Grammar

Subjects
In a sentence, every verb needs a Inside This Chapter
subject. Once you have found a Begin here to navigate through each
verb in a sentence, you can identify section.
its subject if you know the typical
1. Your Writing: Narrating an
relationships between verbs and Experience from the Past
subjects. Recognizing the subjects 2. "Who or What (Verb)?"
of your sentences makes it easier 3. Placement
4. Nouns and Pronouns as
for you to clarify and develop your Subjects
ideas in writing. 5. Simple Subjects
6. Combining Sentences by
Compounding Subjects
In Chapter 3, you will learn that 7. Review & Practice
8. Fun With Grammar: Find
 the subject answers the That Subject!
question "Who or what 9. Return to Your Writing
10. Mastery Test on Subjects
(verb)?"
 the subject in a statement
usually comes before the verb except in questions; the
subject in a question is usually between the two parts of
the split verb.
 the role of the subject is often played by a noun
(sometimes a pronoun can stand in the place of a noun).
 the simple subject is a subject stripped of all the words
that describe it.
 sentences can be combined by compounding their
subjects.

Subjects: Your Writing

Recall an experience from your past (for instance, meeting
someone important to you, leaving home, an accident, a
surprise, or an adventure). Concentrate on just one incident.
Picture yourself as you were then, and try to remember how you
felt. Recall the people and things around you, the smells, the
sounds, the weather, and so on. On scrap paper, jot notes
and freewrite, getting down all that you can remember about
that experience.

1
 1. Arrange what you've written into the first few
sentences of a paragraph, selecting the details
you think are most important. Use the word I at
least three times in your story. For example,
your paragraph might start like this:

When I was ten, I met my grandparents

from Italy for the first time. I was so
excited and scared about their coming that
I could hardly eat for a week in advance. .
.

2. Now imagine that someone else is telling this

same story about you. Cross out I wherever
you've used it, and write in either your
name or he or she. Make any other changes
necessary for the story to sound as if someone
else is telling it. For example:

When I Monica was

ten, I she met my hergrandparents from
Italy for the first time. I She was so excited
and scared about their coming
that I she could hardly eat for a week in
advance. . .

Many of the words that you cross out and change will be
subjects.

If your teacher or study group would like you to develop this

exercise into a longer narrative paragraph, please revise it
double-spaced on a fresh piece of paper, a word processor, or a
class bulletin board.

Subjects: "Who or What (Verb)?"

Once you've found the verb of a sentence, you can identify the
subject by putting the question "Who or what?" in front of the
verb.
Bronson hates jazz.

2
In this sentence, hates is the verb. You ask, "Who or what hates
jazz?
The answer is Bronson, so Bronson is the subject.
Enchiladas aren't always hot. (What aren't hot? Enchiladas)
A friend of mine in San Diego makes them without peppers.
(Who makes them ? friend)
Even your picky niece would eat that kind. (Who would eat
them?niece)
{You} bring her over on Friday for the big test. (Who brings
her? you)
Notice that the last sentence is a command in which the subject
is not stated, but it's understood. Asking "Who or what . . .?"
reveals that the subject must be you:
{You} give me a bite.
{You} don't put chili sauce on it.

Subjects: Placement
In most statements, the subject comes before the verb.
You have been dreaming about socks again.
That has some deep significance.

In most questions, you can find the subject after the first part of
a split verb.

(Remember that to split a single-word verb, you must

add do, does, or did.)

Have you been dreaming about socks again?

Does that image have some deep significance?

When am, is, are, was, or were stands as a single-word verb, it

doesn't split for a question, but it does move to the front of the
subject in a question:

That is a good luck sign. -- Is that a good luck sign?

You are superstitious. -- Are you superstitious?

3
Subjects: Nouns and Pronouns as Subjects
The role of subject is often played by a noun. Sometimes a
pronoun can stand in the place of a noun.

A noun labels or names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

The words in boldbelow are nouns:

The message came from Harold Durum in Illinois, where

the sky is broad and the farmers cherish their freedom.
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.
Gary can't find his polka-
dotted shoelace because Gary he droppedthe shoelace it behind
the bathtub in the dark.
The pronoun it takes the place of the noun shoelace and refers
to an earlier mention of that same noun. The
pronoun he replaces and refers to Gary. Some other pronouns
that replace and point backward to nouns are they, them*, she,
her*, he, and him*.
Those shoelaces cost Gary $3.50 and Gary he washed the
shoelacesthem every night. The shoelaces They meant a lot
to Gary him.
Several other pronouns don't have to point backwards to the
words they replace because everyone knows what they stand
for:

 I, me*, = the person speaking

 we, us*, = the people speaking
 you = the person or people listening

The pronouns with an asterisk (*) beside them cannot be used

as subjects. Chapter 13 examines pronouns in more detail.

Application 3
Not all nouns and pronouns are subjects. Some play other roles
in their sentences:
You shouldn't tease Gary about shoelaces.
Give him a break.

4
In this pair of sentences there are several non-subject nouns
(Gary, shoelaces,break) and a non-subject pronoun (him).
Remember that the pronoun you is understood to be the subject
in a command.

Subjects: Simple Subjects

When a subject is stripped of all the words that describe it,
the simple subject is left.
The girls laughed.
The tough girls laughed.
The rowdy, tough girls laughed.
The rowdy, tough girls in the roller derby laughed.
The rowdy, tough girls in the roller derby on TV laughed.

In each of these sentences, the simple subject is girls. A simple

subject is only one word.

