually referred  Poly-Ethylene - commonly known as polythene. Its uses
to as cellulose acetate and acrylic. include flexible tubing, cable insulation and packaging.
 Poly-Propylene - stronger, harder and more rigid than
Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its polythene. Used for such items as high-pressure air
transparency and light-weight. A disadvantage of cellulose piping.
acetate is its tendency to shrink and discolor with time, which
has led to it being phased out almost completely.  Poly-Vinyl-Chloride - commonly known as PVC. Varying
degrees of rigidity/flexibility are achievable by varying the
Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint amount of plasticiser used. Rigid, moulded sections or
(especially when aged), and by the fact that a scrap of it will piping can be produced and also flexible electric cable
burn with a sputtering flame and give off black smoke. It will insulation
also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials, such
 Polystyrene - can be produced in rigid form, but is more
as acetone.
familiar in the expanded form, when it is useful for
thermal insulation, buoyancy or shock-resistant
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex
packaging.
(UK) and Plexiglass (USA). It is stiffer than cellulose acetate,
more transparent and practically colorless. Acrylic burns with a
clear flame and gives off a fairly pleasant odour. Acetone, if
applied, will cause white marks but will leave the material as
hard as it previously was.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

 Acrylics - these are particularly useful where light  Nylon - belongs to the polyamide family and is an
transmission is necessary. Perspex and Plexiglas belong extremely useful and versatile material. It is strong,
to this family. They have excellent light transmission tough and also has low friction properties. It can be
properties and are also resistant to splintering. There is a used as a fibre or produced as a moulding. Popular
tendency for some fine craze-cracking to develop if uses include textiles, furnishings, ropes, tyre
exposed for long periods to ultra violet light. These
reinforcement, bushes, pulleys, gears, and
transparent plastics may be solid or laminated. When
laminated two or more layers are bonded together with a
lightweight mouldings such as brackets, handles etc.
clear adhesive and, in this form, they are more shatter-  Poly-Tetra-Flouro-Ethylene - commonly known as ‘PTFE’,
resistant and are ideally suited to pressurised aircraft it is similar to nylon in appearance but is denser, whiter
windows. and much more expensive. It has a wax-like surface and
An even stronger and more shatterproof transparent this characteristic results in very low friction properties,
plastic can be achieved by stretching the acrylic in both which make it suitable for bushes and gears. It also has a
directions before final shaping. These improved high temperature capability (over 300ºC) and is
properties, result from the stretching operation causing a extensively used as a non-stick coating e.g. Teflon. PTFE
preferential alignment of the long-chain molecules. tape is often used as a thread sealant for oxygen pipe
Extreme care should be taken when handling acrylics, as threads, and as backing rings for hydraulic seals.
they are they are easily scratched. The acrylics are
supplied with a paper or rubberised film, which should not
be removed, until required for use. If dirty, they should be
cleaned with cold water or soapy water. Care should also
be taken when using solvents in the vicinity of acrylics.
Some solvents, or their vapours, may cause crazing of the
material. , Reference to the appropriate Manuals or
manufacturers’ specification sheets are essential.
 Poly-Carbonates - these have similar uses to the acrylics
(Perspex etc) but are more temperature-resistant and
also have superior impact strength. They are also more
expensive.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

THERMOSETTING MATERIALS RESINS

Thermosetting materials (also called Thermosets) will, initially, Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain
soften when heated, but will remain soft for only a short time trees and other plants and as clear, translucent, yellow (amber),
and will set (and harden) if the heat continues to be applied. brown, solid, or semisolid agents, they are used in inks,
lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and, of course, plastics.
The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when heated, is
called ‘curing’ and curing can also be achieved by chemical While the words plastics and resins are often used
(exothermic) reactions. synonymously, they are, in fact, quite different, in that plastics
refers to the material in the finished items while resins are the
During the curing process, the long-chain molecules of the raw materials which may be found in the form of flakes, pellets,
material cross-link (link together between chains) and, once the powder, or a syrup.
cross-links are formed, the plastic becomes hard and cannot be
re-softened by heating. Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually,
additives are employed with them, to assist in the moulding
Thermosets are, thus, chosen where a plastic component will
characteristics, or to enhance the properties of the finished
be exposed to relatively high temperatures, as some of them
product.
can tolerate temperatures in excess of 250C before beginning
to char.
The resin may be thickened and given more ‘body’ by the
Note: Thermosetting materials are generally stronger, have a addition of inert fillers, which may be used to fill gaps and voids
lower ductility and lower impact properties than the in the structure. Typical fillers are micro-balloons, cotton and
Thermoplastics. glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).

Reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, flame-

retardants, smoke suppressants and processing aids, such as
lubricants and coupling agents, are among the other additives
used with resins.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no
to impregnate linen, paper, and ‘cloths’ made up from various longer wanted and the curing process is to be started and an
synthetic fibers. accelerator will appreciably shorten the curing time of the resin,
depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.
When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting
resin such as phenol-formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical
can be moulded into flat sheets or other shapes. Once reaction between the catalyst and accelerator generates heat
hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical insulator within the resin. This (exothermic reaction can be seen when a
and can be found in use as terminal strips and printed circuit thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.
boards.
Epoxy Resin
Polyester Resin

Polyester resin can be extruded into fine filaments and woven Epoxy resin has a low percentage of shrinkage, high strength
into fabric (like nylon) or cast into shape and it is also useful as for its weight and the ability to adhere to a wide range of
a heat-resistant lacquer. materials.

Glass fibers and mat, for example, have great strength for their Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst, epoxy resins
weight, but lack rigidity so, to convert glass fiber into a useful require a hardener or curing agent without recourse to heating.
structural material, it is impregnated with polyester resin and
moulded into a desired form. There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between polyester
and epoxy resins. For polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to
Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from catalyst whilst, for epoxy resin, the ratio is 4:1, resin to
materials, which cure by the evaporation of an oil or solvent. As hardener.
polyester is thick and unmanageable, a styrene monomer is
added to make it thinner and easier to work.

If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually,

cure into a solid mass, so inhibitors are added to delay this
curing process and to improve shelf life.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

ELASTOMERS  Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent

elastic recovery qualities. It is also solvent-resistant and,
Elastomers may be natural or, synthetic materials (polymers) therefore, has a wide range of applications as fuel and
which have considerable elastic properties. hydraulic seals and gaskets. However, because of its
special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited
Because they may also be moulded into shapes, which they to diaphragms and hydraulic seals.
retain, they qualify to be included in the category of plastics.
Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their  Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively
original size and shape, in a similar way to natural rubber poor physical properties, it has exceptionally high
resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining or
Some of the more common Elastomers, to be found in the sealing fuel tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals
aerospace industry include: and hoses, which come into contact with fuels or oils.
This compound is commonly known under the trade
 Buna ‘N’ - also known as Nitrile. A synthetic rubber, made names of PRC or Thiokol.
(initially in Germany) by the polymerisation of butadiene
and sodium (hence Buna), it has excellent resistance to  Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-
fuels and oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, temperature properties (-80ºC to + 200ºC). It is often
and seals. This material also has low ‘stiction’ properties, used for seals, but is also used for the potting of electrical
when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly circuits, because of its ability to retain its rubbery state,
suited to ‘moving-seal’ applications. even at low temperatures.

 Buna - ‘S’ relatively cheap material, also with a

performance similar to natural rubber. It is often used for
tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to
fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable for seals.
 Flouro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-
temperature properties and can be used at 250ºC. They
are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-
temperature seals. A common name for these materials
is Viton. These materials are expensive.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

PRIMARY ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS  Light Transmission - some plastics are naturally clear,
whilst other are opaque. These characteristics,
Plastics have properties, which make them a popular choice consequently, provide the possibility for a range of light-
over conventional aircraft materials. Some of the more transmission properties. Optical properties can also be
achieved with some plastics.
important characteristics of plastics, which help to explain their
popularity, are:  Vibration Damping - many plastics are naturally resistant
to fatigue and, because of the high value of internal
 Lightness - most plastics have specific gravities of 1.1 to damping present, resonances will tend to be of relatively
1.6 whereas the more common engineering materials, low amplitude.
such as aluminium and steel, have values of 2.7 and 7.8
respectively.
 Corrosion Resistance - plastics will tolerate hostile
corrosion environments and many of them resist acid
attack.
 Low Thermal Conductivity - this property makes many
plastics ideals for thermal insulators.
 Electrical Resistance - plastics are used in enormous
quantities for electrical insulation applications.
 Formability -many plastics are easily formed into the
finished product, by casting moulding or extrusion, often
in a single operation.
 Surface Finish - excellent surface finishes can be
achieved in the basic forming operation, so finishing
operations are not necessary.
 Relatively Low Cost – because, although some of the
materials may not be particularly cheap, the lack of
machining necessary and the high production rates
possible, keeps the costs down.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

PRIMARY DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS  Ultra Violet Light - some plastics deteriorate when
exposed to UV light for long periods. Increased
Although plastics are extremely useful materials, some brittleness and loss of strength can occur.
shortcomings inevitably exist, particularly when compared to
some metals. Plastics major deficiencies are:
COMPOSITES USED IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
 Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than
metals and mild steel has approximately six times the The principal types of composite materials are those involving
strength of nylon. Mild steel, however, is six times the fibrous elements which may be used as strands, or be woven
weight of nylon so, on a strength/weight ratio, they are into fine ‘tapes’ and ‘cloths’ (or coarser ‘mats’), held in a suitable
comparable.
resin matrix and formed into the required shapes.
 Low Stiffness - plastics have a very inferior value of
Young’s Modulus compared with the common metals. GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (GFRP)
 Low Impact Strength - many plastics have poor impact
strength, but there are a few exceptions, such as with The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and used
certain polycarbonates. for fire-proof curtains or (when extremely pure glass is used),
 Poor Dimensional Stability - mainly due to high values of made into fibers which are able to transmit light over long
thermal coefficient of expansion. distances.
 Poor High-Temperature Capability - metals are generally
capable of retaining reasonable strength at much higher The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small
temperatures than the plastics. The long-term maximum diameter glass fibers is extremely high, although the strength is
operating temperature, for the better plastics, is not reduced significantly if the fibers are slightly damaged.
usually above 250ºC. High-temperature metals can
operate for long periods well in excess of 800ºC. In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre or
 Moisture Absorption - many types of plastic absorb fiberglass, when glass fibers (in various forms) are bonded
moisture, which can result in a significant loss of strength together by appropriate resins.
in a humid environment.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness

