The Periodic Table of Elements

Science has come along

way since Aristotle’s
theory of Air, Water, Fire,
and Earth.

Scientists have identified

92 Natural elements,
and created about 28
others.

Elements
The elements, alone or
in combinations, make
up our bodies, our
world, our sun, and in
fact, the entire
universe.

A great deal of information about an element can be gathered from

its position on the period table.

Understanding the organization and plan of the periodic table will

help you obtain basic information about each of the 118 known
elements.

Periodic Table
- The elements of the periodic table can be divided into three main
categories METALS, NON – METALS, and METALLOIDS.

Properties of Metals
Metals appear to the left of the dark ziz-zag line on the periodic table.
Most metals are solid at room temperature.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Metals have luster. This means they are shiny
Ductile -metals can be drawn into wire.
Malleable - metals can be hammered into sheets
For example, copper can be made into thin sheets and wire because
it is malleable and ductile.
Metals have a high melting point.
They are also very dense.

Conductors:
Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
Conductivity is the ability of an object to transfer heat or
electricity to another object.

Most metals are good conductors.

In addition, a few metals are magnetic.

For example, iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) are
attracted to magnets and can be made into magnets

Most metals are also solids at room temperature.

However, one metal—mercury (Hg)—is a liquid at room

temperature.

A chemical property of metal is its reaction with water and oxygen.

This results in corrosion and rust.

Chemical Properties
The ease and speed with which an element combines, or
reacts, with other elements and compounds is called its
reactivity.

Metals usually react by losing electrons to other atoms.

Some metals are very reactive.
Alkali Metals
The metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium, are called the
alkali metals.
Alkali metals react with other elements by losing one electron.
These metals are so reactive that they are never found as
uncombined elements in nature.

The two most important alkali metals are sodium and

potassium.

Sodium compounds are found in large amounts in

seawater and salt beds.

Your diet includes foods that contain compounds of

sodium and potassium, elements important for life.

Another alkali metal, lithium, is used in batteries and

some medicines.

Potassium is an alkali metal.

Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 2 of the periodic table contains the alkaline
earth metals.

Each is fairly hard, gray-white, and a good conductor

of electricity.

Alkaline earth metals react by losing two electrons.

These elements are not as reactive as the metals in

Group 1, but they are more reactive than most other
metals.

Like the Group 1 metals, the Group 2 metals are never

found uncombined in nature.

The two most common alkaline earth metals are magnesium

and calcium.

Calcium compounds are an essential part of teeth and bones.

Calcium also helps muscles work properly.

You get calcium compounds from milk and other dairy

products, as well as from green, leafy vegetables.
Calcium is one of the Group 2 elements.
Transition Metals
The elements in Groups 3 through 12 are called the
transition metals.

The transition metals include most of the familiar

metals, such as iron, copper, nickel, silver, and gold.

Most of the transition metals are hard and shiny.

All of the transition metals are good conductors of

electricity.

Many of these metals form colorful compounds.

The transition metals are less reactive than the metals

in Groups 1 and 2.

This lack of reactivity is the reason ancient gold coins

and jewelry are as beautiful and detailed today as they
were thousands of years ago.

Even when iron reacts with air and water, forming

rust, it sometimes takes many years to react
completely.
Some transition metals are important to your health.

For example, you would not survive without iron.

It forms the core of a large molecule called

hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in your
bloodstream.

Transition Metals Compounds made with transition metals can be very

colorful. Several transition metals are used to make paints.

Lanthanides
Two rows of elements are placed below the main part of the
periodic table.

This makes the table more compact.

The elements in the top row are called the lanthanides (lan thuh
nydz).

Lanthanides are soft, malleable, shiny metals with high

conductivity.

They are mixed with more common metals to make alloys.

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other
element, usually another metal.

Different lanthanides are usually found together in nature.

They are difficult to separate from one another because they all
share very similar properties.

Lanthanides Neodymium is used in manufacturing the tiny

speakers inside stereo headphones.

Actinides
The elements below the lanthanides are called actinides (ak tuh
nydz).

Of the actinides, only thorium (Th) and uranium (U) occur

naturally on Earth.

Uranium is used to produce energy in nuclear power plants.

All of the elements after uranium in the periodic table were

created artificially in laboratories.

The nuclei of these elements are very unstable, meaning that

they break apart very quickly into smaller nuclei.

In fact, many of these elements are so unstable that they last for
only a fraction of a second after they are made.

Mars Exploration Rover

Curium, one of the actinide
elements, is used as a source
of high-energy particles that
heat and provide power for
certain scientific equipment
aboard the Mars Exploration
Rover.

Synthetic Elements

Elements with atomic numbers higher than 92 are

sometimes described as synthetic elements because
they are not found naturally on Earth.

Instead, elements that follow uranium are made—or

synthesized—when nuclear particles are forced to
crash into one another.

For example, plutonium is made by bombarding

nuclei of uranium-238 with neutrons in a nuclear
reactor.

Americium-241 (Am-241) is made by bombarding

plutonium nuclei with neutrons.

Synthetic Elements Synthetic elements are not found naturally on Earth.

Properties of Nonmetals
Nonmetals occur to the right of the dark zig-zag on the periodic
table.

Although Hydrogen is in family 1, it is also a nonmetal.

Many nonmetals are gases at room temperature.

Nonmetals do not have luster; they are dull.

Brittle:
Nonmetals are brittle so they break easily.