Application 5
Go back and look carefully at the sentences in Application 5.
Notice the following words: in, of, to, about, for. These five
words are prepositions (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4).
The first noun or pronoun that appears after one of these
wordscannot be the simple subject:
The kids [in my family] love the African Stone Game.
The pattern [of the stones] is always changing.

Chapter 4 describes in more detail how modifiers expand

subjects, and Chapter 12offers more practice with sentences
where groups of words come between the simple subject and
the verb. Throughout the rest of this book, the
word subject refers to thesimple subject, the one-word subject
without any describing words.

Subjects: Sentence Combining With Compound

Subjects
A verb can take more than one subject.

5
The padlock and chain on his refrigerator door speak louder
than words.
Compounding is the process of joining similar parts. Joining
separate subjects to go with one verb results in a compound
subject. The words that can join subjects
are:and, but, yet, or, nor. These words are conjunctions.
Sugar and insulin are always changing their levels in human
blood.
Sometimes these conjunctions work in partnership with other
words:
either . . . or. . .
neither . . . nor . . .
both . . . and . . .
not only . . . but also . . .
Not only sweets but also starches may stimulate the pancreas to
produce excess insulin, reducing the blood sugar level.
When more than two subjects are compounded, the conjunction
may appear between only the last two, while the others are
separated by commas.
Muffins, potatoes, and spaghetti are converted to sugar during
digestion.
A brief spurt of energy after eating, a sudden attack of fatigue,
and then sustained low spirits can follow eating orgies.

6
Completers and
Modifiers Inside This Chapter
Begin here to navigate through each
A subject + verb combination may section.
need a word or group of words to
complete the meaning of the 1. Your Writing: Describing a
Room from Direct
sentence. In addition, a sentence is Observation
usually expanded with modifiers 2. "(Subject + Verb) Whom or
that clarify the meaning of the What?"
3. Words That Act as
sentence. Recognizing completers Completers
and modifiers helps you to 4. Recognizing the Difference
understand how sentences work so between Completers and
Subjects
that you can straighten out tangles 5. How Modifiers Work
more easily as you revise your 6. Single-Word Modifiers
written sentences. 7. Prepositional Phrase
Modifiers
8. Combining Sentences by
In Chapter 4, you will learn that Compounding Completers or
Modifiers
 a completer answers the 9. Review & Practice
10. Fun With
question "(Subject + verb) Grammar: Jabberwocky
whom or what?" 11. Return to Your Writing
 nouns, pronouns, and 12. Mastery Test on Completers
& Modifiers
describing words can act as
completers.
 modifiers add to or limit a word's meaning.
 a modifier can be a single word.
 a prepositional phrase always acts as a modifier.
 sentences can be combined by compounding their
completers and modifiers.

Completers and Modifiers: Writing

Take a few minutes to observe the room around you. Notice
specific objects, the light, the space, and the atmosphere of the
place. Look closely for details, including those that seem
unimportant at first, like a shadow on the wall or the rumble of
the air conditioner. On scrap paper, jot down all your
observations, organizing them into related clusters.
(Click here for an introduction to clustering.)

7
 1. Use the clusters of observations to help you
write a paragraph that conveys a picture of the
room. Start your first sentence with these
words: "When I walk into ____________ , the
first thing I notice is . . . ." Go on from there.
2. Looking at your first sentence, put [square
brackets] around the word or phrase that you've
written after "the first thing I notice is . . . " This
is probably a completer. In the next few
sentences, look for words that describe other
words. Underline these words. These are
probably modifiers. Try to decide which other
word in the sentence each modifier describes.
When you finish Chapter 4, you'll be able to find
the rest of the completers and modifiers in your
paragraph.

If your teacher or study group would like you to develop this

exercise into a longer descriptive paragraph, please revise it
double-spaced on a fresh piece of paper, a word processor, or a
class bulletin board.

Completers and Modifiers: "(Subject + Verb)

Whom or What?"
Once you've found the subject and verb of a sentence, you can
check to see if the sentence has a completer by asking "whom
or what?" after the verb.
Bronson hates jazz.
In this sentence, hates is the verb and Bronson is the subject.
You ask "Bronson hates whom or what. . .? The answer is jazz,
so jazz is the completer. Here are some others:
Enchiladas aren't always hot. (Enchiladas aren't what? hot)

My friend in San Diego makes them without peppers. (Friend

makes what? them)

8
Believe me. (Remember from Chapter 3 that the subject of a
command is you, so for this sentence the question is: "You
believe whom?" me)

After one bite of his enchiladas, your prejudice against Mexican

foodwould vanish instantly. (Prejudice would vanish whom?
Prejudice would vanish what? No answer, so there is no
completer in this sentence.)

Completers and Modifiers: Words That Act as

Completers
The role of completer may be played by a noun, a pronoun, or a
word that describes the subject.
The rowdy girls were making trouble. (Noun completer)
The cop finally arrested them. (Pronoun completer)
Behavior like that is crazy. (Completer describes the subject)
A noun names a thing, person, place, or idea. A pronoun takes
the place of a noun and makes it possible to avoid repeating
that noun. Chapter 13 discusses pronouns in more detail. The
kind of completer that describes the subject is a modifier as well
as a completer. The later part of this chapter will explore
modifiers in more detail.

Click here for a list of verbs that take gerund and infinitive
completers.

Application 2

Verbs That Take Gerund and Infinitive Completers

1. Infinitives
1a. Regular, no agent He can afford to call them.
1b. With optional agent for the action You wanted me to call them. OR
You wanted to call them.
1c. With required agent for the action She reminded us to call them.
1* Used without the word "to" We heard her call them.

