Discussion

The theory presented by John D. Krumboltz, who is an established career theorist, known as Career decision
making, social learning theory explains how educational and occupational skills are required for selection of
career (Krumboltz et al., 1976). It describes the involvement of certain factors like environmental conditions,
social status, educational experiences, emotional and genetic factors, and skills become reason for people to
switch careers. The combined effect of these factors encourages the person to look for a new career that best
suits him. The options available to every individual are influenced by both internal and external factors, which
either facilitate or discourage the person, and changes the shape and number of available opportunities and
how the individual response to them. Sometimes many options are available and the individual lacks the power
to select one being uncertain of whether this career can be beneficial or will it end up like his previous bad
experience that happened because of his wrong choice of field. Selecting one career option from the available
ones can affect the number of options available for that person in the future. Which in some cases can be
irreversible, and may become one of the factors that opens options for options in that environment.

Social learning constructivism have three aspects; antecedents, cognitive mediators, and consequence.
Important antecedent events such are related top social aspects, like ability to influence others, For example,
when a child is asked in her teenage that why does she want to be a doctor?, her answer usually is that she gets
inspiration from a successful doctor whom she thinks of as a role model. Therefore, considering a role model
in life is the most prominent social learning method. Then comes the cognitive meditation, in which the
learned response from the antecede is considered as compared to the individual’s self-assessment of their
abilities. Finally the self-assessment of the abilities along with reinforcement from consequence provides the
individual to perform in a certain way and finally helps out in career consideration (Krumboltz et al., 1976).
There are several factors that matter the career selection by an individual. These factors as explained by
Krumboltz that matter in selecting the best career for a person and participate in “self- evaluation” on whether
“I” am suitable for this career are described in following sections:

Environmental Conditions and Events

Ideally, career development is the method in which an individual develops accurate perceptions of the
available opportunities and the relationship between that individual and those opportunities. In this process the
individual collects the information obtained in career development and construct their own reality using his
cognitive theory and receiving input from the environment. The individual’s personal concept of the
environment is developed by his prior experience and the new knowledge that he extracts from career
development. Therefore, his future decisions always depend on his personal analysis (Bandura in press).

Genetic involvement and specific skills

Everyone is born with specific qualities that make him better and most productive in one career and least
effective in another. These differences effect on the person’s occupational preference and educational
exposure. These differences can be of race, gender, physical appearance and characteristics, and birth defects.
The genetic and environmental factors, effect on the person’s development of skills as people are born with
more or less proneness to get benefit from certain type of learning experience. These aspects can be
differentiated by a person’s intelligence, creative abilities and nervous coordination and his interaction with
influences from the environment.

Cognitive and emotional response:

Cognitive development, that include dualistic thinking, development patterns and relativism play an important
role in career development. Counseling theories have accepted cognitive development as an important factor in
career development (Bandura, in press)This cognitive and emotional response can change an individual’s point
of view in measuring subject matter and authority in different ways. The switching of career from a simple and
categorical viewpoint of career decisions can be more difficult if interrupted by emotional instability and
pressure enduring abilities.
Social learning experience:
Every individual possesses certain inherited qualities, special learning experience and the method to approach
a problem. These problem approach skills are affected by the individual’s environment exposure and those
personal characteristics and can alter his future actions. Social learning experience like educational
background, previous job experience, efficiency, verbal reinforcement, and stress management may influence
the career development process.

Social learning can be related to factors that are critical in career selection. The occupational preference and
previous experience may lead to enrollment of the individual in a specific degree and institution. That
program if isn’t the best career education for that particular individual can result for future change in the
career. So, previous experience and preferences are to be included in social learning program of the individual.
Another social learning part is the self-efficacy theorem, in which the impact of personal beliefs of an
individual on ability to perform that task is carefully observed in career selection.
Gender difference can also affect an individual’s self-efficacy. The females are less self-efficient and their
expectations to choose a field and excel in it is lesser than males. Some careers create different self-efficacy
bias for everyone, i.e. if a career is new, most people will have fear of failure and will consider other options.
(Borgen, in press)
Verbal reinforcement is another aspect of social learning. It is the most effective procedure to acquire
people’s response to a career by considering rational approach and all the good and bad aspects of that career.
In this program the individual’s beliefs about the career helps in understanding how and when that individual
will react in the job and helps in making decision for selection of career.
Every job will test the individual’s pressure endurance and stress management skills. However, some jobs
require high level of stress management such as surgeons and doctors. The individuals who are interested in
selecting these careers in life should participate in stress management programs. These programs consist of
education, training and then application in real scenarios. During the program the individual gets an idea of
stressful situation that can appear during the job, learns on how to manage stress and then given case studies
and tasks that train them in stress management.
The way in which our careers develop is a complex process involving many different and changing
factors. In order to understand it more clearly, a body of theory is required and this has become
increasingly available over the last 100 years. These theories have to be seen within the context of the
time they were developed, for as Law (1996a) observed, they have 'responded to the social concerns
prevalent' at a particular time. It is necessary to view career development theories as 'growing out of
their times' but also influencing the way in which careers guidance has been practised.

