UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

COLLEGE OF COMPETATIONAL AND NATURAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Biol - 522

Title on
Evolution Of Adaptive Trait Of Animal

Group members section 2

1. KIFLIE TESFAMARIAM ID. No GUS/00640/10
2. WONDALE KOYE ID. No GUS/00643/10
3. WAGASEW ABRIE ID. No GUS/00627/10
4. HIWOTE BELAY ID. No GUS/00655/10
5. MELESE KASSA ID. No GUS/22296/10

Submitted to:
Instructor Alebachew T. (Asst. Prof.)

August, 2019
GONDAR ETHIOPIA

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 Table of content
Table of content...........................................................................................................................................i
Animal Adaptations term defination...........................................................................................................i
1. EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTIVE TRAIT OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR [7]...............................................1
1.1 Defining adaptation [6].........................................................................................................................1
1.2. What is not an adaptation..................................................................................................................2
1.2.1. Vestigial features.......................................................................................................................2
1.2.2. By-products of another characteristic........................................................................................2
1.2.3. Exaptations................................................................................................................................2
1.2.4. Outdated adaptations..................................................................................................................2
1.2.5. Results of genetic drift (maintained by mutation)......................................................................2
1.3. What are some examples of adaptive traits for reproduction and adaptive traits for survival?.......3
2. Adaptations of animal survival in their environment..............................................................................3
2.1. Animal adaptation of Body Parts......................................................................................................3
2.2. Body Coverings................................................................................................................................6
3. Teristerial animal and their adaptation characterstic [12]........................................................................9
3. 1. Cursorial animal..............................................................................................................................9
3.2. Fossorial animals..............................................................................................................................9
3.3. Arboreal animal..............................................................................................................................10
3.4. Aerial animal..................................................................................................................................10
3.5. Desert animal..................................................................................................................................10
4. Adaptation Mechanisms of Small Ruminants to Environmental Heat Stress [10].................................11
4.1. Small Ruminant Adaptation Mechanisms to Heat Stress................................................................11
4.1.1. Morphological Adaptation.......................................................................................................12
4.1.2. Behavioral Adaptation.............................................................................................................12
4.1.3. Physiological Mechanisms.......................................................................................................13
4.1.4. Genetic Bases of Adaptation....................................................................................................13

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Animal Adaptations term defination
Adaptation A body part, body covering, or behavior that helps an animal survive in its
environment.

Behavior The actions of an animal.

Camouflage A color or shape in an animal's body covering that helps it blend into its
environment.

Environment Everything that surrounds and affects a living thing. The environment includes
non-living things, such as water and air, as well as other living things.

Habitat The place where an animal lives. The physical characteristics of an animal's
surroundings.

Inborn Behavior (instinct) A behavior an animal is born with and does not have to learn.

Mimicry An adaptation in which an otherwise harmless animal looks like a harmful animal in
order to protect itself.

Predator An animal that hunts and eats other animals for food.

Prey An animal that is taken and eaten by another animal (predator) for food.

Survive/Survival Using adaptations to continue to live.

Evolution is the process by which organisms change according to their habitat and outside influences.

Adaptive Traits. The organism develops traits that have a positive impact on survival and reproduction;

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 1. EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTIVE TRAIT OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR [7]
Knowledge about the adaptive value of traits is fundamental to understanding the biology of
natural systems and anticipating species response to environmental change. A key challenge lies
in understanding a trait’s contribution to fitness relative to environmental conditions (e.g.
competition and disease). Indeed, the extent to which a trait mitigates the impact of
environmental stress on fitness is perhaps the most robust gauge of its adaptive value. Studies of
reproductive success highlight several potentially adaptive traits including body size [2, 11],
genetic heterozygosity [17, 21,] cooperative breeding [4, 5, 16] and age-specific performance [2;
15]. Little is known, however, about the relative importance of these traits for reproductive
success, particularly in the context of environmental conditions that determine whether a trait is
favoured or penalized by natural selection. Environmental conditions that impact reproduction
include disease prevalence, resource availability and population density. Disease is a top-down
influence that reduces reproduction directly via offspring mortality [13, 1] and/or indirectly
through complex gene–environment interactions that generate fitness trade-offs between
reproduction and survival [9]. Resource abundance and population density impact reproduction
through bottom-up, density dependent processes (e.g. intraguild competition) [3, 13, 19, 20]. For
cooperatively breeding species, group-size-related increases in reproduction conceivably offset
population-size-related decreases in vital rates, especially in group-territorial species where
larger groups dominate smaller groups in the battle for limited resources [14].

