Introduction to Materials Science

Historical Perspective
• Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize
• Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production virtually
every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials
• Historically,
Hi t i ll th the d
development
l t and
d advancement
d t off societies
i ti h have b
been iintimately
ti t l titied
d tto th
the
members’ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs
• In fact,, earlyy civilizations have been designated
g byy the level of their materials development
p
(Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age)
• The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur
naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on
• With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to
those of the natural ones
• These new materials included pottery and various metals
• Furthermore,, it was discovered that the properties
p p of a material could be altered by
y heat
treatments and by the addition of other substances
• At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding from a
given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of its
characteristics
Historical Perspective (continued…)
• It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to understand the relationships
between the structural elements of materials and their properties
• This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered them to
fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of materials
• Thus, tens of thou-sands of different materials have evolved with rather specialized
characteristics that meet the needs of our modern and complex society; these include metals,
plastics, glasses, and fibers
• The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been
intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials
• An advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the stepwise
progression of a technology
• For example, automobiles would not have been possible without the availability of inexpensive
steel or some other comparable substitute
• In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made
from what are called semiconducting materials
Materials Science and Engineering
• Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering into
materials science and materials engineering sub disciplines
• Strictly speaking, “materials science” involves investigating the relationships that exist between
th structures
the t t and
d properties
ti off materials
t i l
• In contrast, “materials engineering” is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations,
g g or engineering
designing g g the structure of a material to p
produce a p
predetermined set of p
properties
p
• From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new
materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using
existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for pro-cessing materials
• Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both materials scientists and materials
engineers
i
• “Structure” is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation
• In brief,, the structure of a material usuallyy relates to the arrangement
g of its internal components
p
• Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their
nuclei
• On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to
one another
Materials Science and Engineering (continued…)
• The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally
agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic,” meaning that which is subject to direct
observation using some type of microscope
• Finally,
Fi ll structural
t t l elements
l t th
thatt may b
be viewed
i d with
ith th
the naked
k d eye are ttermed
d ““macroscopic”
i ”
• The notion of “property” deserves elaboration
• While in service use,, all materials are exposed
p to external stimuli that evoke some type
yp of
response
• For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal
surface will reflect light
• A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific
i
imposed
d stimulus
ti l
• Generally, definitions of proper-ties are made independent of material shape and size
• Virtuallyy all important
p p
properties
p of solid materials may
y be g
grouped
p into six different categories:
g
mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative
• For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses
• Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic
modulus and strength
Materials Science and Engineering (continued…)
• For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is
an electric field
• The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal
conductivity
d ti it
• Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic
field
• For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and
reflectivity are representative optical properties
• Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials. The chapters
that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these six classifications
• In
I addition
dditi tot structure
t t and
d properties,
ti two
t other
th important
i t t components
t are involved
i l d in
i the
th
science and engineering of materials  namely, “processing” and “performance”
g
• With regard to the relationships
p of these four components,
p , the structure of a material will
depend on how it is processed
• Furthermore, a material’s performance will be a function of its properties
Materials Science and Engineering (continued…)
• The interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted
in the schematic illustration shown in the following Figure

• Throughout this course, we will discuss the relationships among these four components in
terms of the design, production, and utilization of materials
• We now present an example of these processingstructurepropertiesperformance principles
with the photograph showing three thin disk specimens placed over some printed matter
• It is obvious that the optical properties (i
(i.e.,
e the light transmittance) of each of the three
materials are different
• The one on the left is trans-parent (i.e., virtually all of
the reflected light passes through it), whereas the disks
in the centre and on the right are, respectively,
translucent
l and
d opaque
• All of these specimens are of the same material,
aluminium oxide , but the leftmost one is what we call a
single crystal—that is, it is highly perfect—which gives
rise to its transparency
Materials Science and Engineering (continued…)
• The centre one is composed of numerous and very small single crystals that are all connected
• The boundaries between these small crystals scatter a portion of the light reflected from the
printed page, which makes this material optically translucent
• Finally,
Finall the specimen on the right is composed not onl
only of man
many small
small, interconnected cr
crystals,
stals
but also of a large number of very small pores or void spaces
• These p
pores also effectively
y scatter the reflected light
g and render this material opaque
p q
• Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries and
pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties
• Further-more, each material was produced using a different processing technique
• And, of course, if optical transmittance is an important parameter relative to the ultimate in-
service application
application, the performance of each material will be different
Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
• Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil,
chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving
materials
• Examples might include a transmission gear
gear, the superstructure for a building,
building an oil refinery
component, or an integrated circuit chip
• Of course, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the
investigation and design of materials
• Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many thousands
th t are available
that il bl
• There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based
• First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties
p p
required of the material
• On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties
• Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another
• The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength will
have only a limited ductility
• In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary
Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? (continued…)
• A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur
during service operation
• For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure to
elevated temperatures or corrosive environments
• Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished
product cost? A material may
p y be found that has the ideal set of p
properties
p but is p
prohibitively
y
expensive
• Here again, some compromise is inevitable
• The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce
the desired shape
• The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure
structure–
property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and
confident he or she will be to make jjudicious materials choices based on these criteria
Classification of materials
• Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals,
ceramics, and polymers
• This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most
materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates
• In addition, there are the composites, combinations of two or more of the above three
b i material
basic t i l classes
l
• A brief explanation of these material types and representative characteristics is offered
next
• Another classification is advanced materialsthose used in high-technology applications
viz. semiconductors,, biomaterials,, smart materials,, and nano engineered
g materials