This means non-metals ARE NOT ductile or malleable.

Nonmetals have Low density.

They also have a low melting point.

This is why they are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

Metalloids can be found clustered around the dark

zig-zag line that separates metals and nonmetals.

Properties of Metalloids
Metalloids (metal-like) have properties of both
metals and nonmetals.
Metalloids are solids that can be shiny or dull.

They conduct
electricity and
heat better than
nonmetals but not as
well as metals.

Metalloids are
malleable and
ductile

The elements are also categorized into periods, or horizontal rows.

Elements in periods do not have similar properties
Elements in the periodic table are also grouped into families, which are the
columns. Elements in families have similar properties.

Families
Families in the periodic table share chemical
properties because all elements in a family
have the same number of valence electrons

This means that all elements in a family bond

with other atoms in a similar way.

Properties of Metals
Most metals have
3 or less valence
electrons and
therefore are
likely to lose
these electrons
in chemical
bonds.

Properties of Nonmetals
Nonmetals have 5 or more valence electrons and
therefore usually gain electrons in chemical bonds.
Polymer Chemistry
Polymer – A very long molecule
composed of repeating units
connected by covalent bonds

Monomer – A repeated unit in a

polymer. The reactant for the
polymerization reaction.

COMMON USES FOR POLYMERIC MATERIALS

PACKAGING
 Bottles
 Surgical stutures
 Electric components
 Contact lenses
 Adhesive
 Medical supplies: bone cement, blood bags

PAINT
 Automative parts
 Housewares: tupperwares, plates, cups
 Fabric
 Rubber
 Pipes
 Plastic bags
Characterizing a Polymer
Structure
Classification
Synthesis

Structure of a Polymer
Skeletal Structure
Chemical Structure

Skeletal Structure
Linear – a chain with two ends
Branched – have side chains
Crosslinked (Networked) – chains are
Connected to other chains

Chemical Structure
Homopolymer – only one
monomer (repeating unit)

Classifications
Thermoplastic
Elastomer
Thermoset
Thermoplastics

Linear or branched polymers which

can be melted when heat is applied.

Can be molded into any shape with

processing techniques such as
injection molding or extrusion.

Most common “plastics”

Plastics – bottles, grocery bags, water

piping, rope, fishing line, car parts

Most are recyclable

Natural thermoplastics – silk,

cellulose (proteins), polylactic acid

Codes for Plastics

1 – PETE – soft drink bottles
2 – LDPE – plastic bags toys
3 – PVC – water pipes
4 – HDPE – milk jugs
PLASTICS
THERMOPLASTICS
- Acrylics
- ABS
- Nylons
- Polyethylenes
- PVC
- Others
THERMOSETS
- Expoxies
- Phenolics
- Polyimides
- Others
ELASTOMERS
- Rubbers
- Silicones
- Polyurethanes

Elastomers
Crosslinked (networked) rubbery
polymers that can be stretched easily
(3-10x original size)

Rapidly recover original dimensions

when applied stress is released.

Low degree of crosslinking

Elastomers
Uses – examination gloves, rubber
bands, bouncing balls

Not recyclable

Degrades (burns/scorches) when

heat is added

Natural elastomers – natural rubber,

latex

Thermosets
Normally are rigid materials.

Network polymers in which chain

motion is greatly restricted by a high
degree of crosslinking.

Cannot be reshaped
once formed.

Uses – high temperature electrical

applications, super glue, counter top
laminates, epoxy resins, tires
(vulcanized rubber)

Cannot be recycled (burn/scorch with

heat)

Natural* thermosets – vulcanized

Rubber

Alkanes – are hydrocarbons that do not have multiple bonds between

carbon atoms.
- Other hydrocarbsons may contain double or triple bonds between
their carbon atoms

Alkenes – contain at least one carbon – carbon double bond

Alkynes – contain at least one carbon – carbon triple bond
Aromatic compounds – contain a special type of ring, the most common
example of which is a benzene ring.

NOMENCLATURE
- Must memorize prefixes
- To name, look at the formula for the hydrocarbon
- Determine if it is an alkane, alkene, or alkyne
- Use the prefix for the number of carbons
- Add ending (ane,ene,yne)
NANOMATERIALS

Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology can be defined
as the design, synthesis, and
application of materials and
devices whose size and shape
have been engineered at the
nanoscale. It exploits unique
chemical, physical, electrical,
and mechanical properties that
emerge when matter is structured
at the nanoscale.

WHAT IS A NANOMATERIAL?
 Nanomaterials are commonly defined as materials with an average
grain size less than 100 nanometers
 Nanomaterials have extremely small size which having at least one
dimension 100nm
 One billion nanometers equals one meter

Nanomaterials/Nanoparticles
 Nanomaterials are materials
that have structural components
smaller than 1 micrometer in at
least one dimension. While the
atomic and molecular building
blocks (~0.2 nm) of matter are
considered nanomaterials,
examples such as bulk crystals
with lattice spacing of
nanometers but macroscopic
dimensions overall, are
commonly excluded.

Nanoparticle Classification
 Nanoparticles are generally
classified based on their
dimensionality, morphology,
composition, uniformity and
agglomeration.

Dimension of nanomaterials
- This classification is based on the number of dimensions of a
material, which are outside the nanoscale (<100nm) range.