Non-structural items may be made from, or include, a and, as such, is not suitable for applications subject to high
percentage of chopped strand mat, (i.e. glass fibers in a structural loadings.
random, non- woven state) but, where considerable strength is
required, uni-directional glass cloth is used. Ceramic Fibers

To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic
be layed up at 90º to each other, in a similar manner to the grain fibers are a form of glass fibre, used in high-temperature
in plywood. Sometimes such sheets are used as facings for an applications. They can be used at temperatures up to1650C
internal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a very and are suited for use around engine and exhaust systems.
Ceramic fibers are heavy (and expensive) and are only used
efficient structure in terms of strength, stiffness and weight.
where no other materials are suitable.

The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (CFRP)
impregnated with resin and partially cured (‘Pre-preg’), in which
case it is necessary to keep the material in refrigerated storage. CFRP (also referred to as ‘Graphite’) is a composite material,
Resin curing is usually done at elevated temperatures (120C - which was primarily developed to retain (or improve upon) the
170ºC), with the GRP component in its mould and, often, under high strength-to-weight ratio characteristics exhibited by GFRP,
pressure, in an autoclave. but with very much greater stiffness values.

The main reasons for using GFRP are: Carbon fibers are very stiff and, when formed into a composite,
the Young's Modulus (‘E’) value can be higher than steel. CFRP
 in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar is not only six times stiffer than GFRP but is also over 50%
domes or other non-electrical conducting applications) stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength
 the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes aluminum alloy and three times the stiffness.
 to provide good strength/weight ratio
 its ability to produce selected directional strength.
Carbon fibers are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in
diameter and are produced by subjecting a fine thread of a
suitable nylon-type plastic to a very high temperature (to

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with ARAMID FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (AFRP)
the exception of carbon.
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFRP can The aramid fibers are closely related to the nylon-type of
offer considerable weight savings over conventional materials. synthetic fibers and are well known for their superior toughness,
CFRP components are generally made from ‘Pre-preg’ sheet strength-to-weight characteristics and heat-resistance. Tires,
(fibers impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only reinforced with aramid fibers are comparable to those reinforced
require heat and pressure to cure). with steel cords.

Because of CFRP's high stiffness modulus, it is also used

extensively to stiffen GFRP or aluminum alloy structures. Better known under its trade name – Kevlar –in cloth form, it is a
soft, yellow, organic fibre that is extremely light, strong and
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also tough. Kevlar is used to manufacture bullet-proof jackets and,
graphitized), is used for the rotors and stators on brake units. It also, as a reinforcement, in aircraft fuel tanks.
offers a significant weight saving, as well as high efficiency, due
to the fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly. LAMINATED, SANDWICH AND MONOLITHIC STRUCTURES

Replacing 40% of an aluminum alloy structure by CFRP would Laminated plastics consist of layers of synthetic resin-
result in a 40% saving in total structural weight and CFRP is impregnated fibers (or other, coated, fillers), which are bonded
used on such items as the wings, horizontal (and vertical) together (usually heated and under pressure), to form a single
laminate or sheet of composite material. Plastic laminates are
stabilizers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft.
used to ‘face’ other structural materials, in order to;

The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor  provide a more durable surface to a softer (less expensive)
blades, has led to significant increases in their life and, in some material
cases, they may have an unlimited life span (subject to  enhance the surface appearance (color, porosity,
damage). The modern blade is highly complex and may be smoothness etc.)
comprised of CFRP, GFRP, stainless steel, a honeycomb core  increase the strength and rigidity of many non-metallic
and a foam filling. structures

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

 produce other desirable surface characteristics such as may be found sandwiched between sheets of light alloy,
when acid- or corrosion- resistance, non-conductivity, non- stainless steel or titanium. This type of core is referred to as
magnetizability or the ease of keeping a surface clean is ‘metal-faced honeycomb’ and is used where abrasion- and
required heat-resistance is important or when sound-absorption qualities
are desired.
To provide a light-weight structure, which possesses strength
and rigidity, one of several structural materials, is sandwiched
between two laminated composites.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES
The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid
material, such as wood, or a series of thin corrugations of a Some of the many advantages for using composite materials
material, which are joined and placed end-on (in the form of the are:
cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.  High strength to weight ratio

Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of  Modulus (stiffness to density ratio) 3.5 to 5times that of
low-density balsa wood, which has been cut across the grain steel or aluminium
and sandwiched between two layers of reinforced resin (or a  Longer life than metals
metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet strong
material, which can be used as floor panels, wall panels and,  Higher corrosion resistance
occasionally, aircraft skins.  Tensile strength 4 to 6 times that of steel or aluminium
The cellular core, used for laminated honeycomb material, may  Greater design flexibility
be made from resin-impregnated paper, or from one of the
 Bonded construction eliminates joints and fasteners
many fibre cloths. The core is formed or shaped and then
bonded between two face sheets of resin-impregnated cloth.  Easily repairable
The finished sandwich structure is very rigid, has a high
strength-to-weight ratio, and is transparent to electromagnetic The disadvantages of composites include:
(radar/radio) waves, making it ideal for radomes of all kinds.
 Inspection methods difficult to conduct, especially
Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless
delamination’s detection(Advancements in technology will
steel), are also sandwiched between two face sheets of fibre-
eventually correct this problem.)
reinforced resins. On other occasions the metal honeycombs

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 Lack of long term design database, relatively new

technology methods Store the respirator in a sealed bag when not in use. If working
with toxic materials for an extended period of time, a supplied
 Cost air mask and hood are recommended.
 Very expensive processing equipment
Avoid skin contact with the fibers and other particles by wearing
 Lack of standardized system of methodology long pants and long sleeves along with gloves or barrier
 Great variety of materials, processes, and techniques creams. The eyes must be protected using leak-proof goggles
(no vent holes) when working with resins or solvents because
 General lack of repair knowledge and expertise chemical damage to the eyes is usually irreversible.
 Products often toxic and hazardous
 Lack of standardized methodology for construction and
repairs

COMPOSITE SAFETY

Composite products can be very harmful to the skin, eyes, and

lungs. In the long or short term, people can become sensitized
to the materials with serious irritation and health issues.
Personal protection is often uncomfortable, hot, and difficult to
wear; however, little discomfort while working with the
composite materials can prevent serious health issues or even
death.

Respirator particle protection is very important to protecting the

lungs from permanent damage from tiny glass bubbles and fiber
pieces. At a minimum, adjust mask approved for fiberglass is a
necessity. the best protection is a respirator with dust filters.
When working with resins, it is important to use vapor
protection.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

NON-METALLIC COMPONENTS

In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft

structure, non-metallic materials are used in many aircraft
components and systems. Many of these materials require
specialist knowledge and understanding, during aircraft
maintenance.

SEALS

Seals or packing rings (refer to Fig. 01) serve to retain fluids

and gases, within their respective systems, as well as to
exclude air, moisture and contaminants. They also have to
withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and,
because of this, they have to be manufactured in a variety of
shapes and materials.

The most common materials, from which seals are

manufactured, are natural rubber, synthetic rubber and Teflon
(trade name for poly tetra flouro ethane or PTFE).

O-ring seals effectively seal in both directions of movement.

They are used to prevent both internal and external leakage,
and are the most commonly used seals in aviation

Fig. 01

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O-rings are available in many different materials and sizes (both

diameter and thickness). They are supplied in individual, Cure – This refers to the change of a sealant from its original
hermetically-sealed, envelopes with all the necessary mixed condition to its final condition. This is usually caused by a
information marked on the packaging. This system has chemical action when the two parts of a sealant are mixed
generally replaced the previously used, color-coding of seals, together.
which had severe limitations.
Fillet – Referred to as a bead and is formed when sealant is
For applications (such as in actuators) that subject a seal to applied into gaps or corners in the structure. The bead can be
pressure from two sides, two back-up rings can be used but, formed from sealant that is applied for this purpose, or from the
when the pressure is from one side only, a single back-up ring interfay sealant that is squeezed out when a joint is assembled.
is adequate.
Initial Cure Time – This is the minimum period of time required
SEALANTS AND BONDING AGENTS before a sealant is cured enough to permit a sealed joint to be
pressure tested.
TERMINOLOGIES:
Interfay Sealant – A layer of sealant applied to the contacting
Application Life – This the period of time that is often referred (faying) surfaces of repair parts before they are assembled.
to as 'Pot Life', and is the time that a sealant remains suitable for
application after it has been mixed. SEALANTS

Barrier Coating – A layer of quick-drying sealant is applied A sealant is a substance that is used to seal holes, cracks or
over a layer of slow-drying sealant before this sealant has fully gaps. It could be used to identify sealing compounds, bonding
cured. This is usually done to prevent swarf and other repair agents, adhesives and sometimes even fillers. Almost all
debris sticking to the original sealant, this allows the repair work sealants used in general aviation today are non-metallic except
to continue, if necessary, after a short time of carrying out the a few varieties in to which metallic particles are mixed to gain
sealant job. certain physical properties.