ecologically important phenotypic traits (e.g. morphology, life history, behaviour) are thought to
represent adaptive responses to selection pressures from competitive and stochastic
environments.

1.1 Defining adaptation [6]

Adaptation is both a process (organisms adapting) and a product of evolution (features well
suited to an environment). Most definitions insist that adaptation, and adaptations, are the results
of natural selection. For example: “Natural selection is the process responsible for the
development of adaptive features. An adaptation is a feature that is common in a population
because it provides some improved function. Adaptations are well fitted to their function and are
produced by natural selection” [18]. This means that an understanding of evolution by natural
selection is a prerequisite for understanding adaptation [8]. They are also careful to remind their
readers that there are at least three ways in which the term is employed:

1. Phenotypic plasticity.

This is a physiological adaption to prevailing circumstances, a good example being the way an
individual human body living at high altitude develops greater lung capacity. Such changes to an
individual during their life are not genetic and therefore not heritable.

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2. Cultural adaptation (heritable but not genetically coded). Wearing clothes is a behavioural
adaptation passed down within society and advantageous for many reasons. This adaptation is
not genetic but is heritable through learning.

3. The conventional Darwinian mechanism of selection acting upon genetic variation.

1.2. What is not an adaptation

1.2.1. Vestigial features.
The Human appendix or the hind limbs of whales once had a function and arose as adaptations
but as they are no longer functional they are no longer adaptations.

1.2.2. By-products of another characteristic.

Human blood is red, but this in itself is not an adaptation, merely the by-product of the mixing of
iron and oxygen. The colour results from another adaptation but is not adaptive itself.

1.2.3. Exaptations.
Feathers in birds are not adaptations for flight, even though they now serve this function. Current
thinking is that feathers arose for thermo-regulation and later were co-opted (boot-strapped) for
another purpose. This co-option is an exaptation. So feathers are an adaptation for warmth and an
exaptation for flight.

1.2.4. Outdated adaptations.

These are features that were adaptive once, but the selective pressure that formed them has now
gone. An example is the tough outer husk of the calabash fruit. This is now considered to be an
adaptation formed to avoid being eaten by Gomphotheres ,a family of four tusked elephants that
went extinct less than ten thousand years ago.

1.2.5. Results of genetic drift (maintained by mutation).

Not all features of an organism are the results of natural selection. The Neutral Theory of
molecular evolution suggests that most of the genetic variation in populations is the result of
mutation and genetic drift and not selection. Gould and Lewontin cite examples of adaptation
without selection and of selection without adaptation: [8].

 adaptation without selection: e.g. Patterns of geographic variation are often adaptive and
purely phenotypic. This is true of many sedentary, colonial marine organisms (especially
coral) which assume different forms in the colony despite being genetically identical, in
response to their microclimate.
 selection without adaptation: e.g. a mutation which doubles fecundity in individuals
would sweep through a population very rapidly, but if additional resources are not made
available then the individuals will leave no more offspring than they did before. In this
case the mutation would be selected for but would convey no adaptive benefit

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1.3. What are some examples of adaptive traits for reproduction and adaptive
traits for survival? [22]
Adaptive traits for reproduction help organisms produce viable offspring. Some adaptive traits
for reproduction actually increase an organism's vulnerability to predation; so successful
reproduction can involve an evolutionary trade-off or risk of some sort. One classic example is
the male peacock's brightly plumed feathers. The vivid, extravagant tail is heavy and
cumbersome. Plus, it makes him more easily spotted by predators. However, the colored feathers
serve to attract females. They help the male peacock to produce viable offspring. Other examples
of adaptive traits for reproduction include: birds' mating songs, and salmons' end-of-life return to
the stream where they were spawned.