Dimensionality
 zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials all the
dimensions are measured within the nanoscale
(no dimensions are larger than 100 nm). Most
commonly, 0D nanomaterials are
nanoparticles.
  1D nanomaterials. Materials
with one dimension in the
outside of nanometer scale are
typically thin films or surface
coatings, and include the
circuitry of computer chips and
the antireflection and hard
coatings on eyeglasses. Thin
films have been developed and
used for decades in various
fields, such as electronics,
chemistry, and engineering.

 2D nanomaterials. Two-dimensional
nanomaterials have two dimensions
are outside in the nanometer scale.
These include 2D nanostructured
films, with nanostructures firmly
attached to a substrate, or nanopore
filters used for small particle
separation and filtration. Free
particles with a large aspect ratio,
with dimensions in the nanoscale
range, are also considered 2D
nanomaterials. Asbestos fibers are
an example of 2D nanoparticles.

 3D nanomaterials. Materials
that are outside the
nano-scaled in all three
dimensions are considered 3D
nanomaterials. These include
thin films deposited under
conditions that generate
atomic-scale porosity, colloids,
and free nanoparticles with
various morphologies.

Nanoparticle Morphology
 Morphological characteristics to
be taken into account are:
flatness, sphericity, and aspect
ratio.

 A general classification exists between high-

and low-aspect ratio particles.

High aspect ratio nanoparticles (HARN)

are nanoparticles with a length many times
that of their width. Examples of HARN may
include certain types of nanotubes, nanorods,
and platelets, depending on their aspect ratio
Aspect ratio is the ratio of length to width of a particle
(ISO, 1999).

Low aspect ratio nanoparticles (LARN)

are nanoparticles with a length shorter that of their width

Small-aspect ratio morphologies include spherical,

oval, cubic, prism, helical, or pillar. Collections of
many particles exist as powders, suspension, or colloids

Nanoparticle Composition
 Nanoparticles can be composed of a
single constituent material or be a
composite of several materials.

A composite material is a combination of

two materials with different physical and
chemical properties. When they are
combined they create a material which is
specialised to do a certain job, for instance
to become stronger, lighter or resistant to
electricity..
the nanoparticles found in nature are often agglonerations of materials with
various compositions, while pure single – composition materials can be
easily synthesized today by a variety of methods.

Nanoparticle Uniformity and Agglomeration

 Based on their chemistry
and electro-magnetic
properties, nanoparticles
can exist as dispersed
aerosols, as
suspensions/colloids, or in an
agglomerate state.

 In an agglomerate state,
nanoparticles may behave as
larger particles, depending on
the size of the agglomerate.

Sources of Nanomaterials
 1. Engineered
 2. Incidental
 3. Natural
Engineered Nanomaterials
 Engineered nanomaterials have
been deliberately engineered
and manufactured by humans to
have certain required
properties.

 Legacy nanomaterials are

those that were in commercial
production prior to the
development of nanotechnology
as incremental advancements
over other colloidal or
particulate materials. They
include carbon black and titanium dioxide
nanoparticles.

Incidental source
 Nanomaterials may be
incidentally produced as a
byproduct of mechanical or
industrial processes. Sources of
incidental nanoparticles include
vehicle engine exhausts, welding
fumes, combustion processes
from domestic solid fuel heating
and cooking. Incidental
atmospheric nanoparticles are
often referred to as ultrafine
particles, and are a contributor
to air pollution.

Natural source
 Natural sources of
nanoparticles include
combustion products forest
fires, volcanic ash, ocean
spray, and the radioactive
decay of radon gas. Natural
nanomaterials can also be
formed through weathering
processes of metal- or anion-
containing rocks, as well as
at acid mine drainage sites.

Applications of Nanomaterials
Electronics
Microelectronics. By achieving a
significant reduction in the size
of circuit elements, the
microprocessors (or better said,
nanoprocessors) that contain
these components could run
faster and incorporate more
logic gates, thereby enabling
computations at far higher
speeds.

Displays. The resolution of a

television or a monitor
improves with reduction of
pixel size. The use of
nanocrystalline materials can
greatly enhance resolution and
may significantly reduce cost.

Data storage. Devices, such as

computer hard-disks function
based on their ability to magnetize
a small area of a spinning disk to
record information, are
established nano-applications.
Discs and tapes containing
engineered nanomaterials can
store large amounts of
information.
Transportation and Telecommunication
 Car tires. Nanoparticles of
carbon black ranging
between 10 nm - 500 nm act
as a filler in the polymer
matrix of tires, and are used
for mechanical
reinforcement.

 Car bumpers. Clay particle

based composites containing
plastics and nano-sized clay
are used to make car
exteriors that are lighter and
twice as resistant to
scratches than usual
materials

Pollution Remediation
 Elimination of pollutants.
Due to their enhanced
chemical activity,
nanomaterials can be used as
catalysts to react with toxic
gases (such as carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxide) in
automobile catalytic converters
and power generation
equipment.

WHAT IS CATALYSIS?
 Catalysis is the chemical reaction brought about by a catalyst
 Catalyst is a material that increase the rate of a chemical reaction
while itself not undergoing any permanent change.
 The term “catalysis” was introduced as early as 1836 by Berzelius.
 There are two classes
-positive catalyst – increase the rate of the reaction
- negative catalyst – decrease the rate of the reaction

Application of Nanomaterials

Coatings
 Scratch resistant materials.
Nanoscale intermediate layers
between the hard outer layer
and the substrate material
significantly improve wear and
scratch resistant coatings. The
intermediate layers are designed
to give a good bonding and
graded matching of mechanical
and thermal properties, leading
to improved adhesion.