Careers guidance formally began with Frank Parsons, who established the Vocation Bureau in Boston
(USA) in 1908. The following year he put his ideas into words. First, he stressed, a clear understanding of
the individual's aptitudes, interests and limitations was necessary. Second, a knowledge of the
requirements and conditions of different kinds of employment was essential. Finally, an ability to match
these two would result in successful guidance.

Thus Parsons laid the basis for the notion of talent matching. He went on to suggest some techniques,
beginning with the collection of personal data by means of a private interview at some length. Various
tests of sight and hearing might well be used, as well as an assessment of memory and general
intelligence. He was also concerned with character analysis during the interview. Parsons saw it as part
of his work to advise interviewees on the value of voice culture and the economic value of the smile,
and he held that if a boy's manners were in any way objectionable or underdeveloped, he should be
frankly told and urged to correct his errors.

Occupational information was the basis of his second area of interest and he collected this for use with
clients. He advised that a boy who was underdeveloped and inexperienced and showed no special
aptitudes should read about occupations and visit places of work and, if feasible, try his hand at
different kinds of work.

stimulated by the First World War. In a sense, this is where the earliest British interest in vocational
guidance arises. Cyril Burt joined C.S. Myers at the newly founded National Institute of Industrial
Psychology (NIIP) in 1921 and initiated a programme of research which later involved Alec Rodger and
carried on until the Second World War. This research focused on the usefulness of psychometric
information in guidance and on the need for clearer and more extensive knowledge of occupations ..
,Despite the work of the NIIP, the Juvenile Employment Service did not readily take to psychological
testing. Indeed, Birmingham was the only education authority that became extensively involved, and in
1944 it published a report stating that the adoption of scientific methods in vocational guidance
improved considerably the advice that can be given to children leaving school.

Trait and factor

Differential psychology is concerned with the examination of individual differences in terms of traits and
factors. In the United States, the leading proponents of this approach were D.G. Patterson and E.G.
Williamson, both of the University of Minnesota. Whilst Patterson worked in the Employment
Stabilization Research Institute, developing various aptitude tests for use in vocational guidance, it was
Williamson (1939) who promoted the trait and factor theory and helped to establish its widespread
practice.

The theory is based on the following premises:

1 Individuals are organised in terms of a unique pattern of capabilities and potentialities (traits).

2 These traits are correlated with the requirements of different jobs.

3 Testing is the best means of predicting future job success.

4 Each individual attempts to identify their own traits in order to find a way of working and living which
will enable them to use their capabilities effectively.

Williamson laid great emphasis on the individual as a rational being who, once possessing adequate
information about themselves, is then capable of making a wise choice. The counsellor uses a selection
of tests and other devices to help the client to put aptitudes, interests and personality into some sort of
occupational context. Alec Rodger (1952) developed a trait and factor working framework, the seven-
point plan, which became widely adopted in the UK. The plan stated that those engaged in vocational
guidance need to assemble a profile of information for each individual based on the following seven
areas:

1 physical makeup

2 attainments

3 general intelligence

4 special aptitudes

5 interests

6 disposition

7 circumstances.

The seven-point plan bears closer examination as it enshrines much of the trait and factor theory and
has played an important part in vocational guidance practice in this country. Rodger posed two
questions about physical makeup. First, has the interviewee any defects of health or physique that may
be of occupational importance? Second, how agreeable is his appearance, his bearing and his speech?