2. Adaptations of animal survival in their environment

Adaptations are any behavioral or physical characteristics of an animal that help it to survive in
its environment. These characteristics fall into three main categories: body parts, body
coverings, and behaviors. Any or all of these types of adaptations play a critical role in the
survival of an animal. Adaptations can be either physical or behavioral.

A physical adaptation is some type of structural modification made to a part of the body. A
behavioral adaptation is something an animal does - how it acts - usually in response to some
type of external stimulus. When you look at an animal, you usually can see some of its
adaptations -- like what it is able to eat, how it moves, or how it may protect itself. Different
animals have many different ways of trying to stay alive. Their adaptations are matched to their
way of surviving. Each group of animals has its own general adaptations. These groups are: fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Some of these adaptations make it easy to identify
which group an animal belongs to. A good example of an animal adaptation is the way in which
an animal moves from one place to another.

Animals have evolved their adaptations. This means a long period of slow change resulted in an
animal's adaptation(s). The spots on the snow leopard, for example, did not emerge overnight.
Instead, this process took generation upon generation of snow leopards physically adapting to
their environment for characteristic spot patterns to evolve. Those snow leopards with spot
patterns were able to hide more successfully, therefore surviving longer than those without spots.
This allowed the longer surviving snow leopards to reproduce and create more snow leopards
with spot patterns like their own. Indeed, this process of change over time is the key to how
many organisms develop adaptations.

2.1. Animal adaptation of Body Parts

Many animals have developed specific parts of the body adapted to survival in a certain
environment. Among them are webbed feet, sharp claws, whiskers, sharp teeth, large beaks,
wings, and hooves.

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 Webbed
In most aquatic animals, swimming is a must. To aid swimming, many animals have adapted
and evolved with webbed feet. Webbed feet help animals propel themselves through the water
with ease. This can help the animal swim faster to catch prey or escape a predator. Also, if an
animal has to swim long distances, webbed feet can help it save energy so it can swim farther.
One animal that can be observed at the Zoo with webbed feet is the rockhopper penguin. Other
animals with slightly webbed feet: the polar bear and otter.

Sharp Claws
Many land and sea animals alike have developed sharp claws. Sharp claws can be used for many
different purposes. For instance, many herbivores use their sharp claws for digging for berries,
roots, and herbs or burrowing for shelter. Animals that eat meat may use their claws for killing
their prey or tearing meat from their kills. Also, claws can be used to increase traction to run
faster, as in the case of the cheetah. Other times, sharp claws have evolved for use in defense.
For some animals, showing of claws is enough warning for their predators or competitors to back
off.

Whiskers
Although not usually thought of as an adaptation, whiskers serve an important purpose for many
animals. In most cases, whiskers around the face, specifically the mouth area, help the animal
feel its way through tight spots. In a way, they serve as "feelers," telling the animal whether or
not it can fit into a specific area. One example is that of the North American river otter, which
can use its whiskers both on land and in water. On land, they are used to feel their way through
narrow channels, with a similar purpose for the whiskers under water. They are also useful to
sense prey.

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 Sharp Teeth
One of the most visible adaptations on many animals, sharp teeth help an animal eat meat.
Found primarily on meat-eating animals, or carnivores, sharp teeth are used mainly for the
tearing and chewing of an animal's prey. Rather than developing the dull teeth of plant-eaters, or
herbivores, carnivores rely on their sharp teeth to allow them to eat and survive. Sharp teeth can
serve another purpose: defense. In some animals, bearing a large set of sharp teeth can show
power or fear. The Milwaukee County Zoo features many animals with sharp teeth.
Unfortunately, it is often difficult to see this distinctive feature. Some animals that we suggest
you watch are the snow leopard, cheetah, African lion, mandrill and lowland gorilla.