Mechanical Engineering
 Lubricants. Nanospheres of
inorganic materials could be used
as lubricants, acting as nanosized
ball bearings.
ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of
Atmospheric Science in which Chemistry of the Earth’s
atmosphere and that of other planets is studied.

EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

Earth’s atmosphere has a series of layers, each with its own specific
traits.

Moving upward from ground level, these layers are named

 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere and
 Exosphere.
The exosphere gradually fades away into the realm
of interplanetary space.
Atmospheric Chemistry
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

Exosphere
o1600 km; Very high Temp.,
oH2, HE, Outer Space

Thermosphere
oC
o90-500 km; - 92 to 1200
Temp.,
oO2, NO+

Mesosphere
o50-90 km; -2 to -92 oC Temp,
o( Ionoshere: O+2, O+ , NO+ , e-)

Stratosphere
o11-50 km; -56 to - 2 oC Temp,
oO3 ( Ozone Layer: 15 km)

Troposphere
o0- 11 km; 15 to - 56 oC Temp,
TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere is the lowest layer of our
atmosphere.

Starting at ground level, it extends

upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or
about 33,000 feet) above sea level.

We humans live in the troposphere, and

nearly all weather occurs in this lowest
layer.

Most clouds appear here, mainly because

99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere
is found in the troposphere.

Air pressure drops and temperatures get

colder, as you climb higher in the
STRATOSPHERE

 The stratosphere extends from the top of the

troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles) above the
ground.

 The infamous ozone layer is found within the

stratosphere.

 Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy

ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun, converting
the UV energy into heat.

 Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere

actually gets warmer the higher you go!

 That trend of rising temperatures with altitude

means that air in the stratosphere lacks the
turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere beneath.

 Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower

stratosphere, partly because this less-turbulent layer
provides a smoother ride.
  The jet stream flows near the border between the
MESOSPHERE

Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere.

It extends upward to a height of about

85 km (53 miles) above our planet.

Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere.

Unlike the stratosphere, temperatures

once again grow colder as you rise up
through the mesosphere.

The coldest temperatures in Earth's

atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are
found near the top of this layer.

The air in the mesosphere is far too thin to

breathe; air pressure at the bottom of the
layer is well below 1% of the pressure at sea
level, and continues dropping as you go
higher.
Thermosphere

 The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is

called the thermosphere.

 High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from the

Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere, raising its
temperature to hundreds or at times thousands of
degrees.

 The air in this layer is so thin that it would feel

freezing cold to us!

 The thermosphere is more like outer space than a

part
of the atmosphere. Many satellites actually
orbit Earth within the thermosphere!

 The top of the thermosphere can be found

anywhere between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621
miles) above the ground. Temperatures in the
upper thermosphere can range from about 500 °C
(932 °F) to 2,000 °C (3,632 °F) or higher.
EXOSPHERE

 Although some experts consider the thermosphere

to be the uppermost layer of our atmosphere, other
consider the exosphere to be the actual

 "final frontier" of Earth's gaseous envelope.

 As you might imagine, the "air" in the exosphere is

very, very, very thin, making this layer even more
space-like than the thermosphere.

 In fact, air in the exosphere is constantly - though

very gradually - "leaking" out of Earth's
atmosphere into outer space.

 There is no clear-cut upper boundary where the

exosphere finally fades away into space.

 Different definitions place the top of the exosphere

somewhere between 100,000 km (62,000 miles)
and 190,000 km (120,000 miles) above the surface
of Earth.
  The latter value is about halfway to the Moon!
IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is not a distinct layer like
the other mentioned above.

The ionosphere is a series of regions in

parts of the mesosphere and thermosphere
where high-energy radiation from the Sun
has knocked electrons loose from their
parent atoms and molecules.

The electrically charged atoms and

molecules that are formed in this way are
called ions, giving the ionosphere its name
and endowing this region with some
special properties.

Atmospheric Chemistry
The composition and chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere
is of importance for several reasons.

But, primarily because of the interactions between

 Atmosphere and
 Living organisms.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as

result of natural processes such as:
 Volcano emissions
 Lightning .

It has also been changed by human activity and some of

these changes are harmful to:
 Human health
 Crops and
 Ecosystems.

Examples of problems which have been addressed by atmospheric

chemistry include:

 Acid rain
 Ozone depletion
 Photochemical smog
 Greenhouse gases and
 Global warming.

Acid rain
This phenomenon came to attention in the 1970s

Burning coal, oil and natural gas in power stations makes electricity,
giving off Sulphur dioxide gas.

Burning petrol and oil in vehicle engines gives off Nitrogen oxides as
gases.

Presence of H2SO4 (related to SO2 from coal combustion) and HNO3

(from NO2)

In the presence of lightning and thunderstorm, the nitrogen of the

atmosphere combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO), which
in turn combines with oxygen to give nitrogen dioxide.

N2 + O2 ————→ 2 NO

2 NO + O2 ————→ 2 NO2

In the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapour

producing nitric acid, which is washed down as acid rain.

3 NO2 + H2O ————→ 2 HNO3 + NO

The formation of Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid as secondary

pollutants in the atmosphere leads to acid rain.

All rain is acidic with or without air pollution.

This is due to the natural presence of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere with dissolves in rain drops of rain water (even
moisture present in the atmosphere does the same function) to
form Carbonic acid.