Protective Coating – A protective coating may be applied to At the completion of surface preparation, there are sealants,
protect the sealant in service. One example of such a protective which can be used straight out of the container while others
overcoat is Flexible Polyurethane paint coating, which is used to require a certain amount of preparation before application. In
protect the sealant against the effects of phosphate ester this regard sealants can be grouped as:
hydraulic fluid.

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• Single part sealants – Direct application  Sealing the fuel tanks or for the repair of fuel tank
• Two-part sealants – Require mixing sealing
• Multi part sealants – Require mixing or sequenced
application  Sealing the external joints of the aircraft structure to
make sure that water does not go into the structure
Once applied the curing time of a sealant depend upon the type (weather sealing) and to make the structure
of sealant used and the curing process adopted. It is useful to aerodynamically smooth (aerodynamic cleanliness)
note that the curing time has a direct connection with the type of
sealant used (other than compatibility implications) for a repair  Sealing riveted and bolted joints to make sure that
and the curing time especially when the repair is to be liquids do not go into the joints (corrosion prevention)
completed in a given time frame such as in a repair prior to a  Sealing sandwich structures to make sure that moisture
departure. does not go into the structure.
Curing time of a particular sealant can be reduced by following
special curing procedures such as heating the repaired area  To prevent corrosion (galvanic action) between different
using appropriate means. Metals
Sealants are grouped depending on the base material or the  To prevent corrosion between different materials,
major constituent of the composition such as, Epoxy based especially between CFRP and aluminum alloys
sealants, Poly sulphide sealants, Silicon rubber/Synthetic
rubber sealants, Flour silicone sealants, Viton base sealants,  To prevent fretting corrosion caused by fatigue stress or
etc. vibration between parts of the structure
SEALANT USAGE  To fill cavities
There are many uses for sealants on the aircraft. Some of these
 To provide protect for the surfaces on housings,
usages are listed below and the methods of application of
channels, tubes, electrical cables electrical components
sealant for the below mentioned purposes. and even already applied sealants (over coating).
 Sealing the fuselage structure to make sure that the
necessary internal pressure is kept during the flight
(pressure sealing)

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The majority of damage to composite structures occurs during

(B) THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS/DETERIORATION IN ground handling (such as from dropped tools), and damage
COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIAL from ground equipment. Bird-strike damage can also require
extensive repairs. Damage to composite structures may result
While composites do not suffer the corrosion and cracking from a number of other causes such as:
problems, associated with metals and also have good fatigue
characteristics, they do, however, require regular inspection for  Erosion caused by rain, hail, dust etc.
the defects to which they are particularly prone.  Fire
 Overload caused by heavy landings, flight through
turbulent air and excessive ‘g’ loading.
The areas to be inspected are, usually well known and they will  Lightning strikes and static discharge.
be detailed in the relevant chapter (51-57 for Airframe topics,  Chafing against internal fittings such as pipes and cables.
61-61 for Propellers) of the Aircraft Maintenance Manual
(AMM). The inspection methods to be used will be found in the Types of Damage
Non-destructive Testing Manual (NTM) and the approved repair
procedures will be outlined in the Structural Repair Manual The types of damage, which may affect fibre-reinforced
(SRM). structures are:

Repairs in unexpected areas, or damage, which is not covered  Cracks which may simply affect the outer lamination or
in the SRM, will necessitate the request of specific repair may penetrate through the skin.
drawings from the aircraft manufacturer.
 Fibre reinforced plastics however, apart from being
Causes of Damage much stronger than normal plastics, have different
failure modes. Each strand of fibre acts as a trap, to stop
cracks travelling through the plastic (refer to Fig. 02). A
If a sharp object strikes a thermosetting plastic, the plastic is travelling crack quickly reaches a fibre, which is difficult
liable to crack and shatter, like glass, with straight sharp edges. to break so, instead, the crack travels along the fibre.
The reason for this is that, once a crack starts in the plastic, it Eventually the crack reaches another fibre and is
travels very easily and quickly in a straight line. Damage of this deflected again. This process continues until the failure
kind would be disastrous in a load-bearing component. is divided into many small cracks, which will not have
propagated far from the initial damage.

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Fig. 02 Crack propagation in composites

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 De-laminations - which involves separation of the fibre

glass layers and may affect single or multiple layers.

 Deboning - when honeycomb sandwich structures are

damaged, the effect usually entails separation of the
honeycomb from the skin. The reason for this is that the
bonding of the skin to the honeycomb walls is along very
fine lines, and this bond is fairly easily broken.

Once there is separation, the strength of the whole

structure is reduced by a significant amount. Greater
damage can be due to the crushing of the honeycomb
core itself, which may require extensive repair or even
replacement of the complete component.

 Blisters - which usually indicate a breakdown in the bond

within the outer laminations and may be caused by
moisture penetration through a small hole, or by poor
initial bonding.

 Holes - these may range from small pits, affecting one or

two outer layers, to holes, which completely penetrate the
component. Holes may be caused by lightning strikes or
by static discharge.

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COMPOSITE INSPECTION VISUAL INSPECTION

Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection method
Today's composite inspection techniques and non-destructive in aviation. Ideally, pilots, ground crew and maintenance
testing (NDT) methods typically involve the use of multiple technicians visually inspect the aircraft on a daily basis. Where
methods to accurately determine the airworthiness of an aircraft composite materials are concerned visual inspection is
structure. Fortunately, many metal inspection and NDT methods generally used to detect resin-rich areas, resin starvation, edge
transfer to composite applications. Composite structures require de-laminations, fiber breakage, cracks, blistering, and other
ongoing inspection intervals along with non-scheduled damage types of surface irregularities. A strong light and magnifying
inspection and testing. glass are useful tools for visual inspection. In extremely critical
cases a small microscope is helpful in determining whether the
fibers in a cracked surface are broken, or if the crack affects
When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be
resin only.
thoroughly inspected to determine the extent of the damage,
which often extends beyond the immediate apparent defect. Shining a strong light through the structure, called backlighting,
Proper inspection and testing methods help determine the helps in the identification of cracked or broken fibers, and, in
classification of damage, which is, whether the damage is some cases, de-laminations. The delaminated area may appear
repairable or whether the part must be replaced. In addition, as a bubble, an indentation in the surface, or a change in color if
classifying the damage helps to determine the proper method of viewed from the side opposite the light. However, backlighting
repair. The manufacturer's structural repair manual outlines does not detect entrapped water. In addition, to properly inspect
inspection procedures, damage classification factors, and a composite using the backlight method, you must strip the
recommended repair methods. surface of all paint.

Some of the more common composite inspection and testing Internal damage is not always evident from the surface, which
methods are visual inspection, tap testing, and ultrasonic testing further necessitates the use of additional, more advanced
along with several other more advanced NDT methods. methods of inspection when damage is suspected.

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TAPTEST / RING TEST

This is one of the simplest methods used to detect damage in

bonded parts. The laminated part is tapped with a coin or small
metallic object, such as a ring or a tap hammer to detect de-
laminations. The tap test is an acoustic test, one in which you
listen for sound differences in the part, and is not the most
accurate test method. The tap test detects de-laminations close
to the surface in addition to transitions to different internal
structures. A properly prepared, undamaged laminated area
produces a sharp, even pitch as compared to a delaminated
area, which produces a dull sound. However, changes in the
thickness of the part, reinforcements, fasteners and previous
repairs may give false readings when using the tap test. Tap
testing will not indicate subsurface de-laminations if the defect is
well below the surface, especially in thick laminated parts.

Thus tap test should be limited to near surface inspection of

bond-line defects. Inspection of the bond-line by tap testing
becomes less and less effective as the depth of the bond-line
from the surface increases. As shown in the figure.

Fig. 03 Tap Test

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ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

Ultrasonic inspection is the most common instrumental NDT

method used on composites today. An ultrasonic tester is useful
for detecting internal damage such as delaminations, core
crush, and other subsurface defects.

Two common methods of ultrasonic testing are;

Pulse echo
Through transmission

In the pulse echo method, the tester generates ultrasonic

pulses, sends them through the part, and receives the return
echo. The echo patterns are displayed on an oscilloscope. An
advantage to the pulse echo method is that it only requires
access to one side of the structure. However, near-surface
defects do not readily allow sound to pass through them,
making it difficult to detect defects located under the first defect.

The pulse echo method works well on laminates because they

do not reduce the magnitude of sound waves as much as a
bonded core structure. The through transmission method uses
two transducers. One transducer emits ultrasonic waves
through the part and the other receives them. Defects located at
multiple levels throughout the structure are more easily detected
because the receiver, located on the backside of the part,
receives the reduced amount of sound waves that pass through
the defects. The ratio of the magnitudes of sound vibrations
transmitted and received determines the structure's reliability.

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Testing bonded-core structures usually requires the through DYE PENETRANT

transmission method due to the fact that sound waves reduce in
magnitude as they travel through the sandwich structure. To Dye penetrant successfully detects cracks and other defects in
effectively test this type of structure, the use of a receiver on the metallic surfaces, but should not be used on composite
backside of the part dramatically increases the likelihood of structure unless called for by the manufacturer of that particular
detecting a defect. part.

