DISCRETE RANDOM

VARIABLES AND
PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
5.1 Random Variables

• Discrete Random Variable

• Continuous Random Variable
Table 5.1 Frequency and Relative Frequency
Distributions of the Number of Vehicles Owned by
Families
Random Variables

Definition
A random variable is a variable
whose value is determined by the
outcome of a random experiment.
Discrete Random Variable

Definition
A random variable that assumes
countable values is called a
discrete random variable.
Examples of Discrete Random Variables

1. The number of cars sold at a dealership during

a given month
2. The number of houses in a certain block
3. The number of fish caught on a fishing trip
4. The number of complaints received at the office
of an airline on a given day
5. The number of customers who visit a bank
during any given hour
6. The number of heads obtained in three tosses
of a coin
Continuous Random Variable

Definition
A random variable that can
assume any value contained in one
or more intervals is called a
continuous random variable.
Continuous Random Variable
Examples of Continuous Random Variables

1. The length of a room

2. The time taken to commute from home to work
3. The amount of milk in a gallon (note that we do not expect “a
gallon” to contain exactly one gallon of milk but either slightly
more or slightly less than one gallon)
4. The weight of a letter
5. The price of a house

Note that money is often treated as a continuous random

variable, specifically when there are a large number of unique
values.
5.2 Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random
Variable

Definition
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable lists all
the possible values that the random variable can assume and their
corresponding probabilities.
 Example 5-1

The frequency and relative frequency

distributions of the number of vehicles owned
by families given in Table 5.1. Let x be the
number of vehicles owned by a randomly
selected family.
Write the probability distribution of x and make
a histogram for this probability distribution.
Table 5.2 Frequency and Relative Frequency Distributions of
the Number of Vehicles Owned by Families
Example 5-1: Solution
Table 5.3 Probability Distribution of the Number of Vehicles
Owned by Families
Example 5-1: Solution
Figure 5.1 Histogram for the Probability Distribution of Table
5.3
Two Characteristics of a Probability Distribution

The probability distribution of a discrete random variable possesses

the following two characteristics.

1. 0 ≤ P(x) ≤ 1 for each value of x

2. Σ P(x) = 1
 Example 5-2

Using the probability distribution listed in Table 5.3 of Example 5–1, find the
following probabilities:
(a) The probability that a randomly selected family owns two vehicles
(b) The probability that a randomly selected family owns at least two vehicles
(c) The probability that a randomly selected family owns at most one vehicle
(d) The probability that a randomly selected family owns three or more vehicles
 Example 5-2: Solution

Using the probabilities listed in Table 5.3,

(a) P(selected family owns two vehicles) = P(2) = .455

(b) P(selected family owns at least two vehicles)

= P(2 or 3 or 4) = P(2) + P(3) + P(4) = .455 + .290 + .080
= .825

(c) P(selected family owns at most one vehicle)

= P(0 or 1) = P(0) + P(1) = .015 + .160 = .175

(d) P(selected family owns three or more vehicles)

= P(3 or 4) = P(3) + P(4) = .290 + .080 = .370
Example 5-3

Each of the following tables lists certain values of x and their

probabilities. Determine whether or not each table represents a valid
probability distribution.
Example 5-3: Solution

(a) No, since the sum of all probabilities is not equal to 1.0.
(b) Yes.
(c) No, since one of the probabilities is negative.
Example 5-4

The following table lists the probability distribution of the number of

breakdowns per week for a machine based on past data.
Example 5-4

Find the probability that the number of breakdowns for this machine
during a given week is
(a) exactly 2
(b) 0 to 2
(c) more than 1
(d) at most 1
Example 5-4: Solution
Table 5.4 Probability Distribution of the Number of
Breakdowns

Let x denote the number of breakdowns for this machine during a given
week. Table 5.4 lists the probability distribution of x.
Example 5-4: Solution

Using Table 5.4,

(a) P(exactly 2 breakdowns) = P(2) = .35
(b) P(0 to 2 breakdowns) = P(0 ≤ x ≤ 2) = P(0 or 1 or 2)
= P(0) + P(1) + P(2)
= .15 + .20 + .35 = .70
(c) P(more than 1 breakdown) = P(x > 1) = P(2 or 3)
= P(2) + P(3)
= .35 +.30 = .65
(d) P(at most 1 breakdown) = P(x ≤ 1) = P(0 or 1)
= P(0) + P(1)
= .15 + .20 = .35
5.4 The Binomial Probability Distribution