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Due to the above reaction carbon dioxide can dissolve in water

until the solution becomes saturated.

This results in the rain water attaining an acidic pH of 5.6

Due to this, the purest form of rain reaches the

earth as
an acidic
solution of pH 5.6

Acidity causes Environmental problems like

 Destruction of vegetation
 Marine life
 Corrosion and
Ozone depletion
Man-madecausesofdepletionofozonelayer:
• The Main cause for the depletion of ozone is determined as excessive
release of chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds such as
chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs).

 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
 Halogens
 CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform)
 CCl4(Carbon tetrachloride)
 HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons)
 Hydrobromofluorocarbons and
Methyl Bromide are found to have direct impact on the depletion of the
ozone layer.

These are categorized as Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS).

Chlorofluorocarbons are released into the atmosphere due to:

 Cleaning Agents
 Coolants in refrigerators
 Packing material
 Air conditioning
 Aerosol spray cans etc.
Greenhouse gases & Global warming

The atmosphere is the air around the surface of the earth. It is made from a
mixture of gases. We need it for animals and plants to survive.

Some of the gases act like a blanket, trapping heat. These gases are called
‘Greenhouse gases’.

The main greenhouse gases are:

 Carbon dioxide
 Methane
 Nitrous oxide
 Ozone
 Water vapour
 Halocarbons

This is known as the ‘Natural Greenhouse Effect’.

Without it, the earth would be much colder.

The heating of the earth through human activities is called the ‘Enhanced
Greenhouse Effect’ and this is causing the earth to heat up, or Global
warming.

Global warming doesn’t just mean that the earth gets hotter, it means that
the whole climate is changing.
Atmospheric Pressure
The gas molecules in the atmosphere are
pulled toward Earth due to gravity, exerting
pressure

Pressure
Barometer - measures atmospheric pressure

Units of Pressure

 At Standard Atmospheric Pressure (SAP)

- 101.325 kPa (kilopascal)
- 1 atm (atmosphere)
- 760 mm Hg
- (millimeter Hg)
- 760 torr
- 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch)

Temperature: The Kelvin Scale

Always use absolute temperature
(Kelvin) when working with gases.

Kelvin and Absolute Zero

- Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin
suggested that -273oC (0K) was the
temperature at which the motion
particles within a gas approaches
zero.. And thus, so does volume)

Part B: The Gas Laws

Part B:
Learning Goals
I will be able to describe
Boyle’s, Charles’ and
Gay-Lussac’s Laws
relating T, P and/or V and
be able to calculate
unknown values using the
equations derived from
these laws, as well as the
combined gas law.

1. Intro to Boyle’s Law

Imagine that you hold the tip of a
syringe on the tip of your finger so
no gas can escape. Now push
down on the plunger of the syringe.

What happens to the volume in

the syringe?

What happens to the pressure the

gas is exerting in the syringe?

Boyle’s Law
The pressure and volume of a gas
are inversely proportional (as one
increases, the other decreases,
and vice versa at constant mass & temp

Boyle’s Law leads to the mathematical

expression: *Assuming temp is constant

Charles’ Law
The volume and absolute
temperature (K) of a gas are
directly proportional (an
increase in temp leads to an
increase in volume)
at constant mass &
pressure

Charles’ Law leads to the

mathematical expression:

*Assuming pressure remains constant

Gay-Lussac’s Law
The pressure and absolute
temperature (K) of a gas are
directly proportional (as
temperature rises, so does
pressure)

at constant mass &

volume

Combined Gas LaW

By combining Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay
Lussac’s Laws, the following equation is
WATER
Water is essential for life.It covers 2/3 of
the earth’s surface and every living thing is
depend upon it.

The human body is comprised of over 70%

water,and it is a major component of many
body fluids including blood,urine,and
saliva.

Water is formed when two hydrogen

atoms bond to one oxygen atom.

With a total atomic weight of 18grams/mol

A water molecule is composed of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. We

obtain the formula mass of the water molecule by adding together the
individual masses of each atom.

Water is polar!

The oxygen end “acts” negative

The hydrogen end “acts” positive

Causes the water to be POLAR, like a magnet.
What is polar?
Molecules can be grouped as polar or non- polar
molecules.

The arrangement or geometry of the atoms in

some molecules is such that one end of the
molecule has a positive electrical charge and
the other side has a negative charge.if this is
case,the molecule is called polar
molecule,meaning that has electrical
poles.Otherwise it is called non-polar.

Hydrogen bonds exist between water molecules

Formed between a highly

Electronegative atom (like
oxygen in another water)
of a polar molecule and a
hydrogen

Weak bond, but strong in

great numbers.
Interaction between water molecule
Negative Oxygen end of one water molecule is attracted to the Positive
Hydrogen end of another water molecule to form a HYDROGEN BOND

STATES OF WATER
Water is the only substance found on
Earth in all three states (phases):
 Liquid
 Solid
 Gas

PROPERTIES OF WATER
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIEs

1. Physical Properties
* Polar molecule
* Hydrophilic substances dissolve
* Hydrophobic substances aggregate
* Osmosis
* Cohesion
* Adhesion
WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULE
Water is a polar molecule because of the
way the atoms bind in the molecule with
more positive(+) charges on one side of the
molecule and more negative(-) charges on
the other side of the molecule.In other
words the hydrogen atoms group on one
side of the molecule making that more
positive,such that there are more electrons
from the oxygen atom on the other side of
the molecule.