RADIOGRAPHY If a dye penetrant is used on the composite structure and

allowed to sit on the surface, the wicking action of the fibers
Radiography or x-ray inspection is used to detect differences in may absorb the penetrant. Absorbed penetrant does not allow
the thickness or physical density compared to the surrounding fibers to bond to new material. The entire area affected by the
material of a composite. It can be used to detect surface as well dye penetrant would have to be removed before a patch could
as internal cracks. be applied, which could extend the damaged area of the part to
a size that would make the part unserviceable.
Radiography also detects entrapped water inside honeycomb
core cells. In addition to detecting the actual defect, it can also ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING
detect the extent and size of the damage, unlike ultrasonic or
tap testing. X-ray inspection will also detect foreign objects in Another nondestructive testing technique used to detect
the composite structure if the object's density is different from composite defects is acoustic emission testing. Presently, this
the composite structure. type of test is more commonly found in production facilities
rather than in maintenance. Acoustic emission testing is a
THERMOGRAPHY comparison test. Thus, to detect flaws a good test sample must
be available to compare the test results of the composite
Thermography locates flaws by temperature variations at the structure. It measures the sounds of a structure and any
surface of a damaged part. Heat is applied to the part and the subsequent defects. Basically, acoustic emission testing picks
temperature gradients are measured using an infrared camera. up the "noise" of the defect and displays it on an oscilloscope.

Thermography requires knowledge of the thermal conductivity This type of testing detects entrapped water, cracks, de
of the test specimen and a reference standard for comparison lamination, and other subsurface flaws.
purposes.

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TYPES OF DEFECTS
REPAIR OF COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC MATERIAL
The newer advanced composites use stronger fabrics and resin
matrices, which cannot be repaired in the same way as The exact procedures for repair of various laminated composite
fiberglass. A common misconception of advanced composites is structures depend partly on the type of damage incurred. The
that they can be repaired in the same way as the older damage can range from a relatively simple surface scratch, to
fiberglass structures. To repair an advanced composite damage completely through all internal plies and core
structure using the materials and techniques traditionally used honeycomb material. There are four types of composite repairs:
for fiberglass repairs may result in an un airworthy repair. Such
traditional fiberglass repairs allow for excessive weight, - Bolted metal or cured composite patches
increased susceptibility to material fatigue and decreased
flexibility. - Bonded metal or cured composite patches

Depending on the manufacturer of the aircraft, classification of - Resin injection

damage is usually placed in one of three categories as,
- Laminating new repair plies to the damage
- Negligible damage
Bolted and bonded surface patches are not usually
- Repairable damage recommended due to the fact that these types of patches do not
restore the strength characteristics of the original structure. A
- Non-repairable damage bolted or bonded patch that is attached to the surface also
causes undesirable aerodynamic changes.
Negligible damage may be corrected by a simple procedure
with no flight restrictions. Repairable damage is damage to the Resin injection repairs are used to fill holes or voids. They are
skin, bond, or core that cannot be repaired without placing accomplished by injecting resin into the hole of a damaged area
restrictions on the aircraft or structure. A composite structure using a needle and syringe. This type of repair is usually done
that is damaged beyond limits is must be replaced unless a on non-structural parts. The injected resin does not restore the
structurally sound repair can be designed by a structural original strength, and, in some cases, expands the
engineer. If a particular damage cannot be repaired using such delaminations.
a structurally sound repair scheme that damage is considered
as a non-repairable damage.

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The most desirable type of permanent repair to composite ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION
structure is to laminate new repair plies in the damaged area.
This type of repair involves removing the damaged plies, and All repairs must be performed correctly, based on the type and
laminating on new ones. extent of damage, in addition to the function of the damaged
structure. Several of the more common reasons that composite
repairs fail are poor surface preparation, and contamination of
the reinforcing fabric or matrices used in the repair. Additionally,
repairs may fail if the measuring and mixing requirements of the
matrices are not explicitly followed. Failure may also occur if the
cure times or temperatures are not adhered to explicitly. Finally,
repairs may fail if inadequate pressure is applied to the repair
during the curing process.

In order to ensure that composite repairs do not fail from the

items described above, proper damage assessment and repair
preparation are a must. Steps such as the initial damage
assessment and classification, materials preparation, surface
preparation, damage removal, cleaning, and water removal are
essential to achieve an airworthy composite repair.

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Before starting any repair, a complete and total assessment of

the damage must be made. It is important to evaluate the
damage to determine such information as the type of defect,
depth, size and location on the aircraft. With any type of
assessment, the most important tool an aircraft maintenance
technician has is his or her critical judgment, based on
experience. A general guideline to follow when assessing
damage includes the following steps.
- Visually examine the part to determine the type and extent of
damage.

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MATERIAL PREPARATION
- Check the damaged area for water, oil, fuel, dirt or other
foreign matter contamination. A proper composite repair begins by gathering the materials
needed for the repair. The structural repair manual provides a
- Check for delaminations around the damaged area. complete list of items including the number of plies, type of
material, and ply orientation.
- Check for subsurface damage, if warranted, with other forms
of advanced nondestructive testing methods. Following is a list of steps commonly performed in the materials
preparation phase of a composite repair. Check the structural
- Determine the repairable damage limits as found in the repair manual and determine the needed composite materials
manufacturer's repair manual. specific to the area that was damaged on the aircraft. Following
details should be looked into,
- Determine the proper repair procedure, if approved, as
outlined in the manufacturer's repair manual. - Material type, class, and style

Several of the more common types of composite damages - Number of plies, orientation and stacking sequence
include cosmetic defects, impact damage, cracks, and holes. It
is important to understand and be able to identify each of these - Adhesive and matrix systems
types of damage to properly classify and subsequently repair
them. - Type of core material, ribbon direction, core splicing adhesive
and potting compound

- Check the shelf-life limits of all needed resins, adhesives, and

pre-impregnated materials.

Identify and understand all deviations from the original

manufacturing materials. For example, repairs to aramid
material may use another type of reinforcing fabric to prevent
the blistering problems that occur with aramid. However, when
deviating from the manufacturer's recommended materials list,
be aware of the potential problems if the proper item is not
chosen.

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Identify the proper cure system and ensure that the correct tools DAMAGE REMOVAL
are available such as hot patch bonding machines, heat
blankets, vacuum bagging equipment, etc. Weigh and mix the When preparing for a composite repair, the damaged area must
resins according to the manufacturer's mixing requirements. be completely removed to provide a strong adhesion area. If
damage has occurred to the core material of a sandwich
SURFACE PREPARATION structure, it must be removed prior to step cutting the laminate
face sheets. In the case of laminated composite structures, step
Proper surface preparation is a key element to a good and scarf cutting are done to remove specific plies.
composite repair. It is one area that can cause a repair to fail.
Therefore, be sure to remove all surface contaminates such as STEP CUTTING
exhaust residue, hydraulic fluid, and other dirt by using a
suitable soap and water solution followed by an approved To properly step cut a laminated structure, each successive
solvent. After cleaning the surface, the paint must be removed layer of fiber and matrix must be removed without damaging the
from the damaged area in order to allow adhesion. Leftover underlying layer. Great care must be exercised during this
paint in the repair area does not allow the resins to properly process to avoid damaging the surrounding fibers. Using
adhere, which compromises the repair. Do not use paint sanding as the method of step cutting provides the most control.
strippers, which deteriorate most epoxy resins within the The proper amount of space for each step cut should be
structure. This may expose the reinforcing fabric, which allows marked off by using the following procedures
the absorption of more stripper into the structure.
- Outline the entire damaged area that must be cut out and
Sanding the surface is generally performed to smoothen and removed.
prepare the surface for finishing. If sanding is performed, take
care not to remove too much material. Over sanding may make - Expand the repair radius (assuming the repair is circular) by
the damage more extensive, and, in some cases, the part to be half an inch for each ply that must be repaired.
irreparable. If the surrounding plies are damaged during the
sanding process, the repair must be enlarged to include this - Extend the radius by an additional one-inch if an overlap patch
area. is called for Step cutting is accomplished by sanding away
approximately one-half inch of each layer with tapering down to
Once the surface finish has been removed from the damaged the center of the repair. Initially, Aramid (Kevlar) will fuzz and
area, other areas should be masked off for protection. This carbon will produce a fine powder as each layer is sanded
portion of the repair preparation defines the area that will be through.
removed to accommodate the repair patch.

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Eventually, the materials will show a gloss area for each ply MECHANICALLY FASTENED REPAIRS WITH PRE-CURED
removed. The gloss indicates the next layer. When the gloss PATCHES
effect is seen, sanding must be stopped, otherwise the next
layer may be damaged. Another way to determine if one layer At times, the facilities and bagging equipment are not available
has been sanded is to look for a change in fiber direction, which to produce a proper composite repair. In this case, a temporary
is only possible when the warp has been placed in alternating repair made of a pre-cured patch inserted with blind fasteners
positions. may be used. However, this type of repair does not produce a
structure with the same strength as the original, and it may
SCARF CUTTING cause vibration because it is not a flush repair. If composite
patches are required, kits with pre-cured patches may be
Scarf cutting is used to remove damaged material with a available. Pre-cured patches come in several sizes and are
tapered cutout. Dimensions of the scarf are based on the ratio produced to have the fibers of each layer in the correct
of the total height of the plies to a given length. The scarf should orientation.
taper down to the center of the repair. By shining a light on the
surface of a scarf cut, you can identify the layer transitions These types of repairs must be performed using the correct type
of fasteners. Hole expanding fasteners such as MS20470 rivets
should not be used in composite structures because of the
possibility of causing damage. Impact damage and
Delamination may occur due to the pressure of the rivet gun
and bucking bar and the expansion of the rivet. In addition, you
must also make sure metallic fasteners will not react with the
composite and cause galvanic corrosion. For example, metal
fasteners used with carbon/graphite composites must be made
of corrosion resistant steel or titanium to prevent this electrolytic
action.

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POTTED REPAIRS
Potted repairs use a filler to complete the composite repair
process. They provide an alternative to installing a core material
plug but do not provide as much strength as a core material.