Large Beaks
Just as in the case of sharp teeth, large beaks are often an adaptation used to help an animal eat.
However, large (and often sharp) beaks can be a feature of both carnivores and herbivores. For
instance, the large beak of the macaw has been adapted to help it crack open large nuts to reach
the sweet fruit and pulp inside. On other birds however, the large beak is used to tear meat, as in
the case of the rhinoceros hornbill. The rhinoceros hornbill uses its large beak to tear meat off of
an animal it scavenges -- usually the result of another animal's kill.

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 Wings/Flying
Wings are another highly visible adaptation on many animals. Although most think of birds
when it comes to wings, other animals like the vampire bat also have wing-like structures that
help it fly. Of course, the primary function of wings is flight in most animals with wings.
Animals like the golden eagle and peregrine falcon can reach speeds up to and above 60 miles
per hour in flight. This flight is used to attack its prey. Other animals, like the Micronesian
kingfisher, do not reach the speeds of other raptors, but still use their wings to travel from place
to place. Finally, the Humboldt penguin does not use its wings to fly at all. Instead, it uses its
wings as flippers to move through the water. One point of interest with the vampire bat is that its
wings are not really wings. Bats evolved separately from birds and thus their "wings" are
structured much differently than the wings of birds. In fact, a vampire bat’s wing structure is
more similar to the hand of a human than the wing of a bird.

Hooves
Hooves are another body part that are an important adaptation for many large animals. In most
cases, animals with hooves use their specially adapted feet to maneuver in a rocky environment.
Hooves protect the feet of these animals and allow for greater mobility than unprotected feet.
Animals with hooves include the greater kudu, zebras, and the Dall sheep.

2.2. Body Coverings

An animal’s body covering is one clearly visible adaptation. Body coverings help to protect
animals in diverse environments -- from the land to water, from the arctic to the desert.
Mammals have hair, or fur, that helps insulate their bodies. It keeps them warm in winter and
can protect specific areas of the body, like eyelashes protecting the eyes. Some mammals have

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different coverings: the armadillo has plates, the porcupine has quills, and naked skin covers the
dolphin. All of these help these mammals to survive in the different conditions in which they
live. Birds also have a very protective covering: feathers. The feathers keep the bird warm in
winter, help it fly or swim, and help fan the bird in hot weather.

Amphibians and reptiles have body coverings that protect them as well. Amphibians have
moist, slick skin that is well suited for the water. Reptiles have tough, dry skin covered by
scales. Insects, such as the cockroach, have coverings that enable them to squeeze into very
small places. This allows them to find food and shelter. Many insects build nests (a behavioral
adaptation) or cocoons (behavioral and structural adaptation) for the winter because their body
coverings alone do not permit them to adjust to the cold. Many insects also have other
adaptations included in their body coverings: cells that sense light and pigments that allow some
insects to change colors in order to hide themselves from predators.

Striped Fur
Striped fur is one variation of a special adaptation called camouflage. Striped fur, in most cases,
helps animals blend into their environment. This helps the animal in one of several ways,
including hiding from predators and sneaking up on prey. Striped fur, as in the case of a tiger's
vertical stripes, serves the animal by helping it match the surrounding vegetation, thus making it
nearly invisible to other animals. In other animals, like the skunk, the stripes serve as a warning
to predators. In this way, the stripes serve as a defense mechanism.

Brightly Colored Feathers

Found mostly in tropical rain forests, birds with brightly colored feathers are another example of
an animal with an adaptive body covering. Brightly colored feathers can serve several purposes,
including camouflage, defense, and mating. In some parts of the rain forest, the macaw and its
brightly colored feathers can hide amid similarly brightly colored plants and flowers. The male
peacock uses its bright feathers for another purpose: attracting a mate. In contrast to the male,
the female peafowl has very dull colored feathers. This feature, common among female birds of
most species, helps females hide while guarding their nest and protecting their young.