A water molecule is formed when two atoms

of hydrogen bond covalently with an atom of
oxygen.

In a covalent bond electrons are shared

between atoms. In water the sharing is not
equal. The oxygen atom attracts the
electrons more strongly than the hydrogen.

This gives water an asymmetrical distribution of

charge.
Molecules that have ends with partial negative and
positive charges are known as polar molecules.

It is this polar property that allows water to

separate polar solute molecules and explains why
water can dissolve so many substances.

As a result, there is an electrostatic attraction

between the oxygen atom of one water
molecule and the hydrogen of another
called a hydrogen bond.

Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic

Water is a polar solvent. It readily
dissolves most biomolecules, which are
generally charged or polar compounds.

Compounds that dissolve easily in water are hydrophilic (Greek, “water-

loving”).

In contrast,
Nonpolar solvents such as chloroform and
benzene are poor solvents for polar
biomolecules but easily dissolve those that
are hydrophobic—nonpolar molecules
such as lipids and waxes.
HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTIONS
The forces that hold the non polar
regions of the molecules together are
called hydrophobic interactions.

(nonpolar compounds self associate in an

aqueous environment)

Hydrophobic interactions among lipids,

and between lipids and proteins, are the
most important determinants of structure
in biological membranes.

Hydrophobic interactions between non

polar amino acids also stabilize the three-
dimensional structures of proteins.

Osmosis is the passage of water from a

region of high water concentration
through a semi-permeable membrane to
a region of low water concentration.

osmosis , transfer of a liquid solvent

through a semipermeable membrane
that does not allow dissolved solids (solutes) to pass.
Salt is a solute, when it is concentrated
inside or outside the cell, it will draw the
water in its direction.

If the concentration of solute (salt) is

equal on both sides, the water will move
back in forth but it won't have any result
on the overall amount of water on either
side.

"ISO" means the same

The word "HYPO" means less, in this case

there are less solute (salt) molecules
outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will
move into the cell.

The word "HYPER" means more, in this case

there are more solute (salt) molecules
outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will
move out of the cell.

The process of osmosis and the factors

that influence it are important clinically in
the maintenance of adequate body fluids
and in the proper balance between
volumes of extracellular and intracellular
fluids.

COHESION OF WATER
Have you ever filled a glass of water to the very
top and then slowly added a few more
drops?Before it overflows,the water forms a
dome-like shape above the glass.this dome like
shape forms due to the water molecules
cohesive properties,or their tendency to stick to
one another.

Cohesive refers to the attraction of molecules

for other molecules of same kind,and water
molecules have strong forces thanks to their
ability to form hydrogen bonds with one
another.

Cohesive forces are responsible for

surface tension,the tendency of a liquid’s
surface to resist rupture when placed under
tension or stress.
Water has a greater surface tension than most
other liquids because hydrogen bonds among
surface water molecules resist stretching or
breaking the surface.

Some animals can stand,

walk, or run on water
without breaking the
surface

ADHESION OF WATER
Adhesion is the attraction of molecules of
one kind for molecules of a different
kind,and it can be quite strog for
water,especially with other molecules
bearing positive or negative charges.

For instance,adhesion enables water to

‘climb’ upward through thin glass
tubes(called capillary tubes) placed in a
beaker of water. This upward motion
against gravity known as capillary action

This depends on the attraction between

water molecules and the glass walls of
the tube(adhesion),as well as on
interaction between water
molecules(cohesion)

Adhesion is going
on between the
windshield and the
water droplet.

2.Chemical properties
* Dissociation of water molecules
* Acids and bases

COHESION – causes the formation of water drops when it rains

ADHESION – causes the drop to cling to other surfaces.

DISSOCIATION OF WATER MOLECULES

 Occasionally, a hydrogen atom shared by
two water molecules shifts from one
molecule to the other.

 The hydrogen atom leaves its electron behind and

is transferred as a single proton - a hydrogen ion
(H+).
  The water molecule that lost a proton is now a hydroxide ion (OH-).

 The water
molecule with
the extra proton
is a hydronium
ion (H3O+).

ACID AND BASES

One water molecule is made of two ions, and a hydroxide ion.

Acid:
 A solution with lots of H+ ions
 pH 0 up to 7 is acid (acidic)

Base:
 A solution with lots of OH- ions
 pH above 7 – 14 is basic (alkaline)

Strong acids and bases

complete dissociate in
water.

Weak acids and bases

dissociate only partially and
reversibly.
A water molecule that loses a hydrogen ion becomes a negatively charge
hydroxide ion
A water molecule that gains a hydrogen ion becomes a positively charged
hydronium ion.

Self ionization of water – the reaction in which water molecules produce

ions.
How soils supply plant nutrients

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages- light reaction

and dark reaction. During the light reaction reduced
NADPH2 and ATP are synthesized. These products
are used subsequently to reduce carbon dioxide into
sugars. Thus, the purpose of ATP in photosynthesis
is to transfer energy from light reaction to dark
reaction

Soil Chemistry / Soil pH

Soil pH is the single most important chemical

property of the soil (like soil texture is to the
physical properties)

Knowing the pH of the soil will quickly allow

you to determine if the soil is suitable for
plant growth and what nutrients will be most limiting.

Hydrogen ions are protons - in water they

react (H20) to form hydronium ions, such
as H3O+
For most purposes H+ can be used to represent these hydrated protons
(H3O+)
Acid Base Chemistry
Acid-base chemistry is an important
part of everyday life.
The excess
hydronium (H3O+) ions in acids give
them interesting properties.