Filling a hole with a resin and filler mixture adds weight and
decreases the flexibility of the part. However, many structural
repair manuals still list the potted repair as a viable repair for
composite structures.

Most potted repairs are appropriate for honeycomb core

sandwich structures with damage up to one inch in diameter. In
some cases, it is permissible to drill a small hole into a
delaminated area and inject resin to strengthen the part. A
typical potted repair procedure requires the technician to:

- Clean the damaged area.

- Sand out the delaminated area.

- Fill the core area with a resin and micro balloon mixture.

- Prepare and install repair patches.

- Apply pressure and cure.

Fig. 04 Mechanically fastened repair with pre-cured patches
- Refinish the part

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

LAMINATE STRUCTURE REPAIR

Laminated structures are susceptible to several different types

of damage such as surface scratches, delaminations, impact,
and puncture damage. Each type of damage requires a different
repair procedure. Following are several basic laminate
composite repair procedures.

LAMINATE COSMETIC REPAIR

A cosmetic defect is a surface scratch that does not penetrate

the first structural ply. This type of damage is classified as
negligible damage. Superficial scratches, abrasions, or rain
erosion can generally be repaired by applying one or more
coats of resin to the surface. The general process for repairing a
cosmetic defect follows.

- Clean the repair area with MEK (Methyl Ethyl Ketone) or other
approved solvent.

- Remove the paint from the repair area and feather the edges

- Clean the repair area with solvent to remove all sanding

residue

- Mix resin and filler or approved surface putty

- Apply resin/filler mixture to repair area using a squeegee,

brush, or fairing tool

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- Cover repair area with cellophane and work out all air bubbles LAMINATE DAMAGE TO ONE SURFACE

- Cure the repair according to the manufacturer's instructions This type of repair calls for the removal and replacement of the
damaged laminate plies. Fiber damage to one side of the
- Re-finish the part surface that does not completely penetrate the part may be
repaired as follows
DELAMINATION REPAIR
- Prepare the surface by removing the paint and cleaning
Delaminations occurs when the laminate layers become
separated or when the plies separate from the core material. It - Remove the damage by scarf or step-cutting the plies
can be caused by sonic vibration, entrapped moisture, and
manufacturing defects. Delaminations is sometimes referred to - Mix the resin and prepare the bonding patches
as un bonding, or dis bonding and, in some cases, can be
detected by shining a light over the part and looking at the - Apply pressure and cure the part
damaged area at an angle. Delaminations may look like a
bubble or indentation on the surface of the part. - Re-finish the part

In some cases, internal delaminations is minor enough to repair LAMINATE DAMAGE THROUGH THE PART
using a potting compound. It can sometimes be repaired by
simply injecting resin into the cavity that was caused by the ply • Damage that run through all the laminate layers can be
separation. If the delaminations is severe enough, it must be repaired in several ways depending on the number of plies, the
removed and repaired or replaced; always check the location of the damage and the size of the damage. Check the
manufacturer's repair limitations. A typical de lamination manufacturers repair manual for the exact limitations regarding
injection repair procedure for minor delaminations is as follows each type of damage.

- Inject mixed resin into one hole allowing air to vent from the
other

- Clean excess resin from the surface of the part

- Cure according to the manufacturer's instructions

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SANDWICH STRUCTURE REPAIRS

Sandwich structures are vulnerable to impact and puncture

damage primarily because these types of structures usually
incorporate relatively thin face sheets. Because the face sheets
of sandwich structures are relatively thin, de laminations
commonly occur at the point where the face sheet bonds to the
core material. Two of the more common types of sandwich
• Repairable damage can be fixed in several different ways. structure repair are described below.

The damage can be repaired by using a step cut that starts PUNCTURE REPAIR
from one side of the part to the other or for thicker laminated
structures using a step cut that starts from both the sides Small punctures that penetrate one side and into the core
which, meets at the center of the structure. material may be repaired using a resin and filler mixture. Check
the repair manual for damage limitations before proceeding with
this type of repair. Generally, small punctures can be repaired
using the following procedure.

- Determine the extent of the damage and check the repair

limitations
-Vacuum out the hole
-Prepare the resin and filler (milled glass fibers)
- Work the resin/filler mixture into the hole
-Cure the resin in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions
- Sand the surface with fine sandpaper
- Prepare the surface for finishing using an approved solvent
- Re-finish the part.

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HONEYCOMB CORE REPAIRS 6.3.2 Wooden structure

As discussed previously, potted repairs may be made to areas Introduction

of damage of up to one-inch diameter. If the damaged area is
larger than an inch or in a more critical area, a balsa wood or Wood aircraft structures combine many of the attributes
composite honeycomb plug may be cut and bonded in place. If associated with metal and composite structures, such as light
balsa is used, cut the plug so the grain is perpendicular to the weight, low cost, and high strength, while requiring only the
skin. If honeycomb material is used, it should be the same minimum of special equipment for proper maintenance and
density as the original core material. repair. For this reason, many of the lighter aircraft that have
been produced have made use of wood primary and secondary
components, such as wing spars, ribs, and control surfaces. A
great many of these aircraft are still in operation, and a few
designs are still in production using wooden structural
components.

CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF WOOD

AND GLUE USED IN AEROPLANE

There are two principal types of wood, hardwoods and

softwoods, and all woods may be classed as one or the other.
The distinction between hardwoods and softwoods is not based
on the "hardness" of the wood but rather on the cellular
structure of the wood.

SOFTWOODS

Softwoods come from trees that have needle like or scale like
leaves and are classified as evergreens or conifers. The wood
of these trees is composed primarily of fibrous cells and has a
smooth, even appearance when cut in cross section. Softwood

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has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which makes it a very Annual rings Concentric layers of wood that can be seen at the
desirable structural material for use in aircraft construction. end of a tree trunk that has been cut perpendicular to its length.
The rings are caused by the different rates of growth during
Softwood is usually used as a solid wood for spars, cap strips, each year as the seasons change.
and compression members and as a veneer for plywood cores.
Woods included in the softwoods used in aircraft are Sitka Bark The external covering of a tree trunk or branch.
spruce, Douglas fir, Port Oxford white cedar, and western
hemlock. Sitka spruce is the wood used as a reference material Grain The lines in wood caused by the annual rings. Grain also refers
to establish the suitability of other softwoods for use in aircraft to the direction of the wood fibers.
construction and repair.

HARDWOODS

Hardwoods come from trees that have broad leaves and are
classified as deciduous because they lose their leaves each fall.
The wood of these trees is composed of a mixture of large cells,
causing pores in the wood, distributed among the smaller
fibrous cells. These pores are often visible when the wood is cut
smoothly. Hardwoods are generally heavier than soft wood and
are used where their strength advantage makes the extra
weight acceptable over the softwoods. Hardwoods are
commonly used as solid wood for support blocks and tip bows
and as veneers for the facing and core material of plywood.
Hardwoods commonly used in aircraft structures include
mahogany, birch, and white ash

WOODS TERMINOLOGY

Even though the aircraft technician may not have occasion to

use standard terminology for woods very often, as shown in Check A radial crack that cuts across the grain lines.
figure 3.2

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Decay a biological growth living off of the wood and causing a

breakdown in the strength of the wood. Discoloration may also
be present.
AIRCRAFT WOOD EVALUATION
Knot The base of a limb inside the tree. A knot will cause a
deviation of the grain lines as they form around the knot. The primary requirement for wood that is to be used in aircraft
structures is that it is sufficiently sound and of such quality that it
Heartwood The center part of a tree trunk, which is dead and will provide the strength required for the structure. It has been
carries no sap. This part of the tree serves only to support the determined through research that Sitka spruce is generally the
tree. best wood for use in aircraft structures because of its
combination of lightness, strength, stiffness per unit weight, and
Moisture content the weight of water contained in a wood toughness when compared to other species. Because of
sample compared to the weight of the wood sample if all the specific requirements, other species may be used due to unique
water was removed from it. equalities within the general evaluation criteria.

There are two classifications of water in wood,

Sapwood The part of a tree that is alive or partially alive and
carries sap. Sapwoods begin immediately under the bark and 1. free water
extend to the heartwood. The sapwood is often lighter in color
2. cell water
than the heartwood.
free water is the water that flows up and down the tree carrying
Shake A separation between the annual ring layers. nutrients.
Split A crack in the wood resulting from rough handling. Cell water is water trapped within the walls of the wood cells'
structure and is part of the structure of the tree.
Springwood The soft, light colored part of the annual ring. This
wood ring is normally wider than the summerwood ring because
of the rapid tree growth during the spring season.

Summerwood the harder and usually darker part of each

annual ring. This wood is formed during the slow summer
season growth.

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The most commonly used types of plywood for aircraft

manufacture are mahogany and birch. Mahogany has a
reddish-brown appearance, whereas birch is of a light yellow or
cream color. Mahogany offers a better gluing surface than birch
because of its porosity. When selecting or ordering plywood for
aircraft use, the technician should make sure that the wood is of
aircraft quality.

Laminated Wood

Laminated wood is several layers of solid wood bonded

Fig. 02 Classification of water in wood together with an adhesive. Laminated wood differs from
plywood in that each layer of wood has the grain running in the
same direction, whereas plywood has the grain direction of
WOOD SUBSTITUTIONS each layer at a large angle to the previous layer. Laminated
Wood tends to be more rigid than a piece of solid wood of the
same size. Laminated wood is used for components that require
Plywood: a curved shape, such as wing-tip bows and fuselage formers,
and is used in place of solid wood, such as for solid-type wing
Plywood is composed of an uneven number of layers (plies) of spars.
wood veneer assembled with the grain of each layer at an angle
of 45° to 90° to the adjacent layers. The outside layers are GLUES AND GLUING PROCEDURES
called the faces, or the face and back, and the inner layers are
called the core and cross bands. The core is the center ply, and
the layers between the core and outer layers are the cross Glues are used almost exclusively for joining wood in aircraft
bands. construction and repair. A part is regarded as satisfactorily
glued if the strength of the joint is equal to the strength of the
Plywood has a number of advantages over solid wood in that it wood.
is not likely to warp, it is highly resistant to cracking, and its
strength is almost equal in any direction when stresses are
applied along the length or width of a panel.