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 2. Gerunds
2a. Regular, no agent Juno enjoys calling them.
2b. With required agent for
We heard you calling them
the action
I forgot to
(**) Difference in meaning
call them. || I forgot calling them.

acknowledge choose enjoy hope persuade recommend seem

admit command expect imagine plan refuse start
advise consent fail intend practice regret stop
afford consider feel invite prefer remember teach
agree continue finish involve Completer Types | Examples
allow dare forbid learn
anticipate decide force let
appear demand forget like
appreciate deny get love
ask deserve give up make
avoid discuss hate mention
beg dislike have miss

begin endure hear need

celebrate encourage help neglect pretend remind tell

(cannot)
challenge enable notice promise see understand
help
watch want wish

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Completers and Modifiers: Recognizing the
Difference Between Completers and Subjects
Don't confuse completers with subjects.

It's important to see the difference between nouns or pronouns

acting as subjects and those acting as completers.

At birth, a baby has three hundred thirty bones.

The verb is has. "Who or what has?" -- baby = subject.
"Baby has whom or what?" -- bones = completer.

During growth, many small bones fuse.

Verb = fuse. "Who or what fuse?" --bones = subject.
"Bones fuse whom or what? -- no answer, no completer.

Only two-hundred-six bones finally support an adult's body.

Verb = support. "Who or what support?" --bones = subject.
"Bones support whom or what?" -- body = completer.

To analyze a sentence, always look first for the verb

(see Chapter 2 for more help). Then find the subject by asking
"Who or what (verb)?" Finally, check to see whether there is a
completer by asking, "(Subject + verb) whom or what?" The
subject usually comes before the verb, and a completer usually
comes after the verb.

Extra Note: We can sort completers further into several groups.

 Jackie brought some coffee with her.

 She offered me a sip.
 It was rich.
 That sip was a tonic for my bad mood.
 I consider Jackie my most thoughtful friend.

Each of the completers above performs a slightly different

function in its sentence. If you want to learn the differences
among these functions, your teacher may give you information
and exercises to help you explore these groups in more detail.

11
Completers and Modifiers: How Modifiers Work
A modifier adds to or limits a word's meaning.

Modifiers describe other words, making the meaning of those

other words more specific. Modifiers answer the following
questions about the words they modify:

What kind? Which one(s)? How many or how much? Whose?

When? Where? Why? How? To what extent? Under what
conditions?
Watch this sentence become more specific as it adds modifiers:
BASIC SENTENCE: Women earn salaries.
(How many women?) Many women earn salaries.
(Which women?) Many women in the civil services earn salaries.
(What kind of salaries?) Many women in the civil
services earn goodsalaries.
(When?) Many women in the civil services earn good salaries
after their first few promotions.

Completers and Modifiers: Single Word Modifiers

A single word may play the role of modifier.
Some busybodies cause serious trouble. (Some answers "Which
busybodies?" and serious answers "What kind of trouble?")

That creep constantly lies. (That answers "Which creep?"

andconstantly answers "When?")

Sometimes several single words, each one acting separately,

can modify the same word:
He has never felt a generous human impulse. (Never answers
"When?",a answers "How many impulses?",
and generous and human answer "What kind of impulse?")
Note that when a verb's modifier splits the verb in two, as in the
case of never in the example above, the modifier refers to the
main verb.

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Completers and Modifiers: Prepositional Phrase
Modifiers
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with
an object, which is usually a noun or a pronoun.

In the sentences below, the prepositional phrases are

in italics and enclosed within brackets [ ___ ]. There is an
asterisk (*) after each preposition.

Please open that door [beside* you].

Thank goodness we bought that fan [by* the window].

We really needed it [during* the night].

We'd have been miserable [without* it].

Notice how the preposition in each sentence shows a

relationship between the object and the word that the phrase
modifies. Prepositions often show space or time relationships (as
in the first three examples above) but sometimes they show
other kinds of relationship (as in the fourth example above).

Here is a list of some words that often act as prepositions.

Expressing space relationships Examples

above down beyond* Dallas
around* town
across from
beside* the tracks
against in toward* every stoplight
under* the bridge
along into
on* these trips
among off in* her steady good humor
around on
at over
behind past
below through
beneath to

13
beside toward
between under
beyond up
by within

Expressing time relationships Examples

after since until* the last moment
during* the train ride
before until
during

Expressing other relationships Examples

about like like* mine
for* her
as of
despite* the weather
despite than about* my best friend
from* a small town
except with
of* some forgotten old adventures
for without
from

Don't try to memorize this list. Once you get the feel of the
relationships signaled by prepositions, you won't need lists like
this any more.

Between a preposition and its object there may be one or more

single-word modifiers.

[before* the first play]

[of* Lewis's most important game]

Application 6
A prepositional phrase always acts as a modifier.
The roads [beyond* Dallas] were in terrible shape. (Where?)

I remember that bumpy street [beside* the tracks]. (Which?)

14
You always bounced wildly [toward* every stoplight]. (Where?)

I certainly had doubts [about* my best friend] then. (What

kind?)

Tip: No matter how many modifiers a prepositional

phrase may contain, the phrase itself always acts as a
unit which modifies some other word. For now, stop looking at
what's inside the phrase and examine instead how the whole
phrase works as a modifier.

Completers and Modifiers: Combining Sentences

A subject + verb may take more than one completer.

Completers may be compounded by the conjunctions and, but,

yet, or, nor:

Every 15,000 miles, you should change the oil and the
oil filter in your car.
A word may take more than one modifier.

Sometimes modifiers simply pile up near the word they modify:

You may need an adjustable long-handled filter wrench [with a

swivel joint].
At other times, modifiers are connected by the same
conjunctions that create compound subjects, verbs, and
completers--and, but, yet, or, nor:
However, [without tools] but [with a strong bare-handed
grip] you can unscrew the filter simply and quickly.

