The volumetric flow rate for an orifice is given by:

A2 2 g ( p1  p 2 )
q  KA2 2 gh
A2
1

{1  ( ) }2 2

A1

q actual d 4 C
where K =flow coefficient= ( q ) / [1  ( ) ]
ideal D [1   4 ]

where C =discharge coefficient

 =diameter ratio

If the fluid density is  m , the density of the fluid over the manometer fluid is  l , and  s
corrected at standard temperature then the flow rate ,

A2 2 g ( p1  p 2 )
q  KA2 (  (  m   l ) /  s 2 gh
A2
1

{1  ( 2 2
) }
A1

The term (1   4 ) is known as velocity approach factor , since it is 1.0 if the upstream
velocity V1 is zero . To reduce the above equation in more useful form , it is often
modified as :

K 2 D 2 2 g ( p1  p 2 )
q
4 

. Unfortunately K depends on the flow Reynolds’s number and flow channel geometry . The
fluid flow through restriction is characterized by inertia forces and viscous forces , and these
are related by Reynolds’s number as given by :

V 2 d
R


4 pq
Also , R  D

where

V2 = average velocity of fluid

 =absolute viscosity

d =restriction diameter

Ter 1
Example:

Calculate the flow rate of water through a 10 cm pipe with an orifice of 5 cm diameter as
restriction. The differential head read over a Hg column manometer for vena contracta taps is
30 cm. The flowing water temperature is 40 C, manometer temperature I 25 C and the
standard temperature at which the data is desired is 15 C. Assume  40  0.05

q  KA2 (  (  m   l ) /  s 2 gh

Here , A2   100 / 4  78.5 sq. cm. , h  30 cm ,   0.5 ,  m  13.4 gm/cm3 ,  f  0.996

gm/cm3 ,   0.993 gm/cm3 ,  s  0.9998 gm/cm3 .

Using the above equation

q  K  78.  0.993(13.5  0.996)  2  980  30 / 0.9998  6700K

Also R  4  0.993  q /(  0.05  5)  5.04q

Reynold’s no is assumed from table, K is found out and then q after which R is checked . A
close reach determines the required value of q.

Assuming Reynold’s no. by guess as 105, this gives K=0.6271 and q from Reynold’s no. is
1.9X104 while from formula it is 4.2 X 104 which is wide out . Now by 2nd time guess, R is
assumed as 2 X 105 giving q as 3.97 X 10 4 and K =0.6240 so that from formula it is 4.18 X
104 cc/ sec., which is close and may be accepted.

Derivation of relation between hydrostatic head and pressure difference:

P2

2

h
P1
Δh

m
1

Ter 2
Reference to diagram , If  1 and  2 are the areas of the well and the capillary and h is
change in the height in the well due to pressure difference P1 ~ P2 , then pressure balance

equation is : P1  P2  (h  h)  m

h  2 2 
But  or h  h , Hence P1  P2   m h(1  2 )
h 1 1 1

If  2   1 , then P1  P2  h m

P1
P2
1

d
d

h2
h1 l
h
h4
h3 m

When manometer is connected via sealing liquid pot, which separates the process fluid from
the manometer fluid for any possible source of trouble like absorption , mixing or explosion ,
etc then pressure balance equation has to be modified as :

P1  h1  l  h3  m  P2  h2  l  h4  m , where

The change in the levels in seal pots are neglected.

 P1  P2  (h2  h1 )  l  ( h4  h3 )  m

But clearly (h2  h1 )  ( h4  h3 )  h , Hence  P1  P2  h(  m   l )

1) A well type manometer uses a liquid having density 1200 kg/m3. The well has a dia of
100 mm and the tube has a dia of 10 mm. The manometer is to be used to measure
differential pressure in an air flow system. The scale placed alongside the tube has no
Ter 3
 correction factor for the area ration of the manometer. Calculate the value of a factor that
may be multiplied by the manometer reading in mm o find the pressure differential in
kPa.

Given :  liquid  1200kg / m , d 1  0.100m , d 2  0.010m ,  air  1.23kg / m 3

3

[ Let hO be the level of fluid in both arms , measured from a common reference , when there
is no pressure. Then , when pressure p1 is introduced in one of the arms (having larger
area ) the height of the fluid increases to hO  H and the other arm is exposed to the
nominal pressure p 2 , height of the fluid decreases to hO  h .