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Types of Glues  In preparation for mixing, the ingredients are measured out
in the proper proportions. These proportions may be either
There are two broad categories of glue used in aircraft wood by weight or by volume.
structure, casein and synthetic resin. The synthetic resin glues
are commonly used in modern construction and repair  For mixing glues properly, the room temperature generally
operations. must be at or above 70oF [21°C]. The process of mixing the
glue requires that the speed of mixing be slow enough so
Casein glues are manufactured from milk products, are highly that air is not whipped into the mixture. Air would result in a
water-resistant, and require the addition of sodium salts and weak glue joint.
lime to prevent attack by microorganisms.
 Once the glue is mixed, it may have to stand for some
Synthetic glues are of the urea formaldehyde, resorcinol period of time to allow the components of the glue to interact
formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, and epoxy types. before a proper glue joint can be formed.
Depending on the formulation of the glue, it may be water
resistant or waterproof and may be purchased in a liquid or  Once the glue is ready to be used, it has a specific working
powdered form. Synthetic glues are not attacked by life, during which it can be applied with assurance that a
microorganisms. proper glue bond will form. This time is influenced by the
room temperature, with higher temperatures resulting in a
Mixing Glues shorter working life. If the ambient temperature is high, the
working life of the glue can be extended by placing the glue
The mixing of glues must be done in accordance with the glue container in a water bath of cool water (no lower than 70°F
manufacturer's instructions to assure that the full strength of the [21°C]). The average working life of glues is 4 to 5 h at 70°F
glue will be available. The following discussion is meant to [21°C].
present guidelines for mixing glues so that the technician will
have an idea of mixing requirements.

 The container used for mixing glues must be of a material

that will not react with the chemicals that make up the glue.

 The container and mixing tools must be clean and free of

any contaminants or old glue.

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Surface Preparation for Gluing Gluing Pressure

Wood surfaces to be glued should be smooth and true. The functions of pressure on a glue joint are as follows:
Softwoods should not be sanded when preparing the surface for
gluing. Sanding fills the wood pores with wood dust and 1. To squeeze the glue into a thin, continuous film between
prevents the glue from properly penetrating the surface, the wood layers.
however hardwoods can be sanded prior to gluing without any
detrimental effects on the glue bond. 2. To force air from the joint.

The surface to be glued should be free of any paints, oils, 3. To bring the wood surfaces into intimate contact with the
waxes, marks, or particles that would interfere in any way with glue.
the proper bonding of the glue to the wood surface.
4. To hold the surfaces in intimate contact during the
Moisture content at the time of gluing that is between 8 and 12 setting of the glue.
percent is generally regarded as satisfactory, but the higher the
moisture content within this range, the better will be the joint. If A light pressure is used with thin glue and a heavy pressure is
the moisture content is too low, the glue cannot wet the surface used with thick glue.
properly, and it sometimes produces what are called starved
joints-that is, joints not adequately bonded.

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CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF WOODEN AIRFRAME

STRUCTURES

Before attempting to repair a damaged wooden aircraft

structure, the technician must understand the nature of the
required repair and have the correct materials and technical
information required at hand to make the repair.

Bending and Forming Wood

Bending of wood is necessary to achieve the desired shape of

components while maintaining the structural strength of a
straight piece of wood. Any type of wood may be bent, with the
degree of shaping depending upon the size of the piece, the
type of wood, and the technique used in preparing the wood for
bending.

Fig. 03Wooden Aircraft Structure

Solid wood is normally bent only over a very large radius and
then only when the wood is of a small cross-sectional area.
Typical airframe components made of bent solid wood include
wing-tip bows, rib cap strips, and fuselage stringers.

Laminated wood structures are commonly used to form any

severely bent structure because of the ease with which the thin
laminations can be formed and because of the high strength of
the finished laminated structure. Curved laminated structures
are used for items such as tip bows, formers, and bulkheads.

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Fig. 04Forming and Bending of wood

Plywood is formed to make leading-edge coverings and surface
panels. Most curved plywood components start out as flat WING SPAR CONSTRUCTION
sheets and, through various bending operations, are formed to
the desired shape. Wooden wing spars are constructed using several different
techniques, depending on the size of spar required and the
While solid and laminated structures are normally bent in only structural strength requirements. Based on the materials used in
one direction, plywood is often bent in two planes by stretching the structure, spars can be divided into two broad categories:
it over formers, resulting in a double curvature. This double solid spars and built-up spars.
curvature is often found in areas such as fairings and wing tips.
Solid spars use solid wood as the primary components. These
Wood may be bent in a dry condition or after being soaked in spars may be made of one piece of wood that is rectangular in
water for some period of time. Dry bending allows the least cross section, several pieces of solid wood laminated together,
amount of bending, whereas soaking the wood in cold water an externally routed solid piece, or an internally routed spar
makes the wood more flexible. formed by routing out portions of two boards and then joining
the routed sides of the boards together to form a spar.

Built-up spars include a combination of solid wood and

plywood components. Built-up spars can be divided into three
basic types:
 C-beam
 I-beam
 box-beam
C-beam and I-beam spars consist of a plywood web as the
principal vertical member running the length of the spar. At the
top and bottom of this web are located solid wood cap strips.

For a C-beam, the cap strips are on only one side of thespar,
whereas an I-beam has cap strips on both sides of the web.

A box-beam spar consists of a top and bottom solid-wood cap

strip, plywood webs on the outside of the cap strips, and

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intercostal and blocks used for strength, stiffness, and

attachment of fittings.

RIB CONSTRUCTION

Ribs give the wing and other airfoil sections the desired cross
sectional shape. In some wings, certain ribs take the
compression load between the front and rear spars, in which
case they replace the compression struts that would otherwise
be used to separate members. A tapered wing may be tapered
in width, tapered in thickness, or tapered in both thickness and
width. Therefore, the ribs of tapered wings vary in size from
wing tip to wing root, although the cross sectional shape (airfoil
section) of each rib is the same throughout in most designs.

A wood rib is usually assembled in a rib jig. The rib jig is made Fig. 05Rib assembled in the jig
by drawing a pattern of the rib on a smooth, flat plank and then
nailing small blocks of wood to the plank so that they outline the Once all the components are cut and their fit is checked by
rib pattern. positioning them on the jig, glue is applied to all the contact
surfaces and the rib is assembled in the jig.
The components of the rib are cut so that they are a "push" fit,
with perfect alignment between all contact surfaces. Once the glue has set, the rib is removed from the jig, excess
glue is removed, and gussets are added to the opposite side of
the rib.

The rib is finished first by filing down any overhang of the

gussets and then by varnishing the rib. Care must be exercised
to prevent any varnish from getting on the wood in the areas
where the rib will be glued to the spars.

Wood ribs are commonly attached to the spar by the use of glue
and then nailing the rib to the spar through the vertical members

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of the ribs. After the ribs are attached to the spars, a cap strip
may be placed on the top and bottom of the spars between the Three types of wing-bow cross sections with the plywood
ribs to further stabilize the ribs on the spars. surface and the tip bow indicated in each.

Wing-Tip Bow Construction and Repair A wing-tip bow that has been badly damaged should be
removed and replaced. A cracked or broken bow may be
A wing tip may have any of several shapes. For example, it may repaired by splicing in a new piece. The new piece may be
be square, elliptical, or circular in plan form. If the wing tip is spliced in at the spar. It should have the same contour as the
elliptical or circular, a wooden or metal wing-tip bow is required original bow, and the splices should meet the requirements of a
for attaching the plywood or fabric covering. A wooden bow for scarf joint.
this purpose may be made of solid wood or laminationsand bent
to the required shape.

PRESERVATIONAND MAINTENANCE OFWOODEN

STRUCTURE

The key to success in the maintenance of the wood structures

was the selection of the best woods for aircraft structures and
the proper finishing of the woods to prevent the absorption of
moisture.

Control of Moisture

Moisture is the deadliest enemy of wood. Wood that is kept dry

will seldom, if ever deteriorate over a period of many years.

Dry, in this sense, means that it holds no more moisture than its
natural content under dry-air conditions. On the other hand,
when unprotected wood is exposed to water for an appreciable
length of time, fungus begins to grow and penetrate the wood
Fig. 06Wing bow section cells. This fungus is the cause of decay, dry rot, or whatever
term is used to describe deterioration due to fungus. Moisture

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also has the effect of causing wood to swell. If wood is Low temperatures are likely to cause damage if moisture is
alternately wet and dry over a period of time, it will crack and present. Freezing of wet structures can cause rupture of fibers
warp; this will reduce its structural strength and cause stresses and cells, thus weakening the parts affected.
of various kinds.

An important factor in preventing moisture from affecting wood

structures is to ensure that drain holes are provided in all low
points and that the holes are kept open. The drain holes will
permit collected water to drain out and the area to dry.

One of the best methods for extending the 'Service life of an

airplane with wood structures is to store it in a dry, well REPAIR OF WOODEN STRUCTURES
ventilated hangar when it is not in use. This, of course, is not
always possible; however, the practice may well pay for itself in The inspection of wood structures requires a great amount of
reduced maintenance costs. care on the part of the technician.