• The Binomial Experiment

• The Binomial Probability Distribution and Binomial Formula
• Using the Table of Binomial Probabilities
• Probability of Success and the Shape of the Binomial Distribution
• Mean and Standard Deviation of the Binomial Distribution
The Binomial Experiment

Conditions of a Binomial Experiment

A binomial experiment must satisfy the following four

conditions.
1. There are n identical trials.
2. Each trail has only two possible outcomes (or events).
3. The probabilities of the two outcomes (or events)
remain constant for each trial.
4. The trials are independent.
Example 5-9

Consider the experiment consisting of 10 tosses of a coin. Determine

whether or not it is a binomial experiment.
Example 5-9: Solution

1. There are a total of 10 trials (tosses), and they are all identical.
Here, n=10.
2. Each trial (toss) has only two possible outcomes: a head and a tail.
3. The probability of obtaining a head (a success) is ½ and that of a
tail (a failure) is ½ for any toss. That is,
p = P(H) = ½ and q = P(T) = ½
4. The trials (tosses) are independent.

Consequently, the experiment consisting of 10 tosses is a binomial

experiment.
Example 5-10

(a) Seventy five percent of students at a college with a large student

population use Insta- gram. A sample of five students from this college
is selected, and these students are asked whether or not they use
Instagram. Is this experiment a binomial experiment?
(b) In a group of 12 students at a college, 9 use Instagram. Five
students are selected from this group of 12 and are asked whether or
not they use Instagram. Is this experiment a binomial experiment?
 Example 5-10: Solution

(a) We check whether all four conditions of the binomial probability

distribution are satisfied.
1. This example consists of five identical trials.
2. Each trial has two outcomes: a student uses Instagram or a student
does not use Instagram.
3. The probability p that a student uses Instagram is .75. The probability
q that a student does not use Instagram is .25.
4. Each trial (student) is independent.

Because all four conditions of a binomial experiment are satisfied, this is

an example of a binomial experiment.
 Example 5-10: Solution

(b)
1. This example consists of five identical trials.
2. Each trial has two outcomes: a student uses Instagram or a student
does not use Instagram.
3. The probability p is that a student uses Instagram. The probability q
is that a student does not use Instagram. They do not remain constant
for each selection. The probability of each outcome changes with each
selection depending on what happened in the previous selections.
 Example 5-10: Solution

(b)
4. Because p and q do not remain constant for each selection, the trials
are not independent.

Given that the third and fourth conditions of a binomial experiment are
not satisfied, this is not an example of a binomial experiment.
The Binomial Probability Distribution and Binomial
Formula

For a binomial experiment, the probability of exactly x successes in n

trials is given by the binomial formula

x n− x
P( x) =n Cx p q
where
n = total number of trials
p = probability of success
q = 1 – p = probability of failure
x = number of successes in n trials
n - x = number of failures in n trials
Example 5-11

Seventy five percent of students at a college with a large student

population use the social media site Instagram. Three students are
randomly selected from this college. What is the probability that exactly
two of these three students use Instagram?
Example 5-11: Solution

Here, we are given that:

n = 3, x = 2, and p = .75
The probability of two successes is denoted by P(x=2) or P(2).
Example 5-12

At the Express House Delivery Service, providing high-quality service

to customers is the top priority of the management. The company
guarantees a refund of all charges if a package it is delivering does
not arrive at its destination by the specified time. It is known from past
data that despite all efforts, 2% of the packages mailed through this
company do not arrive at their destinations within the specified time.
Suppose a corporation mails 10 packages through Express House
Delivery Service on a certain day.
Example 5-12

(a) Find the probability that exactly one of these 10 packages will not
arrive at its destination within the specified time.

(b) Find the probability that at most one of these 10 packages will not
arrive at its destination within the specified time.
Example 5-12: Solution

n = total number of packages mailed = 10

p = P(success) = .02
q = P(failure) = 1 – .02 = .98
Example 5-12: Solution

x = number of successes = 1
n – x = number of failures = 10 – 1 = 9
(a)
10!
P( x = 1) =10 C1 (.02) (.98) =
1 9
(.02)1 (.98) 9
1!(10 − 1)!
= (10)(.02)(.83374776) = .1667

Thus, there is a .1667 probability that exactly one of the 10 packages

mailed will not arrive at its destination within the specified time.
Example 5-12: Solution