Metals
• Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminium, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also non metallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts
Metals (continued…)
• Atoms in metals and their alloys
y are arranged
g in a very
y orderly
y manner,, and in
comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense
• This is illustrated in the following figure
Metals (continued…)
• With regard
g to mechanical characteristics,, these materials are relativelyy stiff,, as
illustrated in the following figure
Metals (continued…)
• These materials are strong,
g, yyet are ductile ((i.e.,, capable
p of large
g amounts of
deformation without fracture)
Metals (continued…)
• The metals are resistant to fracture
• All these properties account for their widespread use in structural applications
Metals (continued…)
• Metallic materials have large numbers of non-localized electrons; that is, these electrons are
not bound to particular atoms
• Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons
• For
F example,
l metals
t l are extremely
t l good
d conductors
d t off electricity
l t i it and
dhheat,
t and
d are nott ttrans-
parent to visible light
• A polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance
• In addition, some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties
Metals (continued…)
• The following photograph shows several common and familiar objects that are made of metallic
materials
Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides
• For example, some of the common ceramic materials include aluminium oxide (or alumina,
Al2O3),
) silicon
ili di
dioxide
id ((or silica,
ili SiO2),
) silicon
ili carbide
bid (SiC),
(SiC) silicon
ili nitride
it id (Si3N4),
) and,
d iin
addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics  those composed of clay minerals (i.e.,
porcelain), as well as cement, and glass
• With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong  stiffness
and strengths are comparable to those of the metals
• In addition, ceramics are typically very hard
• On the other hand, they are extremely brittle (lack ductility), and are highly susceptible to
f t
fracture
• These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have low
electrical conductivities,, and are more resistant to high
g temperatures
p and harsh environments
than metals and polymers
• With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque,
and some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior
Ceramics (continued…)
• Several common ceramic objects are shown in the photograph
Polymers
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials
• Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other non-metallic elements (viz. O, N, and Si)
• Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that has a
backbone of carbon atoms
• Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE)
(PE), nylon
nylon, poly (vinyl chloride)
(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber
• These materials typically have low densities, whereas their mechanical characteristics are
generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials  they are not as stiff nor as strong as
these other material types
• However, on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffness and strengths on a per
mass basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics
• In addition
addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e.,
(i e plastic),
plastic) which means
they are easily formed into complex shapes
• In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of
environments
Polymers (continued…)
• One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest
temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use
• Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic
• The
Th following
f ll i photograph
h t h shows
h severall articles
ti l made
d off polymers
l th
thatt are ffamiliar
ili tto you
Materials of Importance
• One common item that presents some interesting material property requirements is the
container for carbonated beverages
• The material used for this application must satisfy the following constraints: (1) provide a barrier
t the
to th pas-sage off carbon
b dioxide,
di id which
hi h iis under
d pressure iin th
the container;
t i (2) b
be nontoxic,
t i
unreactive with the beverage, and, preferably be recyclable; (3) be relatively strong, and capable
g a drop
of surviving p from a height
g of several feet when containing
g the beverage;
g ; ((4)) be
inexpensive and the cost to fabricate the final shape should be relatively low; (5) if optically
transparent, retain its optical clarity; and (6) capable of being produced having different colors
and/or able to be adorned with decorative labels
• All three of the basic material types  metal (aluminium), ceramic (glass), and polymer (poly-
ester plastic)  are used for carbonated beverage containers (per the chapter
chapter-opening
opening
photographs for this chapter)
• All of these materials are nontoxic and unreactive with beverages.
g In addition, each material
has its pros and cons
• For example, the aluminium alloy is relatively strong (but easily dented), is a very good barrier
to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, is easily recycled, beverages are cooled rapidly, and labels
may be painted onto its surface
Materials of Importance (continued…)
• On the other hand, the cans are optically opaque, and
relatively expensive to produce
• Glass is impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, is a
relatively inexpensive material, may be recycled, but it
cracks and fractures easily, and glass bottles are relatively
heavy
• Whereas the plastic is relatively strong, may be made
optically transparent, is inexpensive and lightweight, and is
recyclable, it is not as impervious to the passage of carbon
dioxide as the aluminium and glass
• For example, you may have noticed that beverages in
aluminium and glass containers retain their carbonization
(i
(i.e., “fi
“fizz”)
”) ffor severall years, whereas
h th
those iin ttwo-litre
lit
plastic bottles “go flat” within a few months
Composites
• A composite
p is composed
p of two ((or more)) individual materials,, which come from the categories
g
discussed above  viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers
• The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by
any single material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials
• A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different combinations of
metals, ceramics, and polymers
y g materials are also considered to be composites
• Furthermore, some naturally-occurring p  for
example, wood and bone
• However, most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites
• One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glassfibers are
embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester)
• The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle)
brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile
(but also weak and flexible)
g fiberglass
• Thus, the resulting g is relatively
y stiff, strong,
g flexible, and ductile
• In addition, it has a low density
Composites (continued…)
• Another of these technologically
g y important
p materials is the “carbon fiber-reinforced p
polymer”
y ((or
“CFRP”) composite  carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer
• These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass fiber-reinforced materials, yet they are
more expensive
• The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications, as well as high-
tech sporting equipment (e.g.,
(e g bicycles,
bicycles golf clubs
clubs, tennis rackets,
rackets and skis/snowboards)