Effects of Temperature THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WOODEN STRUCTURE

Temperature changes, although not as critical as moisture,
cause stresses and dimensional changes that can lead to During the inspection of an airplane with wood structures, the
cracks, looseness of fittings, and deterioration of finishes. technician must know what to look for that will indicate a
defective or weak structure and the necessity for repair. The
Desert conditions, with extremes of temperature and low following are defects most commonly found when performing a
humidity, can cause a maximum of shrinkage in wood complete inspection.
structures. This can lead to lose fittings and separation of some
glued joints. Dry rot and decay: Dry rot and decay are essentially the same
and are caused by fungus in damp or wet wood. The wood may
High temperatures also lead to deterioration of finishes. These be black, brown, grey or some combination of the three colors.
temperatures lead to the evaporation of plasticizers in coatings, It may be breaking down into particles, or there may be a
and this causes brittleness and cracking. softening of the surface. Dry rot and decay can also be detected
by pressing a sharp-pointed instrument such as a scribe into the
wood to determine the force necessary to penetrate the wood. If
the force required is less than that required for the same depth

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of penetration in sound wood, it is a sign that deterioration has require replacement of affected parts. The protective coating on
taken place. These conditions require replacement of the such parts must be restored.
defective part.
Corrosion: Corrosion of attachment bolts, screws, nails, and
Separated glue joints: Wherever a glue joint is found open or fittings in or on wood structures indicates the presence of
separated, the structure must be rebuilt. moisture. Corroded parts should be replaced, and the cause of
moisture intrusion should be eliminated.

Deteriorated glue joints: Deterioration of glue joints is caused

by aging and deterioration of the glue. Casein glue that was not
treated to prevent fungus will deteriorate in the presence of
moisture. Synthetic resin glues are not generally subject to this
type of deterioration. Deteriorated glue joints require rebuilding
of the structure affected.

Cracks: Shrinkage of the wood or stress applied to it can cause

cracks. Whatever the cause, the cracked member must be
replaced.

Surface crushing: Surface crushing is caused when the wood

is struck by a hard object. This produces indentation, abrasion,
and rupture of the wood fibers. Damaged parts should be
replaced or repaired.

Staining: Stains that are caused by moisture indicate that a

glue joint has failed or that the protective coating is
deteriorating. This type of stain is usually dark in color and
tends to expand along the grain of the wood. Surface stains that
are easily removed without removing wood do not usually

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6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING

FABRIC TERMINOLOGY

To be able to handle, inspect, and install fabrics properly

requires that the technician be familiar with some of the basic
terminology used with woven fabrics. Although this list is not
complete, it will serve as a basis for terms presented in later

Warp

The threads which run the length of the fabric referred to as the
warp. The warp direction is designated at 0 degrees. In a
woven application, there are typically more threads woven into
the warp than the fill direction. This material will be stronger in
the warp direction than the fill direction.

Weft

The weft threads are those that run perpendicular to the warp
fibers. They are designated as 90 degrees. The fill, or weft,
threads are the threads which interweave with the warp threads. Fig. 01Fabric Terminology

Selvage

A tightly woven edge produced by the weaver to prevent the

edges from raveling is referred to as the selvage edge. It is
parallel to the warp threads.

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Bias
The bias is when the weft threads are at a 45-degree angle to
the warp threads. Fabric can be formed into contoured shapes
by using the bias. Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias
but seldom along the warp or weft.

Sizing A textile glue used to stiffen and protect fabrics and

threads. It gives "body" to a material.

Bleaching A chemical process used to whiten textile materials.

Bleaching, if not properly done, can weaken a material and
make it unfit for use.

Calendaring A process of ironing fabric by threading it wet

between a series of heated and cold rollers to produce a
smooth finish. Calendaring causes the nap to lie close to the
surface. The nap is the "fuzzy" surface caused by the Fig. 02 Fabric Terminology
thousands of ends of individual fibers.
Mercerizing A chemical process in which cotton is exposed to
the action of a strong caustic solution that tends to shrink the
material and give it a silky appearance.

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF FABRIC INORGANIC FABRICS

USED IN AEROPLANES
An inorganic fabric is one that requires chemical processing to
ORGANIC FABRICS create the fiber. The in organic fabrics have two advantages
over organic fabrics in that they resist deterioration by the
Organic fabrics are those made from plant materials. These ultraviolet rays of the sun and they resist attack by micro-
include two grades of cotton fabrics and linen. organisms.

For many years, the standard approved aircraft covering has There are two types of inorganic fabrics used to cover aircraft
been grade A mercerized cotton cloth. This material is identified polyesters (Dacron-type materials) and fiberglass.
by the SAE number AMS 3806.
Polyester fabrics are manufactured under the trade names of
Grade A fabric must have a thread count of 80 to 84 threads per Stits Poly-Fiber and Ceconite.
inch in both length and width.
These fabrics have become very popular as replacements for
For many years early in the history of aviation, linen was the organic materials due to their ease of installation and
commonly used for the covering of aircraft. Linen, being woven resistance to deterioration when compared to organic materials.
from flax fiber, is strong, light, and durable. Aircraft linen is an
especially fine grade of linen cloth, and if it complies with the Razorback is the most widely used type of fiberglass material
requirements of TSO C15, it is suitable for use on certificated for covering aircraft. It has an advantage over all other types of
aircraft originally covered with organic fabric. The British materials in that it is impervious to deterioration, heat, and most
specification 7Fl meets all the requirements of TSO C15. chemicals.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

FIBRE ORIENTATION
Mats
In aircraft construction, reinforcing fabric is generally available in
three styles: Chopped fibers that are compressed together are often called
mats. These mats are typically used in combination with other
 Unidirectional woven or unidirectional layers of fabric. A mat is usually not as
 Bi-directional strong as a unidirectional or bidirectional fabric, and not
 Mats commonly used in repair work.

Unidirectional DOPES AND FINISHING MATERIALS

Fiber orientation in which all of the major fibers run in one Aircraft dope has been defined as a colloidal solution of
direction, giving strength in that direction are known as cellulose acetate butyrate or cellulose nitrate.
unidirectional. This type of fabric is not woven together i.e.
there is no weft. Sometimes small cross threads are used to The function of dope is sealing, tautening, and protecting
hold the major fibers bundles in place, but is not considered airplane fabric coverings, and these can also properly be called
woven together. dopes.

Multi-directional Dopes are supplied as a clear coating material and as a

pigmented material. Pigmented dopes have particles added that
This type of fiber orientation calls for fibers to run in two or more give a color to the dope. The most prominent pigment material
directions (bidirectional). Usually these are woven together and associated with aircraft is aluminum oxide, which gives the dope
may be seen in many different weaves. Again, the warp a silver color and is used to reflect1he sun's ultraviolet rays.
threads usually have more fibers that are woven together than Other pigmenting materials include chemical compounds of
the weft, so it is important to line up the warp threads when titanium, chromium, and iron.
doing a repair. There is usually more strength in the warp
direction than the fill direction. NITRATE AND BUTYRATE DOPES

Nitrate dopes composed of nitrocellulose (similar to celluloid

and gun cotton) combined with plasticizers and thinners. The
plasticizers are needed to provide flexibility and resistance to
cracking after the dope has cured.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

Nitrate dope is highly flammable in both liquid and dry states. Its
principal advantages over butyrate dope are low cost, ease of
application, and better adhesion.

Butyrate dopes composed of cellulose acetate butyrate with

suitable plasticizers and thinners added. Butyrate dope is more
fire-resistant than nitrate dope and provides greater shrinkage
of fabric.

Care must be taken not to apply too many coats of butyrate

dope, because the fabric may become too tight and warp the
structure over which the covering is applied.

INSTALLATION OF FABRIC ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

PREPARING THE STRUCTURE

Prior to the installation of fabric on an aircraft structure, the Fig.03 Preparing fabric for installation
structural integrity should be checked and all necessary repairs
made.

All wires and cables should be in place.

All protrusions should be covered or cushioned so that they will

not puncture the fabric covering.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

COVERING METHODS Regardless of the type of material, care will be required to

prevent snagging or tearing of the fabric as it is positioned on
There are two methods that can be used to cover a structure, the structure.
the envelope method and the blanket method.
TESTING METHODS
The envelope method involves making or buying a sleeve that
can slide over the prepared structure. The sleeve has been The strength of the fabric is based on its tensile strength.
sewed together on a sewing machine, so only a small portion of Normal testing techniques involve the use of a Seyboth or
the material must be closed by hand sewing. Maule "punch" tester.

The blanket method of covering involves the use of fabric as it The Seyboth tester penetrates the fabric and indicates the
comes off the roll. It is cut to size and folded over the structure strength of the fabric by a scale on the top of the tester.
to be covered. If the structure is too large to be covered by the
material as it comes off the roll, strips of the material are sewed The Maule tester applies pressure to the fabric and is not
together. The fabric is then wrapped around the structure and normally used with enough force to penetrate airworthy fabric. A
closed along the open edge by hand sewing or using a doped scale on the side of the Maule tester indicates the force that is
seam. being applied in pounds per inch of tensile strength. The punch
tester is a popular tool for checking fabric condition. This
INSTALLATION OF FABRIC method has gained acceptance with maintenance technicians
because the fabric is tested in the doped (as-is) condition. A
Once the method of covering is determined and the structure is sample need not be removed from the aircraft, making testing
prepared to receive the cover, the fabric is positioned on the quicker and easier.
structure.

If the covering material is organic or fiberglass, sliding an

envelope on to the structure will require some care, since the
envelope will be a snug fit on the structure.