Since the volume displaced must be same , then hA2  HA1

p1  (hO  H ) g air  p 2  (hO  h) g air  (h  H ) g liquid

A2
p1  p2  h(1  ) g ( liquid   air )
A1

Therefore the correction factor to account for the different area of cross-section is

A2
h(1  )
A1

In terms of h , the pressure difference is given by:

10 2
9.81([ ]  1)(1200  1.23) h  0.012hkPa
100

2) A capacitive level gauge is used to measure the liquid level of oil which has specific
capacitance 20 times as large as that of air. The oil is contained in a circular tank of
diameter of 1 metre and an central electrode of 10 cm diameter. If the capacitance
changes by 20% of its initial value, what will be change in oil level

3) Design an Orifice for maximum flow rate of 0.6 m 3/min in a 25 cm diameter line to
produce a head of 25 cm of Hg assuming the correction factor of 0.8. What will be
actual flow rate at full scale value? If the density of water changes by 25% due to
temperature effect, what will be the value of correction factor?
Ter 4
 4) An Orifice is to be used to indicate the flow rate of water in a 25 mm dia line. The
orifice dia is 10 mm. What pressure reading in mm o Hg will be experienced on the
orifice for a line–flow velocity of 5m/S?

5) A Hg manometer is connected to a standard orifice meter with a 30 mm dia hole that

has been placed in a 80 mm dia pipe. For a manometer reading of 300 mm of Hg,
determine the flow rate in the pipe if the fluid is crude oil at 20 degree.

6) A turbine type flow sensor has a bore of internal diameter of 150 mm. The rotor
consists of 10 no of blades, each of mean thickness of 5 mm, mounted on a hub of
mean diameter of 30 mm. The clearance between the inlet blade tip and the bore is 2
mm and the inlet blade tip angle is 25 degree. Estimate the meter constant K in
pulses / m3 and the frequency of induced AC emf in the pick up coil.

7) From a two component chromatogram following data are obtained: tRA=19.92 minutes
, tRB=18.80 minute, WB=1.22 minutes , WA=1.02 minutes . The column length is 50
cm. Calculate the number of plates, plate height and resolution.

Cylindrical type capacitive sensor:

Ter 5
It consists of two concentric metal cylinders. The space between the cylinders is filled by two

different dielectric materials one of which is air and another (e.g. liquid ) The capacitance of

the sensor is the sum of liquid and air capacitances . When there is air only in the space

2 O  1 h
CO 
D
between the concentric cylinders, the initial capacitance is given by : ln( 1 ) ,
D2

where are the diameters of inner and outer cylinders.

When a liquid level rises through the space between the coaxial cylinders , then capacitance

is the sum of two capacitances as formed by the two dielectrics i.e. by air and liquid and is

2 O h 2 O l

C  C1  C 2  C O  C  
D1 D
given by : ln( ) ln( 1 )
D2 D2

2 O l
 C   i.e. C  l
D1
ln( )
D2

C 2 O 2CO
S  
l D h
The sensitivity , ln( 1 )
D2

1) A capacitive transducer is made of two concentric cylindrical electrodes. The

outer diameter of the inner cylindrical electrode is 3 mm and the dielectric
medium is air. The inner diameter of the outer electrode is 3.1 mm. Calculate the
dielectric stress when a voltage of 100V is applied across the electrodes. Is it
within safe limits? The length of electrodes is 20 mm. Calculate the change in
capacitance if inner electrode is moved through a distance of 2 mm. The
breakdown strength of air is 3kV/mm.
[ Ans. Length of air gap between the two electrodes (3.1-3)/2=0.05 mm.
Dielectric stress =100/0.05=2000 V/mm =2kV/mm.
The breakdown strength of air is 3kV/mm and hence the dielectric is safe.
2l
C  33.9 pF
Capacitance of the transducer is D2
Log e ( )
D1
The moving electrode is shifted through a distance of 2 mm. So the effective
length of transducer is: l=20-2=18 mm.
Ter 6
New value of capacitance is 30.5 pF.
Change in capacitance is: 33.9-30.5=3.4 pF.]

Ter 7