15
Embedded Thoughts
Some groups of words that look like Inside This Chapter
sentences are really dependent Begin here to navigate through each
clauses. Some words that look like section.
verbs are really verbals. A
1. Your Writing: Describing and
dependent clause or a verbal phrase Explaining a Pet Peeve
may express a thought that is not 2. From Independent to
able to stand on its own but has Dependent Clause
3. Recognizing Dependent
become embedded in a larger Clauses
sentence structure. Understanding 4. From Verb to Verbal
how thoughts become embedded 5. Recognizing Verbal Phrases
6. Combining Sentences by
will help you to combine ideas and Embedding Thoughts
discover relationships among them 7. Combining Sentences by
Compounding Embedded
through your writing. Thoughts
8. Review & Practice: Part
In Chapter 5, you will learn that: 1 and Part 2
9. Fun With Grammar: The
 a clause is a group of related Champion Verbalizer
10. Return to Your Writing
words containing a subject + 11. Mastery Test on Embedded
verb. Thoughts
 an independent clause is a
clause that can stand by itself as a complete sentence
(Everyone can write).
 a dependent clause is a clause that has given up its
independence and can no longer stand by itself (that
everyone can write) .
 a phrase is a group of related words that does not contain
a subject + verb combination. (in spite of your writing).
 a verbal is a verb form that has lost its power to play the
role of verb in a sentence (to write; writing; written).
 a verbal phrase is a group of words containing a verbal and
the verbal's completers or modifiers (to write a clear
essay).
 sentences can be combined by embedding clauses or
verbals.
 sentences can be combined by compounding clauses or
verbals.

Embedded Thoughts: Writing

16
Think about something that irritates you (for example: your
neighbor's radio playing at 2:00 A.M., the way a relative gives
you advice you don't ask for, the smell of peanut butter cookies,
the way your roommate leaves the milk on the table to spoil . .
.). How do you respond to that irritation and why? What would
you like to do about it? On scrap paper, use freewriting or
clustering to jot down everything you can think of about the
irritation you've chosen.

1. Rearrange what you've written into one paragraph,

selecting the details that you feel the most strongly
about. Start your first sentence with the words "I
hate . . . ," and write a short paragraph about this pet
peeve.
2. Look through your paragraph and put asterisks (*)
after any of the following words: because, unless, if,
while, until, which. Then put an asterisk after any
verb form ending in -ing without an auxiliary in front,
or any verb form with the word to in front. These
words probably begin embedded thoughts.

If your teacher or study group would like you to develop this

exercise into a longer descriptive paragraph, please revise it
double-spaced on a fresh piece of paper, a word processor, or a
class bulletin board.

Embedded Thoughts: From Independent to

Dependent Clause
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject + verb.
An independent clausecan stand alone as a complete sentence.
A clause beginning with a dependent wordcannot stand alone
but must be embedded in another sentence.

17
These are the most common dependent words:

Dependent Words
after than where
although that whether
as though which
because unless whichever
before until while
how what who(m)
if whatever whoever
since when whose
why

Here is an independent clause that can stand alone as a

complete sentence:

Marriage is old-fashioned.
Watch what happens when a dependent word introduces this
clause:
although marriage is old-fashioned
The clause still has a subject and verb, but the addition of the
dependent wordalthough makes the clause unable to stand
alone. The word although does something else—it prepares the
newly dependent clause for embedding in some other sentence:
{Although* marriage is old-fashioned}, I'm getting married in
the morning.
The word although shows the relationship between the two
clauses as it embeds one into the other. Other dependent words
show different relationships between clauses:
{Because* marriage is old-fashioned}, I'm going to live without
it.

Cindy is always arguing {that* marriage is old-fashioned}.

Notice the comma in the first sentence, where a dependent

clause comes at the beginning of a sentence.

18
Embedded Thoughts: Recognizing Dependent
Clauses
Any clause introduced by a dependent word has been deprived
of its independence and can function only by playing a role in a
larger sentence.

A dependent word does two things: it turns an independent

clause into a dependent clause, and it defines a role for that
clause to play within a larger sentence:

Zora Neal Hurston was writing during the Harlem Renaissance.

She may not have realized something.
Her novel about Janie Starks would become an American classic.
The addition of dependent words to the first and last sentences
above turns them into dependent clauses (see below). The
dependent words will also define the roles that the two newly
dependent clauses play in a larger sentence:
{While* Zora Neale Hurston was writing during the Harlem
Renaissance}, she may not have realized {that* her novel
about Janie Starks would become an American classic}.
The independent clause of this new sentence is
"she may not have realized." It could stand alone as a sentence
if you wanted it to, but you might ask "She may not have
realized what?" The answer would be a completer: "{that* her
novel about Janie Starks would become an American classic}."
And you might ask "When didn't she realize this?" The answer
would be a modifier: "{While* Zora Neale Hurston was writing
during the Harlem Renaissance}." Both the completer and the
modifier are clauses (they each contain a subject and verb and
related words), but they begin with dependent words, so they
can't stand alone; they must be embedded in a larger sentence
which includes an independent clause.

You can think of an embedded clause as a unit within another

sentence, a unit that acts in the same way that a single word
might act when it plays a role in a sentence:

19
Eden understands my thoughts. (Subject, verb, noun completer)
Eden understands {how I think}. (Subject, verb, clause
completer)

She'll come tonight. (Subject, verb, single-word modifier)

She'll come {before I even call}. (Subject, verb, clause
modifier)

Application 2 Application 3
Often several dependent clauses may be embedded in a single
sentence.
{After Jan earned eight days of vacation time}, she took her
handicapped nephew to Cinnamon Bay {because he loved to
swim}. (modifiers, "When?" and "Why?")