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 Spotted Fur
Another adaptive type of body coloring is spotted fur. Spotted fur is similar to striped fur in the
fact that it serves as camouflage. Many animals with spotted fur live in heavily wooded forest
areas. One example is the jaguar, which lives in the rain forest. The jaguar's spotted fur helps it
blend in with the small patches of sun that reach the rain-forest floor. These patches, mixed in
with the shade, produce an effect that highly resembles a jaguar's coat. Another animal with
spotted fur is the snow leopard. The snow leopard, with a white coat and black spots, lives in
wooded areas as well, using its coat to hide amid the trees and snow.

Scales
One final type of body covering is scales. Scales serve a purpose different than that of fur and
feathers. Scales are mainly a protectant from the environment for most animals. For instance,
anacondas and other snakes at the Milwaukee County Zoo have scales to protect their bodies
from the variety of terrain they encounter. In the case of the anaconda, its habitat is largely made
up of water. In the case of other snakes, the climate may be dry and the land sandy and rocky; so
they cannot afford to lose water from their body. Scales help protect the body of the animal in an
instance where skin, fur, or feathers would become damaged or destroyed.

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3. Teristerial animal and their adaptation characterstic [12]
The animal which live on land and do their biological activities on land are called teristerial
animals. On the basis of their mode of life teristerial animals are divided into following types

3. 1. Cursorial animal
Curosorial animals are those animals which live in open places and are adapted to run on hard
ground. Eg. Lion, deer, horse etc.

The Adaptational characterstics of them are

 The body is streamlind which helps them for swift movement

 The limbs are long and strong
 Locomotion is digitgrade

3.2. Fossorial animals

Fossorial animals are those animals which are adapted for burrowing mode of life

Eg. Rabbit, rat

The Adaptational characterstics of them are

 The head is smaal and tapers anteriorly to form snout for digging
 The forlimbs are short with powerful claws
 The eyes and the ears are small

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 3.3. Arboreal animal
Arboreal animals are those animals which are adapted for climbing. Eg. Squirrel, chameleon

The Adaptational characterstics of these animals are

 The body is stout. Ribs are very much curved, thus thorax becomes semi- circular
 Locomotion is plantigrade.
 The leg of lizard are provided with adhesive pads that help to hold the wall or other
surfaces

3.4. Aerial animal

The animal are adapted for Aerial made of life are called aerial animal. The adaptation characters
of aerial animals are

 Body is streamlined, which reduces the air resistance during flying

 Forlimbs are modified into wing
 The bones are hollow and spongy
 The eye are very sharp and well developed

3.5. Desert animal

Desert animals are adapted for dry land and hot habitat. Eg. Camel, lizard, rodents. The
adaptation characters of desert animals are

 They are provided with keen senses of sight, small and hearing
 They have thick skin to avoid loss of water
 They conserve water in water pouches

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  Most of them have dull color which blends them with the surrounding environment

4. Adaptation Mechanisms of Small Ruminants to

Environmental Heat Stress [10]
Small ruminants (sheep and goat) are a critical source of livelihood for rural people to the
development of sustainable and environmentally sound production systems, mainly in the
extreme heat-stressed environments. Heat stress is one of the several distraction factors that
make animal production and reproduction difficult in many areas of the world. It results in
impaired production, reproduction, growth, milk quantity and quality, as well as natural
immunity and making the animals more susceptible to different diseases. Heat stress affects
ruminant animals by the combination of environmental factors (high ambient temperature,
relative humidity, high solar radiation, low wind speed, and precipitation). Air temperature and
relative humidity are mainly direct influences on ruminant animal production potentials .
However, in extreme environmental conditions, sheep and goat perform better heat stress
additivity than other ruminant animals. They are the most adaptable and geographically
widespread livestock species, ranging from the high mountains of hypoxia to the extreme low
land of a thermal stressed environment. Sheep and goats adapt to extreme weather conditions via
behavioral, morphological, physiological, and largely genetic bases. Morphologically, the coat
color plays an important role in the evolved adaptation. Animals with light coat coloring absorb
less heat than those with darker coats. There is also a number of evidence that indicates adaptive
genetic variations that enable living in heat-stressed environments, for example in sheep, goat,
and both sheep and goat.