Acids can react with metals and other

materials.
The strong acid HCl is
produced in your stomach to help
digest food.
In dilute concentrations,
acids are responsible for the sour
taste of lemons, limes, vinegar and
other substances.

Bases are also very reactive. The strong base NaOH is used in many
household cleaning agents such as oven cleaner and drain clog-remover.
Measuring Acidity
The acidity (or basicity) of a solution is measured using
the pH scale.
(this scale is used because of the very
small concentrations that are being measured)

The pH scale corresponds to the concentration of

hydrogen ions in a solution.

If you take the exponent of the H+ concentration and

remove the negative sign, you have the pH of a solution.

For example, in pure water the concentration of hydrogen

ions is 1 x 10-7 M.

Thus, the pH of a solution of pure water is 7.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, where 7 is considered neutral ([H3O+ ] =

[OH-]),

Soil Cation Exchange

Cation Exchange - the ability of the soil to hold onto nutrients and
prevent them from leaching beyond the roots.
Cations are “+ “charged ions = Ca++, Mg++, K+, NH4+,

The more cation exchange a soil has the more likely the soil will
have a higher fertility level.

Cation Exchange
The interchange between a cation in
solution and another cation on the surface
of any negatively charged material such as
clay or organic matter

Cation exchange influenced by:

1. Strength of adsorption:
2. the relative concentration of the cations in the
B. Adsorption
Adsorption refers to the ability
of an object to attract and hold
particles on its surface.

Solid particles in soil have the

ability to adsorb

- Water (WHC)
- Nutrients and other chemicals

The most important adsorbers in

soil are

- Clays
- Organic matter

Back to Soil pH

Active Acidity - due to the H+ ion

activity in the soil solution at any given
time
Reserve Acidity (on sites)- represented
by the H+ and Al3+ that are easily exchanged
by other cations (positively charged ion)
Sources of
acidity in Soil

1. Nitrification: Anhydrous ammonia placed in soil Ammonium

to Nitrate (oxidation of NH4+)

2. O.M. decomposition organic acids ionized :

3. Acid rain
Acid rain is caused by the
burning of fossil fuels.

Burning oil, gas and coal in

power stations releases
Sulfuric Dioxide (SO2) into
the atmosphere.

Burning oil and gasoline in

motor vehicles puts nitrogen
oxides (NOX) into the
atmosphere.
These gases mix with water
droplets in the atmosphere
creating weak solutions of
nitric and sulfuric acids.

When precipitation occurs

these solutions fall as acid
rain.

4. Leaching of basic
cations -
as basic cations are
removed from the soil
solution by leaching they
no longer contribute the
OH- ions to neutralize the
ever increasing amounts of
H+

Soil Acidity and Plant Growth

Soil acidity is a major
environmental stress
factor which limits the
growth of most crops.
Acid soils are widely
dispersed and comprise
approximately 40% of
the arable land in the
world.

In addition, acid rain

also accelerates the
acidification of soils.

Aluminum (Al) ion is

solubilized from soils

at low pH.
This is a

major toxic factor for

plant growth for low Ph soils.

Where do plant nutrients come

from?
A. Decaying plant litter
B. Breakdown of soil minerals
C. Addition by humans
- Commercial fertilizer
- Manure
- Lime

A. Recycling plant nutrients

B. Breakdown of soil minerals
C. Nutrient additions by humans
Commercial fertilizers
- Nutrients are in a form that is available to plants
- Dissolve quickly and nutrients go into soil water

Lime
- Dissolves slowly as it neutralizes soil acidity
- Releases calcium and magnesium

Organic nutrient sources

- Manure, compost, sewage sludge
- Decay and nutrient release is similar to crop litter

How do plants get their nutrients?

A. The soil solution
Soil water is a complex
solution that contains
 Many types of nutrients
 Other trace elements
 Complex organic molecules

- Nutrients in the soil

solution can be readily taken
up by plant roots

- If nutrients remained in
solution they could all be
quickly lost from the soil.

Icp- ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma – optical

emission spectroscopy

Another word for this loss of nutrients is LEACHING.

Is there a difference in the adsorption process?

A. Cation Exchange Capacity

Cation exchange capacity

(CEC) is the total amount of
cations that a soil can retain

The higher the soil CEC the

greater ability it has to
store plant nutrients

Soil CEC increases as

1. The amount of clay increases
2. The amount of organic matter increases
3. The soil pH increases

b. Clay has a negative charge.

Clay particles are stacked

in layers like sheets of
paper.

Each clay sheet is slightly

separated from those on
either side.

Each sheet has negative

charges on it.

Negative charges have to

be balanced by positive
charges called cations.

B. Negatively Charged
Nutrients
(Anions)

Some very important plant nutrients are anions.

Soils are able to retain some of these nutrient
anions.

Retention of nutrient anions varies from one anion

to another

The black box is open

- Soil consists of mineral and organic matter,
air and water

- Soils are able to adsorb nutrients and other

chemicals

- The most important adsorbers are clay and

organic matter

- Adsorbed nutrients are available

to plants

- Adsorbed nutrients are not prone

to loss in drainage water
CHEMICAL SAFETY
All chemicals should be regarded as
dangerous Safety is Everyone's responsibility

What you don’t know can hurt you

Chemicals are all around us.

 In the food we eat.
 The clothes we wear.
 The vehicles we drive.
 In the products we use everyday.