{When evening came}, she would cook {whatever he wanted}

on the little camp stove {that came with their rented tent}. (two
modifiers, "When?" and "Which?", and one completer, "She
would cook what?")

Application 4 Application 5
Because a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, it
may look like a sentence. Sometimes a dependent clause is
even longer than the independent clause in which it is
embedded. A dependent clause, though, is not able to stand
alone as a sentence.

20
Embedded Thoughts: From Verb to Verbal
A verb may become a verbal, ready for
embedding, by the addition of the word to or
by the loss of an auxiliary.

In each set of sentences below, the verb in

the first sentence has become a verbal in the
last one.

Emily takes out the garbage.

Emily wants to take* out the garbage.

A full moon was glowing. The snow magnified its light.

The snow magnified the light of the glowing* full moon.

Emily had discarded a letter. In the moonlight, she could

read the address on the letter.
In the moonlight, Emily could read the address on her
discarded* letter.

Each set of sentences above illustrates a different kind of verbal.

We'll look at the three kinds one at a time.

First kind of verbal: To + [base form of verb]

This is called an infinitive.

An infinitive may play several sentence roles:

To twitch* at the moment of falling asleep is perfectly natural.

(subject, "What is?")

Some people try to control* this motion. (completer, "People try

what?")

They lie on their stomachs to suppress* the twitch. (modifier,

"Why?")

An infinitive never acts as the verb of a sentence.

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Second kind of verbal: [base form of verb] + -ing with no
auxiliary in front
This is called a present participle, or in some cases, a gerund.

The present participle, when it stands without an auxiliary, may

play the role of modifier:

Willie Loman was a traveling* salesman. ("What kind?")

Sometimes the same verb form is used in one of the roles that a
noun could play. Then it is called a gerund:
Losing* his job pushed him beyond the brink of sanity. (subject,
"What pushed?")

People focus on some basic elements of the American character

by reading* Death of a Salesman. (object of the preposition by)

Whether the -ing form acts as a modifier or plays a noun's role,

if it is not preceded by a form of the auxiliary to be, it cannot
work as the verb of its sentence.

Third kind of verbal: [past participle of verb] with no auxiliary in

front

A past participle, standing alone without an auxiliary, plays the

role of modifier:

Ghandi's chosen* strategy of non-violent protest had its roots in

Christian as well as Hindu doctrines. ("Which strategy?")

Educated* in Britain, this young lawyer saw the connections

between his own Indian traditions and the highest ideals of
Western civilization. ("What kind of lawyer?")

Remember that with regular verbs, the simple past and the past
participle forms look exactly alike, but that with irregular verbs
the two forms may be different. (SeeChapter 2.)

22
Embedded Thoughts: Recognizing Verbal
Phrases
A verbal phrase is a verbal plus its completers and modifiers.

Like the verb it came from, a verbal may take a completer and
modifiers.

Boiling* uses up more energy than frying* does. (verbals stand

alone, without phrases)

{Boiling* eggs} uses up more energy than {frying* them}

does. (verbals take completers, creating verbal phrases)

{Boiling* an egg in the winter} will heat your kitchen a bit.

(verbal takes a completer and modifier, creating a verbal
phrase)

An embedded verbal phrase functions as a unit, acting the way

a single word might to play a single role in a larger sentence:
The water is wonderful. (noun subject, verb, completer)
{Swimming* in your pool} is wonderful. (verbal phrase subject,
verb, completer)

I'm expecting friends. (subject, verb, noun completer)

I'm expecting {to see* my friends}. (subject, verb, verbal
phrase completer)

Because a verbal comes from a verb, it behaves like a verb in

several ways. It can take a completer and modifiers. It can also
express time and imply action. But a verbal cannot be the verb
of a sentence.

CHOICE BETWEEN PARTICIPLES

The two participle forms convey different meanings, and

choosing between them requires you to think about the
difference between active and passive.

23
Participles Explanations Examples

Present Embedded form of The movie WAS BORING

participle an active progressive her.
(_____-ing) verb. It was a boring movie.
Describes an agent (The movie was causing
that causes her response.)
something, or a This dog IS TEARING my
thing in an ongoing skirt.
process. I hate the sound
of tearing cloth. (The
cloth is in the process of
the action.)

Past Embedded form of a She WAS BORED by that

participle passive verb. movie.
(_____-edor Describes a receiver Bored and lonely, she
irregular of an effect or left early. (She has
ending) process. received the effect of the
movie.)
My skirt IS BEING TORN
by this dog.
Look at the torn and
dirty cloth. (The cloth
had received the process
of the dog's bite.)
For some verbs, it can be difficult to choose between the active
and passive participles. Practice using the following participles
as modifiers in sentences of your own, and get a native English-
speaking friend to check your sentences:

amusing amused

boring bored

confusing confused

embarrassing embarrassed

exciting excited

interesting interested

24
knowing known

surprising surprised

understanding understood

worrying worried

Embedded Thoughts: Combining Sentences by

Embedding Thoughts
Several separate sentences may combine into a more complex
sentence when one clause keeps its independence and the
others are embedded into it as dependent clauses.

Separate sentences:

Lobbyists are paid by many private and public organizations.

The organizations raise money from people.
The people want their opinions to be taken seriously on Capitol
Hill.
Combined:
Lobbyists are paid by many private and public organizations
{that raise money from people} {who want their opinions to be
taken seriously on Capitol Hill}.