(b) At most one of the ten packages is given by the sum of the
probabilities of x = 0 and x = 1

P( x  1) = P( x = 0) + P( x = 1)
=10 C 0 (.02) 0 (.98)10 + 10 C1 (.02)1 (.98) 9
= (1)(1)(.81707281)+ (10)(.02)(.83374776)
= .8171+ .1667 = .9838

Thus, the probability that at most one of the 10 packages mailed will
not arrive at its destination within the specified time is .9838.
Example 5-13

According to a survey, 33% of American employees do not plan to

change their jobs in the near future. Let x denote the number of
employees in a random sample of three American employees who do
not plan to change their jobs in the near future. Write the probability
distribution of x and draw a histogram for this probability distribution.
Example 5-13: Solution

• n = total employees in the sample = 3

• p = P(an employee does not plan to change his/her job in the near
future) = .33
• q = P(an employee does plan to change his/her job in the near future)
= 1 - .33 = .67
Example 5-13: Solution

P (0) = 3 C0 (.33) 0 (.67) 3 = (1)(1)(.300763) = .3008

P (1) = 3 C1 (.33) (.67) = (3)(.33)(.4489) = .4444

1 2

P (2) = 3 C2 (.33) 2 (.67)1 = (3)(.1089)(.67) = .2189

P(3) = 3 C3 (.33) 3 (.67) 0 = (1)(.035937)(1) = .0359
Example 5-13: Solution
Table 5.9 Probability Distribution of x
Figure 5.3 Histogram for the Probability Distribution of
Table 5.9
Using the Table of Binomial Probabilities

The probabilities for a binomial experiment can also be read from

Table I in Appendix B, the table of binomial probabilities.
This lists the probabilities of x for n = 1 to n = 25.
This lists the probabilities of x for selected values of p.
Example 5-14

According to a survey, 30% of college students said that they spend too
much time on Facebook. (The remaining 70% said that they do not
spend too much time on Facebook or had no opinion.) Suppose this
result holds true for the current population of all college students. A
random sample of six college students is selected. Using Table I of
Appendix B, answer the following.
Example 5-14

(a) Find the probability that exactly three of these six college
students will say that they spend too much time on Facebook.
(b) Find the probability that at most two of these six college students
will say that they spend too much time on Facebook.
(c) Find the probability that at least three of these six college
students will say that they spend too much time on Facebook.
Example 5-14

(d) Find the probability that one to three of these six college students
will say that they spend too much time on Facebook.
(e) Let x be the number in a random sample of six college students
who will say that they spend too much time on Facebook. Write the
probability distribution of x and draw a histogram for this probability
distribution.
Table 5.10 Determining P(x = 3) for n = 6 and p = .30
Table 5.11 Portion of Table I for n = 6 and p= .30
Example 5-14: Solution

(a) P(3) = .1852

(b) P(at most 2) = P(0 or 1 or 2)

= P(0) + P(1) + P(2)
= .1176 + .3025 + .3241 = .7442

(c) P(at least 3) = P(3 or 4 or 5 or 6)

= P(3) + P(4) + P(5) + P(6)
= .1852 + .0595 + .0102 + .0007
= .2556

(d) P(1 to 3) = P(1) + P(2) + P(3)

= .3025 + .3241 + .1852 = .8118
Example 5-14: Solution
Table 5.12 Probability Distribution of x for n = 6 and p=
.30

(e)
Example 5-14: Solution
Figure 5.4 Histogram for the Probability Distribution of
x

(e)
Probability of Success and the Shape of the Binomial
Distribution

For any number of trials n:

1. The binomial probability distribution is symmetric if p =.50.

2. The binomial probability distribution is skewed to the right if p is less

than .50.

3. The binomial probability distribution is skewed to the left if p is

greater than .50.
Table 5.13 Probability Distribution of x for n = 4 and p=
.50
Figure 5.5 Histogram for the Probability Distribution of
Table 5.13
Table 5.14 Probability Distribution of x for n = 4 and p=
.30
Figure 5.6 Histogram for the Probability Distribution of
Table 5.14
Table 5.15 Probability Distribution of x for n = 4 and p=
.80
Figure 5.7 Histogram for the Probability Distribution of
Table 5.15
 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Binomial
Distribution

• The mean and standard deviation of a binomial distribution are,

respectively,

 = np and  = npq

• where n is the total number of trials, p is the probability of success, and q

is the probability of failure.