Polyester envelopes are loose-fitting and slide on easily.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

Fig.04 Seyboth Tester

Fig. 05 Comparison of Seyboth (left side) and Maule tester

When using the punch tester, it should be kept at right angles to

the fabric surface being checked, as shown in Fig. 06, and away
from the internal aircraft structure. Care should also be
exercised in selecting an area where two layers of fabric do not
exist, such as seams covered with surface tapes.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

TYPES OF DEFECT IN FABRIC

REQUIRED TENSILE STRENGTH
Manufacturing Defects Composite materials can be
The minimum strength for an aircraft requiring grade A cotton is manufactured by a number of techniques, which aim to combine
56 Ib/in [10 kg/cm]. For an aircraft requiring intermediate grade the fiber and resin into a well-consolidated product. The fiber
cotton, the minimum strength is 461b/in [8.21 kg/cm]. and resin may be separate before manufacture or, more
usually, they may already be combined in the form of pre-preg
Polyester fabrics should be tested to the minimum value
required of the original fabric covering, which may be a higher material. The manufacturing technique selected depends partly
value than for the organic materials. Razorback glass fabric upon the size and quality or the composite required. For
does not have to be tested for tensile strength. example, a very large item such as a ship’s hull will generally be
manufactured by hand lay-up techniques in which the resin is
When the inspection is completed and if the fabric is airworthy, applied by brush to sheets of fiber, often in the form of woven
the holes created by the fabric testing must be repaired before cloth, and the excess resin squeezed out with a roller. The resin
returning the aircraft to service. Indentations left by the Maule
tester often return to a smooth surface of their own accord. then cures at ambient temperature. It is extremely difficult to
obtain very high quality laminates by this method and it will
therefore be used when the lower strength can be tolerated and
allowed for in design. Lower strength items requiring high
quality finish might be made by the injection molding of short
fiber composites. Higher quality materials are usually required
for aerospace components to minimize the weight so
complicated techniques such as hot pressing or autoclaving will
be used.

For the last two of these methods, the quality of the finished
material depends strongly on compaction pressure being
applied at the correct moment during the heating cycle. The
precise technique used to bleed off excess resin will also affect
quality and surface finish. The details of the technique adopted
will depend upon the resin system used.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

During all these manufacturing processes, defects can be  Wavy fibers. These are produced by in-plane kinking of
introduced into the material, although the size and frequency of the fibers in a ply and can seriously affect laminate
occurrences of each type depends upon the particular process strength.
cycle. A number of defect types have been identified including,  Ply cracking. Thermally induced cracks occur with
in order of importance: certain ply lay-ups due to differential contraction of the
plies after cure.
 Porosity (voids) due to volatile resin components, or air
 Delamination. These are planar defects usually at ply
not properly controlled during cure.
boundaries and are fairly rare during the manufacture of
 Foreign bodies.
the basic material but may be produced by
 Incorrect fiber volume fraction due to excess or
contamination during lay-up or by machining.
insufficient resin. Local variations in volume fraction will
 Fiber defects. The presence of defects in the fibers
always occur, but large departures from specifications
themselves is one of the ultimate limiting factors in
may be caused by inappropriate process conditions.
determining strength, and sometimes faulty fibers can
 Bonding defects. During manufacture, components may be identified as the sites from which damage growth has
be bonded together and it is possible for defects to
been initiated. These defects are always likely to be
occur in the bond line due to incorrect cure conditions
present, and probably must be considered as one of the
for the adhesive or contamination of the surfaces to be
basic material properties.
bonded.
 Fiber misalignment. This causes local changes in In-Service Defects
volume fraction by preventing ideal packing of fibers.
Composites can be degraded in service by a number of
 Ply misalignment. This is produced as a result of
mechanisms and those of most importance will obviously
mistakes made in lay-up of the component plies. This
depend upon the environment experienced and the sensitivity of
alters the overall stiffness and strength of the laminate
the particular materials used. The mechanisms of degradation
and may cause bending during cure.
include static overload, impact, fatigue, hygro thermal effects,
 Incompletely cured matrix due to incorrect curing cycle
overheating, lightning strike and creep. However, although the
or faulty material.
mechanisms by which defects are initiated and grow are varied,

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

only a small number of different types of defect result. These residual strain. Moisture and thermal spiking can interact to
are, in order of importance: cause inter laminar cracks. Although it may be possible to
measure moisture content nondestructively, perhaps by
 Delaminations measuring ultrasonic velocity or attenuation, it is likely that
 Bond failures representative levels will have to be allowed for in design.
 Cracks
It should be stressed again that these comments are dependent
 Ingress of moisture
on application and composite type. For example, in short fiber
 Fracture or buckling of fibers
composites, delaminations are unlikely to be as important as
 Failure of the interface between the fibers and matrix. cracking, perhaps locally aligned to the fiber orientation.
The major in-service defect requiring detection is the presence
of delaminations. These may be produced by fatigue, bearing
damage, impact, etc. Disbonding can also be found but as yet,
no method is available to measure adhesive strength. It is not
generally expected that cracks will need to be found since they
will lead to delamination growth before a critical stage is
reached. It is possible to find a high density of cracks as a
precursor of delamination growth and this can be done
ultrasonically if required.

Delaminations, because they are orientated at right angles to an

ultrasonic wave propagated at normal incidence into a laminate,
are ideally aligned for detection by ultrasonics. Because
delaminations are good reflectors of ultrasound, their presence
can be revealed by detecting the sound they reflect or the
corresponding loss of transmitted energy.

The ingress of moisture degrades those strength properties of

the composite that are matrix dependent but also reduces

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

REPAIR OF FABRIC COVERINGS

When fabric is damaged, the technician must consider several

factors to determine the method of repair. First, is the damage
repairable or should the entire covering be re- placed? Although
the damage may be repairable, if the remainder of the original
fabric is only marginal in strength, it may be advisable to replace
the entire covering.

DOPED REPAIRS

Doped-on repair patches can be employed on all fabric-covered

aircraft that have a never-exceed speed not greater than 150
mph [241.35 km/h]. A doped-on patch can be used for a
damaged area that does not exceed 16 in [40.64 cm] in any
direction. A repair of this type is made by trimming the damaged Fig. 08Sewing method for a “V” type tear
area and then removing the old dope in the area where the
patch is to be applied. The patch is cut to a size that will overlap The patch is then laced to the rib over a new piece of reinforcing
the old fabric at least 2 in [5.08 cm] for any patch not over 8 in tape. The original lacing and reinforcing tape should not be
[20.32 cm] across. For holes between 8 and 116 in [40.64 cm], removed. A piece of surface tape is placed over the new lacing
the patch should overlap the original fabric by one quarter the on the top and bottom of the structure and the dope is built up
distance of the major dimension of the repair. Where doped-on using the sequence for a new fabric cover- clear coats,
patches extend over a rib, the patch must be cut to extend at aluminum coats, and pigmented coats.
least 3 in [7.62 cm] beyond the rib.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.3 – Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

DOPED-ON PANEL REPAIR SEWN-IN PANEL REPAIR

When the damage to an aircraft fabric surface is greater than 16 If a panel repair cannot give the proper tautness by using the
in [40.64 cm], a panel should be doped on. In this type of repair, doped-on panel repair, a sewn-in panel repair can be
the old fabric is cut out along a line approximately 1 in [2.5 cm] performed. As with the doped-on panel, this repair is for dam-
from the ribs nearest the repair. The fabric on the leading and age exceeding 16 in [40.64 cm] in anyone direction. To perform
trailing edges is not removed unless both the top and bottom of the repair, remove the surface tape from the ribs, the leading
the wing are to be repaired. The surface tape is removed from edge, and the trailing edge adjacent to the damaged panel. Trim
the ribs adjacent to the repair, but the lacing and reinforcing back the damaged fabric to within 1 in [2.54 cm] of the center
tape are left intact. The patch panel is cut to a size that will line of the adjacent ribs. Fabric should not be removed from the
overlap the trailing edge by at least 1 in [2.54 cm], extend leading and trailing edges unless the repair involves both the
around the leading edge and back to the forward spar, and top and bottom fabric surfaces. Do not remove the reinforcing
extend at least 3 in [7.62 cm] beyond the ribs on each side of tape and rib stitching at the ribs. A patch should be cut that will
the repair. extend 3 in [7.62 cm] be- yond the ribs, to the trailing edge, and
around the leading edge to the front spar on the opposite side of
If the leading edge of a wing is either metal- or wood- covered, the wing. Clean the area of the original fabric to be covered by
the patch may be lapped over the old fabric at least 4 in [10 cm] the patch and pin or tack-stitch the patch in place. Take care to
at the nose of the leading edge. The area of the old fabric that is pull the patch tight and eliminate any wrinkles. The patch is now
to be covered by the patch must be thoroughly cleaned, and a attached to the original fabric by hand sewing with the edge of
generous coat of new dope must be applied. The new panel is the patch tucked under ½ in [1.27 cm]. After the patch is
then put in place and pulled as taut as possible. A coat of dope attached, new reinforcing tape is laid over the ribs and the patch
is applied to the patch where it overlaps the old fabric. After this is rib-stitched to the ribs. A coat of clear dope is now applied.
coat has dried, a second coat of dope is applied to the Surface tapes are then laid along the sewed seam, over the rib-
overlapped area. Reinforcing tape is placed over the ribs under stitching, and at other areas appropriate for the aircraft are
moderate tension and is laced to the ribs in the usual manner. paired. The surface is finished following the regular doping
The rib stitches are placed between the original rib stitches. The procedures. This type of repair can be used to cover both the
new patch panel is then given a coat of dope and allowed to top and bottom surfaces of one or more adjacent rib bays.
dry. Surface tape is applied with a second coat of dope over the
reinforcing tape and edges of the panel. Finishing of the panel is
then accomplished in the normal manner.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M06/01 Rev. 01
6.3 - 55 Nov, 2017