Advanced materials
• Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed
advanced materials
• By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions using relatively
intricate and sophisticated principles; examples include electronic equipment (camcorders,
CD/DVD players
players, etc
etc.),
) computers
computers, fiber
fiber-optic
optic systems,
systems spacecraft
spacecraft, aircraft
aircraft, and military rocketry
• These advanced materials are typically traditional materials, whose properties have been
y developed,
enhanced, and, also newly p high-performance
g p materials
Advanced materials (continued…)
• Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers), and are
normally expensive
• Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term “materials of
th future”
the f t ” (that
(th t is,
i smartt materials
t i l and
d nano engineered
i d materials)
t i l )
• The properties and applications of a number of these advanced materials  for example,
materials that are used for lasers,, integrated
g circuits,, magnetic
g information storage,
g , liquid
q crystal
y
displays (LCDs), and fiber optics  are also discussed in subsequent chapters

Semiconductors
• Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz
(viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz.
(viz ceramics and polymers)
• Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the
presence of minute concentrations of impurity
p p y atoms,, for which the concentrations may
y be
controlled over very small spatial regions
• Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the past
three decades
Biomaterials
• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of
diseased or damaged body parts
• These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues
(i
(i.e., mustt nott cause adverse
d bi
biological
l i l reactions)
ti )
• Metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors may be used as biomaterials

Materials of the Future

Smart Materials
• Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being
developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies
• The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their
p
environments and then respond to these changes predetermined manners  traits that are also
g in p
found in living organisms
• In addition, this “smart” concept is being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of
both smart and traditional materials
Smart Materials (continued…)
• Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (that detects an input
signal), and an actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive function)
• Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position, and natural frequency, or mechanical
characteristics
h t i ti in i response to
t changes
h in
i temperature,
t t electric
l t i fields,
fi ld and/or
d/ magnetic
ti fields
fi ld
• Four types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape memory alloys, piezoelectric
ceramics,, magnetostrictive
g materials,, and electrorheological/magnetorheological
g g g fluids
• Shape memory alloys are metals that, after having been deformed, revert back to their original
shapes when temperature is changed
• Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response to an applied electric field (or voltage);
conversely, they also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered
• The behavior of magnetostrictive materials is analogous to that of the piezoelectrics,
piezoelectrics except that
they are responsive to magnetic fields
• Also,, electrorheological
g and magnetorheological
g g fluids are liquids
q that experience
p dramatic
changes in viscosity upon the application of electric and magnetic fields, respectively
• Materials/devices employed as sensors include optical fibers, piezoelectric materials (including
some polymers), and microelectromechanical devices (MEMS)
Smart Materials (continued…)
• For example, one type of smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aero-dynamic cockpit
noise that is created by the rotating rotor blades
• Piezoelectric sensors inserted into the blades monitor blade stresses and deformations;
f db k signals
feedback i l ffrom th
these sensors are ffed
d iinto
t a computer
t controlled
t ll d adaptive
d ti d device,
i which
hi h
generates noise-cancelling antinoise

Nanoengineered Materials
• Until very recent times the general procedure utilized by scientists to understand the chemistry
and physics of materials has been to begin by studying large and complex structures, and then to
investigate the fundamental building blocks of these structures that are smaller and simpler
• This approach is sometimes termed “top
“top-down”
down” science
• With the advent of scanning probe microscopes, which permit observation of individual atoms
and molecules,, it has become possible
p to manipulate
p and move atoms and molecules to form new
structures and, thus, design new materials that are built from simple atomic-level constituents
(i.e., “materials by design”)
Nanoengineered Materials (continued…)
• This ability to carefully arrange atoms provides opportunities to develop mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, and other properties that are not otherwise possible
• We call this the “bottom-up” approach, and the study of the properties of these materials is
t
termed
d ““nanotechnology”;
t h l ” th
the ““nano”” prefix
fi dde-notes
t that
th t the
th di
dimensions
i off these
th structural
t t l
entities are on the order of a nanometer (109 m)  as a rule, less than 100 nanometers
((equivalent
q to approximately
pp y 500 atom diameters))
• One example of a material of this type is the carbon nanotube
• In the future we will undoubtedly find that increasingly more of our technological advances will
utilize these nanoengineered materials