4.1. Small Ruminant Adaptation Mechanisms to Heat Stress

Nowadays, heat stress is a significant concern in the ever-changing climatic scenario. It is

quite known that heat stress affects ruminant animals, particularly through decreased
reproduction, growth, and production, increased health issues and mortality. However, sheep and
goat are less susceptible to heat-stressed environment than other ruminant animals. Behavioral,
morphological, physiological, and genetic bases are among the key adaptation mechanisms of
small ruminants that respond in heat-stressed environments.

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 4.1.1. Morphological Adaptation

Morphological adaptations are physical changes that occur over many generations of animals
that enhance its fitness in a given environment. Body size and shape, coat and skin color, hair
type, and fat storage are among the main morphological adaptation in sheep and goat
morphological adaptations of sheep and goat.

Body Size and Shape

Body size and shape are the most dominant morphological characteristics influencing the
thermoregulatory mechanisms of farm animals in extremely hot environments. Naturally,
animals are characterized with large or small or dwarf bodies, which helps them to adjust water
loss and heat gain in extremely hot environments. Animals with larger body size have lower
metabolic rate than that of smaller animals and gain heat at a slower rate. The rate of heat gain
and loss in an animal is highly influenced by body shape and appendages; for instance, animals
with long and narrow appendages reduce the radiant of heat gain but increase convective heat
loss.

Coat and Skin Color

Coat and skin colors are an important trait of biological, economic, and social significance in
animals. The coat and skin color characteristics of sheep and goat that have evolved in tropical
and desert areas are different from those that evolved in temperate climates. For instance, the
loose, open fleece of hair and wool of Awassi sheep enhances heat loss via convection. Coat
color is the simplest characteristic to look for in identifying the breed of sheep and goat
population since it is easily and quickly observed. It is an important feature of the sheep and goat
for determining the radiant heat load and how much solar radiation is reflected from their body
and how much is absorbed. Animals with light coat coloring absorb less heat than those with
darker coats. Most of the time, fat tails and rump fat are considered as an adaptive response of
animals to extreme environments and are used as a valuable energy reserve for the animal during
migration and winter.

4.1.2. Behavioral Adaptation

Animals behave in various ways during heat stress, and that can provide insight on how and
when to cool them. For instance, ruminants are active during the day and rest during the night.

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They protect themselves from extreme environmental factors by means of dissipating body heat
by taking advantage of hairlessness of certain body parts, shedding of hair, water restriction, and
feed intake. When animals are exposed to high temperatures, reduction of feed intake will occur.
Reducing feed intake is a method of adaptation to decrease heat production in the warm
environment as the heat increment of feeding is an important source of heat production in
ruminants. Goats are better adapted to heat stress than cows and sheep. They have a dynamic
eating behavior during warm weather conditions.

4.1.3. Physiological Mechanisms

Animals possess a variety of physiological adaptation mechanisms that help in the reduction of
heat load . When the physiological mechanism fails to alleviate the effect of heat load, the body
temperature may increase to a point at which animal well-being is compromised. Body
temperature is a good measure of heat tolerance in animals, as it represents the result of all heat
gain and heat loss processes in the body. Change in heart rate (HR), respiration rate (RR), and
rectal temperature (RT) are the key parameters that indicate the mechanism of physiological
adaptation in small ruminants .In heat-stressed environments, respiratory rate is the first
thermoregulation mechanism used by sheep and goat to help them maintain their body
temperature. Furthermore, panting is another physiological mean recognized as sheep’s response
to increased environmental heat through a substantial increase in respiratory rate.

4.1.4. Genetic Bases of Adaptation

Adaptation in terms of genetics refers to the heritable traits of animal characteristics that favor
the survival of populations. Adaptation traits are usually characterized by low heritability. Every
animal that has successfully adapted to a certain habitat possesses some unique adaptive traits
that may be due to behavioral, morphological, physiological as well as genetic bases. Genetic
variation in a population provides flexibility to adapt to the changing environment and it is
crucial for the survival of the population over time.

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