Chemicals can help us live better lives, but we must understand and
respect their potential hazards.

Otherwise, they can harm us.

More than 30 million workers are potentially exposed to one or more

chemical hazards.

There are an estimated 650,000 existing hazardous chemical products, and

hundreds of new ones are being introduced annually.
This can pose a potential serious problem for exposed workers and their
employers.

Are you at risk because you work with chemicals?

The answer is: Yes How much risk?

It Depends! (Sorry, but it is not a simple answer.)

This program will attempt to provide some basic information to address

your concerns about working with hazardous chemicals.
Hopefully, it will help you better understand them so you can use them
safely and limit your risks.

Chemical - any element, chemical compound, or mixture of elements

and/or compounds.

Safety - being secure from undergoing or causing hurt, injury, or loss.

Hazard - An item or condition which poses potential risk to safety or

health.

Chemical Safety - being secure from undergoing or causing hurt,

injury, or loss when working with elements, chemical compounds, or
mixtures of elements and/or compounds.
Chemical Hazards - elements, chemical compounds, or
mixtures of elements and/or compounds which poses potential
risk to safety or health.
HAZARDS IN THE LABORATORY FALL
INTO THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES
 Equipment
 Gases
 Chemicals

MAJORITY OF PROBLEMS, INCIDENTS

AND VIOLATIONS IN THE LABORATORY
ARE THE RESULT OF HASTE

Awareness of the following will avert the major

problems:
 Past happenings in laboratories
 Basic chemical knowledge
 The properties of individual chemicals and
 Common sense
Primary responsibility for safety rests with the individual

MSDS (OSHA AND ANSI)

 Manufacturer information
 Chemical synonyms
 Physical and/or Chemical Health Hazards
 Spill Response
 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
MSDSs be readily available in the work areas chemicals are used

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) provide pertinent information to

employees about hazardous materials and chemicals in the
workplace

MSDSs are important sources of chemical information in areas such as:

where potentially hazardous

Note: MSDS is analogous to the manual of an

instrument/equipment

LABORATORY CHEMICALS

Irritants -Slight inflammation or other discomfort to the body

Sensitizers - Severe skin and/or respiratory responses
Corrosives - Burns
Toxins - Effect Liver (Hepatotoxin), Kidney (Nephrotoxin), ,
and Nervous system (Neurotoxin)
Mutagens – Damages Genetic material in cells
Carcinogens - Cancer-causing agents
Teratogens – Cause Birth Defect

SEGREGATE CHEMICALS
 Flammable
  Corrosive
 Toxic
 Carcinogen
 Compressed Gases
 Poisons
GENERAL SAFETY AWARENESS

Work in isolation shall be avoided in a laboratory - second

person should be within call

Segregate chemicals by compatibility groups for storage

Note storage conditions and adhere to them

Ex: Hydrogen Peroxide decomposes slowly by release of gas – so store

in dark containers

Label all storage areas, appropriately, and keep all chemicals

in properly labelled containers

NFPA Nationa Fire Protection Association

- Has developed a system for indicating the health, flammability and
reactivity hazards of chemical in a diamond shaped object called
NFPA hazard rating diamond.

Red – fire
Yellow – instability
Blue – health
White – specific hazard & personal protection

OX – oxidizer
ACID – acid
ALK – alkali
COR – corrosive
W – use no water

Physical hazard – the hazards presented by chemicals may be divided into

two general categories
 Physical hazards
 Health hazards

Globally Harmonized
System of Classification
and Labeling of Chemicals
(GHS)

HEALTH HAZARD

Toxicity is the relative degree to which a chemical is harmful

It is critical that all employees who may work with hazardous

chemicals understand the basic principles of toxicology and learn
to recognize the major classes of potentially harmful chemicals

GENERAL
PRECAUTIONS

Label all storage areas appropriately

Keep all chemicals in properly labelled containers

Date all chemical bottles when received and when opened

Note expiry dates on chemicals

Note storage conditions and adhere to them

Familiarize yourself with the appropriate

protective measures when exposed chemicals

GENERAL
PRECAUTIONS

All unsafe conditions and unsafe acts by fellow workers, which

are likely to cause an accident, should be reported

Safety carriers should be used for transporting glass or

plastic containers with a capacity of two litres or greater

Incompatible chemicals should never be transported together.

They should be transported in separate carriers
PERSONAL
SAFETY

Always use extracted wet benches for chemical work

Always wear safety glasses or goggles at all times in the

lab

Always wear laboratory coat/apron in the laboratory

Appropriate gloves should be worn as needed

Appropriate shoes should be worn in the laboratory

Wear breathing mask as and when appropriate

HAND
PROTECTION

Always wear protective gloves in the laboratory specially

when handling chemicals
Before use, check to make sure the gloves are in good condition
and free from holes, punctures, and tears

FOOT PROTECTION

Foot protection is designed to prevent injury from corrosive

chemicals, heavy objects, electrical shock, as well as giving traction
on wet floors

Please wear sturdy shoes that cover the foot completely. These
will provide the best protection.

Avoid shoes that expose feet in any way

PERSONAL HYGIENE

Wash hands before leaving the laboratory

Never mouth suck anything in a pipette in the laboratory

No food or drink is allowed in laboratories or areas

where chemicals are used or stored

No food should be stored in a laboratory refrigerator

Never eat or drink from the laboratory glassware

Keep exposed skin covered in the laboratory