Application 10
Several separate sentences can be combined into a more
complex sentence when the verb in one keeps its full powers
and the verbs in the others become embedded verbals.

Separate sentences:

25
Recent polls show public concern about the influence of money
in politics.
Public concern is rapidly rising.
U.S citizens spent $49 million on lobbyists in 1985.
The citizens were trying to sway congressional votes.
Separate sentences combined:
Recent polls show {rapidly rising} public concern about the
influence of money in politics.
{Trying to influence congressional votes}, U.S. citizens spent
$49 million on lobbyists in 1985.

Embedded Thoughts: Combining Sentences by

Compounding Embedded Thoughts
Several embedded thoughts may be compounded in a single
sentence.
Judy thought {that the professor would have left} but {that the
students would still be in the room}.
Since subjects, completers, and modifiers can be compounded,
embedded thoughts that play these sentence roles can also be
compounded by the conjunctions and, but, yet, or, nor.
Remember that when two or more sentence parts of the same
type are compounded, the conjunction usually appears between
only the last two, and the others are separated by commas.

Separate sentences with embedded subjects:

{Popping huge gum bubbles} was Judy's specialty.

{Making dramatic entrances} to class was her specialty, too.
Separate sentences with embedded modifiers:
Today she popped one bubble too many and found herself face
to face
with a {gum-spattered} Professor Scianna.
This was an {astonished} person.
This was an {infuriated} person.
{Not blushing a bit}, Judy shook his hand with great dignity.
{Not cracking a smile}, Judy did this.

26
Combinations:
{Popping huge gum bubbles} and {making dramatic entrances
in class} were Judy's specialties.

Today she popped one bubble too many and found herself face
to face with a {gum-spattered}, {astonished}, and {infuriated}
Professor Scianna.

{Neither blushing a bit} nor {cracking a smile}, Judy shook his

hand with great dignity.

27
Capitalization and
Punctuation Inside this Chapter
Begin here to navigate through each
section.

Writers use punctuation marks and 1. Observation of Writing

capital letters to help readers 2. Capital Letters
interpret the structure of their 3. Period
4. Question Mark
sentences. Each mark has at least 5. Exclamation Point
one purpose, and some have 6. Comma
several, but no mark is ever used 7. Colon
8. Semicolon
without a good reason. 9. Quotation Marks
10. Parentheses
Chapter 6 will help you understand 11. Review & Practice
12. Fun With Grammar: Poetic
when to use: License
13. Return to Observation of
 capital letters. Writing
 periods. 14. Mastery Test on
Capitalization and
 question marks. Punctuation
 exclamation points.
 commas.
 colons.
 semicolons.
 quotation marks.
 parentheses.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Observation of

Writing
 For this part of Chapter Six, first click here to
open the paragraphs in a new browser window.
Next print out the new window. Once you have
printed out the paragraphs, you can close the
other window.

Read the story you have printed out, circling all

the capital letters and punctuation marks. Be
sure you find each of the following marks:

28
 . period
? question mark
! exclamation point
, comma
; semicolon
: colon
" " quotation marks
( ) parentheses

Capitalization and Punctuation: Capital Letters

 Every sentence begins with a capital letter.
 A penny saved is a penny earned.
People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw
stones.
 A proper noun begins with a capital letter.
 A proper noun names a specific person, place, or
thing. Proper nouns include people's names, titles,
brand names, languages and nationalities, and the
names of days and months (but not seasons). For
example:

Common noun Proper noun

woman Damaris
son Julius
my uncle Uncle Ernie
college president President Bliss
a new detergent Cloud Puff
my accounting class Accounting 243
studying a language studying Spanish
holiday Thanksgiving
month June

 The pronoun I is always spelled as a capital letter.

 When I think of traveling, I always wish I could go to
Borneo.

29
 A capital letter begins the first, last, and any
important word in the title of a book, magazine
article, story, poem, movie, or other work.
 Have you read Paul Hoch's analysis of football, Rip Off
the Big Game?
 Use capital letters only when you have a good reason
to do so.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Period

 A complete sentence which makes a statement ends
with a period.
 It's your turn now. Take a deep breath and blow.
 Most abbreviations end with a period.
 Dr. Williams will meet you at the Oak St. office.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Question

Mark
 A question ends with a question mark.
 Have you been eating again? Does the coach know?
 NOTE: With indirect questions—"The teacher asked
Gesualdo if he had done the homework."—we do not
use question marks. Click here for a one-page
summary on indirect questions and reported speech.

Capitalization and Punctuation:

Exclamation Point
 A statement expressing unusual emphasis or great
excitement may end with an exclamation point.
 You've been eating again! I'm telling the coach!
 This mark is not used often. Usually a writer can
express emphasis through the choice of words, using
information to support an idea rather than relying on
30
 an exclamation point to create a general sense of
high emotion. In writing, exclamation points are used
primarily for conveying the tone of informal
conversations.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Comma

A comma marks the breaks between items in a series.
They teased, begged, and flattered until I gave in.
Remember that when more than two items are compounded,
the conjunction comes between the last two, and commas
separate the others:
They appealed to my pride, to my faith in them, and to my
generous instincts.

Application 5

A comma comes before the conjunction that compounds

independent clauses.
They joked around at my door, and then they won me over.
The girls told me what good drivers they were, but the boys
concentrated on washing the car windows.