Attainments relate to educational achievements and those outside the narrow classroom sense. This
information can be obtained from the interviewee. Rodger also includes occupational training and
experience for those already at work. General intelligence means general intellectual capacity and
Rodger advocates the use of tests to establish this, whilst using the interview to explore how far this
intelligence is normally used. Special aptitudes cover mechanical/manual dexterity, facility in the use of
words or figures, talent for drawing or music. Tests can be used to measure some of these aptitudes,
although Rodger warns against too much occupational significance being attached to these special
aptitudes. General intelligence is more important.

Attainments relate to educational achievements and those outside the narrow classroom sense. This
information can be obtained from the interviewee. Rodger also includes occupational training and
experience for those already at work. General intelligence means general intellectual capacity and
Rodger advocates the use of tests to establish this, whilst using the interview to explore how far this
intelligence is normally used. Special aptitudes cover mechanical/manual dexterity, facility in the use of
words or figures, talent for drawing or music. Tests can be used to measure some of these aptitudes,
although Rodger warns against too much occupational significance being attached to these special
aptitudes. General intelligence is more important.

To what extent are the client's interests intellectual, practical/ constructional, physically active, social or
artistic? Rodger says that interests have to be treated cautiously as they may be short-lived and
unsoundly based, and may not relate to actual accomplishments. Indeed, he asks whether drives such as
doing good or making money are more relevant but concludes that there is a fivefold classification of
occupations:

1 those with intellectual processes, e.g. clerical work

2 those of mainly practical/ constructional type, e.g. engineering

3 those of mainly physically active type, e.g. farming

4 those essentially involving some relationship with other people, e.g. sales 5 those of a mainly artistic
kind.

Disposition has to do with personality, temperament and character, whilst circumstances refers to
situations where the individual has a particular opportunity like a family business.

The theory of work adjustment and person-environment confidence

Lloyd Lofquist originally developed the theory arising from a work adjustment project (at the University
of Minnesota in 1959) to study thework adjustment of vocational rehabilitation clients. Since then, in
conjunction with Renee Dawis, the theory has been refined to include person-environment
correspondence. Dawis (1996) traces the theory's development. It began by emphasising the individual's
needs and how these were satisfied by reinforcers, e.g. pay, which are extracted from the environment
by use of his/her capabilities. At the heart of the theory of work adjustment (TWA) is the contention that
person and environment attempt to achieve and maintain correspondence with each othe;, which
should lead to satisfaction.

Integral to the TWA is a matching model, although the emphasis is on the worker. Here aptitude is
crucial, and is measured by ability or aptitude tests. Emphasis is also given to values as an expression of
the individual's needs. Values and abilities combine to form personality structure. The environment
structure is based on the characteristic abilities and values of the people working in a set place. The TWA
is concerned with issues of change within the individual and the workplace leading to
discorrespondence, and as such the theory can be seen as a system type process model. It does take
into account stages of development. It suggests that the first two decades of life be called
differentiation, where capabilities, requirements and style unfold. This is followed by stability, with
abilities and values stable but change likely to occur in skills and needs. Finally, decline occurs with
physiological changes taking place due to ageing.

Dawis (1996) claims that TWA can be used for career assessment, i.e. matching, and for career
counselling. Brown (1996) describes TWA as well constructed and comprehensive although he does add
that it is rooted in learning theories which seem too simplistic to much of modern psychology.

Holland's theory

John Holland's work on vocational choice dates back to 1959 and has continued unabated since that
time. Osipow (1983) describes his theory as based on career choices representing an extension of
personality and holds that there is an attempt to implement personal behavioural styles in the context
of work.

Holland's (1973) assumptiOns underlying his theory are:

1. In our culture, most persons can be categorised as one of six types: realistic, investigative,
artistic, social, enterprising or conventional.
2. There are six types of environment: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising or
conventional. As people of the same type congregate, they help create an environment typical
of their particular type.
3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their
attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.
4. A person's behaviour is determined by an interaction between his personality and the
characteristics of his environment.
5. In addition, Holland refers to some other key concepts:

Consistency Some types have more in common with other types. Figure 2.1 demonstrates the
relationship between types. Correlations between the types are indicated.

Differentiation Some people ·and some environments are much closer to one type, whilst other people
and environments are much more a mixture of types. • Congruence There are degrees of fit between
people and environments, e.g. a realistic type fits best into a realistic environment and next best into an
investigative environment.