Application 6

A comma marks the end of an introductory modifying phrase or

clause.
Since they'd waited all day, I couldn't refuse.
After all, I owed them a favor.
Note that when a modifying clause comes after the independent
clause, no comma is necessary:
I was laughing to myself while they were talking to me.
BUT
While they were talking to me, I was laughing to myself.
A transitional expression at the beginning of a clause will be
separated from the rest of the clause by a comma. In the

31
sentences below,finally and therefore are transitional
expressions.
Finally, the water began to boil.
Nobody noticed it for five minutes; therefore, several ounces
evaporated.

Application 7

A comma separates an interruption from the rest of a sentence.

An interrruption is any word or group of words that interrupts or

is added to a sentence to offer extra information. It can be a
whole clause:

Marcel, who was the oldest, was a charmer.

The interruption can be a phrase:
What they wanted, of course, was to borrow my car.
Sometimes the interruption is merely a word:
Yes, I did it again, honey. I loaned them the new car and the
keys, too.

Application 8

A comma separates quoted words from the rest of a sentence.

"You deserve your great reputation for kindness," Marcel
declared. I blushed and replied, "Enough sweet talk. Be back by
five."
Notice that the first word of each quoted sentence is capitalized,
even though, in the case of the last one, the mark
before enough is a comma rather than a period. This is because
the words being quoted create a sentence within a sentence.

Application 9

32
A comma separates items in an address or date.
Come celebrate with us at 24 Morrill Avenue, Waterville, Maine
on Monday, June 18, 2002.

Application 10

Summary of Comma use

Use a Comma
 to mark the breaks between the items in a series.
 before the conjunction that compounds independent clauses.
 to mark the end of an introductory modifying phrase or clause.
 to separate an interruption from the rest of a sentence.
 to separate quoted words from the rest of a sentence.
 to separate items in an address or date.

Capitalization and Punctuation: Colon

A colon shows the reader that a list or an explanation follows.
Here's what I want you to do: grab my bag, warm up the car,
and take me to the station.
There's one thing about you that makes me mad: the way you
lose track of time when you work in the garden.
Capitalization and Punctuation: Semicolon
A semicolon compounds two independent clauses without a
conjunction.
Come with me; you'll be glad you did.
There must be something I can do; I've been sitting here for an
hour.
A semicolon compounds two independent clauses where the
second clause begins with a transitional expression. In the
sentences below, furthermore andhowever are transitional
expressions.

33
I'll show you the sights of my childhood; furthermore, we'll visit
the alley where I learned to skate.
I thought we'd said enough about that; however, the look on
your face tells me that you have something more to say.
Notice that a comma follows the transitional expression in the
sentences above.

For more on transitional expressions (also known as adverbial

conjuctions), see the section on Avoiding Run-on Sentences and
the section in Chapter 16 on Transitional Expressions.

A semicolon separates items in a series when the items already

contain commas.

As program director, she had several responsibilities: planning,

budgeting, contracting, and hiring staff for the summer
projects; managing the projects and supervising the staff; and
at the end of the summer, closing the offices, distributing
remaining funds to agency departments, and writing final
reports.

Capitalization and Punctuation:

Quotation
Quotation marks identify the exact words of a
speaker.
Sheba was whispering, "Not that way; turn
left."
"I know what I'm doing," Joan snapped.
Do not use quotation marks simply for
emphasis; that's what underlining is for:
This is your laundromat; please keep it clean.

not

This is "your" laundromat; please keep it "clean."

Quotation marks identify the title of a story, poem, or other

short work.

34
The first-person point of view in "The Lesson" blends humor with
social commentary. The narration is entirely different in "Guests
of the Nation."

The title of a long work (such as a book or movie or play) should

be writiten initalics.
The title of a part (such as a story or a chapter or an article in a
journal) should be in quotation marks:

Vanessa Redgrave and Jane Fonda starred in Julia, the movie

based on "Julia," a chapter in Pentimento, Lilian Hellman's
autobiography.

If you are using a typewriter that is not capable of creating

italicized type or if you are writing by hand, underline what
would otherwise appear in italics.

Julia (in publication or word-processing) = Julia (handwritten or

using an old-fashioned typewriter)

Application 15

We do not use quotation marks to set off language in

the form of "indirect" or "reported" speech.

 The teacher said, "Take care of your computer

diskette." (The words in quotation marks are direct
speech, the exact words that someone spoke.)
 The teacher told him to take care of his computer
diskette. (The teacher's exact words are not included
here, so this is indirect or reported speech, and needs
no quotation marks.

Click here for a one-page chart on the uses of reported speech.

35
Capitalization and Punctuation: Parentheses
Parentheses set off information that is not essential to the
sentence.
The price was low ($3.50), so I didn't mind paying.
Any extra information is an interruption (see commas), but
parentheses are useful when the interruption is too long to be
set off with commas, or when the writer wants to separate the
information from the rest of the sentence more completely than
would be possible with commas. The interruption may be a
phrase:
I didn't go anywhere (except to the mailbox) until noon.
Sometimes the interruption is a whole sentence:
The roads (you'll be delighted to hear this) were completely dry
by then.

Application 16 Application 17
Quotation marks and parentheses always come in sets. When
you mark the start of a quotation, the reader imagines a new
voice entering. That new voice continues until you mark the end
of the quotation. When you mark the start of a parenthetical
interruption, the reader will be looking for the end in order to
see where the main sentence picks up again. Don't leave the
reader hanging with only one half of either set.

TIP FOR ESL STUDENTS:

Click on the ESL icon at left to visit
"Question and Quotation Marks" for
help recognizing the form and placement of
these marks in English. Practice these forms
with a teacher or tutor.

QUESTION MARK AND QUOTATION MARKS

36
Languages differ in the way they punctuate sentences, and the
use of question marks and quotation marks in English can cause
particular confusion.

Mark Rule Examples

question Put it at the end of the Do you understand?

mark question only. How does the verb help
Do not put one at the us to know that this is a
beginning. question?

quotation Put them above the "Look," she said. "These

marks line, on both sides of are different marks from
the words being the ones that are used in
quoted, curling inward several European and
to enclose the quote. Latin languages."
Do not forget the set
at the end of the "Oh, I see," answered the
quotation. student.

37
Combining Sentences
Before leaving the study of sentence Inside this Chapter
structure behind, this chapter offers Begin here to navigate through each
a summary of the sentence section.
combining patterns you've learned
1. Your Writing
throughout Part One. These are: 2. Compounding Whole
Sentences
 compounding sentence 3. Sentence Combining
Summary
parts 4. Mixing Methods to Combine
 embedding clauses Sentences
 embedding verbals and 5. Review and Practice
6. Fun With
verbal phrases Grammar: Patchwork
 compounding whole 7. Return to Your Writing
sentences. 8. Mastery Test on Combining
Sentences

Combining Sentences: Your Writing

1. How many of the words on the magnet board (below) can you fit into one
sentence? (In the first, random pile of words, some words may be stacked on
top of each other; quickly rearrange them until you can see all the words.)
Work with one or two partners and try different arrangements until your
phrases and clauses fit together to make sense. After three minutes,
compare your work with what other students are doing and borrow their
ideas to help with your sentence. You will find doubles for the words "the,"
"your," and "in."

2. Spend at least five minutes playing with the possibilities before you look at
the answer provided by the computer (in the pulldown menu below the
magnet board).

38
Combining Sentences: Compounding Whole
Sentences
Just as similar sentence parts may be compounded, whole
sentences also may be compounded.
Remember that subjects may be compounded with other
subjects, modifiers with other modifiers, and so on. In the same
way, one whole sentence may be compounded with another
whole sentence by a conjunction (and, but, yet, or, nor). When
you are compounding whole sentences, two other conjunctions
come into play: for and so. When you compound whole
sentences, a comma before the conjunction marks the place
where one clause ends and the next begins. When more than
two sentences are compounded, the conjunction usually appears
between only the last two, while the others are separated by
commas.

Combining Sentences: Sentence Combining

Summary
You can combine sentences by compounding two or more
sentence parts that play the same sentence role.

A conjunction can connect subject with subject, verb with verb,

completer with completer, or modifier with modifier. You may
wish to review here:

 Combining Sentences by Compounding Verbs,

 Combining Sentences by Compounding Subjects,
 Combining Sentences by Compounding Completers or
Modifiers.

In the example below, the conjunction connects two verbs:

Those blues tunes haunt me. Those blues tunes don't change
my mind.
Those blues tunes haunt me but don't change my mind.

39
 Application 2
You can combine sentences by embedding one within another.

A dependent word can take away a clause's independence and

embed it in an independent clause. See "From Independent to
Dependent Clause" in Chapter 5.

Those blues tunes haunt me. You play them on your trombone.
Those blues tunes haunt me when you play them on your
trombone.

Application 3
A verb can be reduced to a verbal and embedded in another
sentence alone or as a verbal phrase. See "From Verb to
Verbal" in Chapter 5.
Those blues tunes are haunting. They echo constantly through
my brain.
Those haunting blues tunes echo constantly through my brain.
OR
Haunting me, those blues tunes echo constantly through my
brain.

Application 4
You can combine sentences by compounding them.

A conjunction with a comma before it connects two independent

sentences:

Those blues tunes are haunting me. I don't want you to stop
playing.
Those blues tunes are haunting me, but I don't want you to stop
playing.

Application 5

40
Combining Sentences: Mixing Methods to
Combine Sentences
In normal speech, you can fit many ideas into one efficient
sentence.
Compounding and embedding are both ways of fitting the edges
of ideas to each other so that they connect smoothly and avoid
unnecessary words. In the example below, the ideas in ten
sentences can fit concisely into two sentences, for a total of
fewer than 45 words.
Before combination
A constellation is a group of stars.
They are easily recognized.
They appear to be close together in the sky.
They appear to form a picture.
To see the picture, lines must be imagined
between each star.
The lines are connecting them.
(Combine into a sentence of under 30 words)
Constellations are usually named.
The names are the names of animals.
If not, they're names of common objects.
If not, they're names of characters from
mythology.
(Combine into a sentence of under 15 words)
After combination
A constellation is a group of easily recognized
stars that appear to be close together in the sky
and to form a picture if lines are imagined
connecting them. Constellations are usually
named for animals, common objects, or
characters from mythology. (29 + 12 words)

To help you think about ways of combining sentences, print out

a copy of Chart 13: Clause Connectors. This chart organizes
conjunctions and dependent words according to categories of
purpose. It also includes a third group of connectors, the
transitional expressions, which are examined in more detail in

41
Chapter 9. Consult this chart as you combine sentences in the
application below.

DANGER OF MIXING METHODS

Compounding and embedding are two different ways of

combining ideas. Don't mix them together.

 The air conditioner makes a lot of noise but the

cooling is worth it. (The wordbut compounds the
clauses.)
 Although the air conditioner makes a lot of noise, the
cooling is worth it. (The word although embeds the
first clause.)
 Although the air conditioner makes a lot of
noise, but the cooling is worth it. (Incorrect mix of
compounding and embedding)

The temptation to mix forms may be greatest when the clauses

contrast with each other or when one clause describes a cause
and the other an effect. Be especially careful not to mix the
conjunctions and dependent words below:

Conjunctions Dependent words

(for compounding) (for embedding)

Showing contrast but although

yet though
even though

Showing cause & effect for because

so since

42