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Chapter

7
Attitudes and
Persuasion
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should understand why:
1. It’s important for consumer researchers to
understand the nature and power of attitudes.
2. Attitudes are more complex than they first
LEARNING

appear.
3. We form attitudes in several ways.
4. Consumers are motivated to maintain
consistency between all the components of their
attitudes, so they may alter one or more parts to
realize this goal.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should be able to:
5. We can measure attitudes using sophisticated
models that identify specific components and
combine them to predict what a consumer’s
LEARNING

overall attitude toward a product or brand.

6. The communications model identifies several
important components for marketers when they
try to change consumers’ attitudes toward
products and services.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you
should be able to:
7. The consumer who processes such a message is
not necessarily the passive receiver of
information marketers once believed him to be.
LEARNING

8. Several factors influence a message source’s

effectiveness.
9. The way a marketer structures his message
determines how persuasive it will be.
10. Audience characteristics help to determine
whether the nature of the source or the message
itself will be relatively more effective.
 THE POWER OF ATTITUDES
• The Functions of Attitudes
• The Nature of Attitudes
• The Standard Learning Hierarchy:
Learn-Feel-Do
• The Low-involvement Hierarchy:
Learn-Do-Feel
• The Experiential Hierarchy: Feel-Do-
Learn
• Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole
Story
• Attitude Towards the Advertisement
• Ads Have Feelings Too
 FORMING ATTITUDES

 NOT ALL ATTITUDES ARE CREATED EQUAL

• Levels of Commitment to an Attitude
• The Consistency Principle
• Cognitive Dissonance and Harmony
between Attitudes and Behaviors
• Self-Perception Theory
• Social Judgment Theory
• Balance Theory
• Marketing Applications of Balance
Theory
 ATTITUDE MODELS
• Multiattribute Attitude Models
- The Fishbein Model
- Strategic Applications
of the Mulitattribute Model
 USING ATTITUDES TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR
• The Extended Fishbein Model
• Intentions Versus Behavior
• Social Pressure
• Attitude Towards Buying
• Obstacles to Predicting Behavior in the
Theory of Reasoned Action
• Theory of Planned Behavior
• Trying to Consume
• Tracking Attitudes Over Time
• Ongoing Tracking Studies
• Changes to Look for over Time
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The term attitude is widely used in popular culture.
Attitude: a lasting, general evaluation of people (including
oneself), objects, advertisements, or issues. Anything
toward which one has an attitude is called an attitude
object (AO), and help to determine a number of preferences
and actions
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
An attitude is lasting because it tends to endure over time. It
tends to be general because it applies to more than a
momentary event such as hearing a loud noise, though you
might over time develop a negative attitude towards all loud
noises.
When attitudes change we may still retain the old attitude (but it
may be buried very deep).
The attitude we retrieve and use at any given time depends on
the context, for instance, we may initially believe that
speeding is okay as long as the road is clear and there are no
other cars around.
After seeing a road safety advertisement that demonstrates that
safe speeding does not exist, we may develop another attitude
towards speeding.
However, both attitudes are still in our mind and we may
retrieve the old attitude when faced with a long drive home at
night, with good weather and little traffic on the road.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Consumers have attitudes toward a wide rage of
attitude objects, from very product-specific
behavior (e.g., using Happy Dent toothpaste rather
than Colgate) to more general consumption-
related behaviors (e.g., how often one should
brush one’s teeth).
Attitudes help to determine who we date, what music
we listen to, whether we recycle or discard
aluminium cans, or whether we choose to become
a consumer researcher for a living.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The Functions of Attitudes
Psychologist Daniel Katz developed the functional theory of
attitudes to explain how attitudes facilitate social behavior.
Attitudes exist because they serve some functions for the
person (the person’s motives).
Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with
similar situations at a future time will be more likely to
start forming attitudes in anticipation of this event.
Two people can each have an attitude towards some object
for very different reasons. Thus, marketers need to know
why an attitude is held before attempting to change it.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The functions of attitudes identified by Daniel Katz:
 Utilitarian Function: Related to the basic
principles of reward and punishment (pleasure or
pain).
 For example, if a person likes the taste of a french
fries, that person will develop a positive attitude
toward french fries.
 Value-Expressive Function: Express the
consumer’s central values or self-concept. A
person forms a product attitude not because of its
objective benefits, but because of what the
product says about him or her as a person.
 For example, what sort of person reads Playboy.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
 Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes that are formed to
protect the person, either from external threats or internal
feelings.
 Some examples, An early marketing study indicated that
housewives in the 1950s resisted the use of instant coffee because
it threatened their conception of themselves as capable
homemakers. Products that promise to help a man project a
“macho” image (e.g., Marlboro cigarettes) may be appealing to his
insecurities about his masculinity. Deodorant campaigns that
stress the dire, embarrassing consequences of being caught with
underarm odor in public.
 Knowledge Function: Formed as the result of a need for
order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present
when a person is in an ambiguous situation or is
confronted by a new product.
 For example, Bayer wants you to know about pain relievers.

dire = horrible
 Functional Theory of Attitudes

UTILITARIAN VALUE-EXPRESSIVE
FUNCTION: FUNCTION:

Relates to rewards Expresses consumer’s

and punishments values or self-concept

EGO-DEFENSIVE
KNOWLEDGE
FUNCTION:
FUNCTION:
Protect ourselves from
Need for order, structure,
external threats
or meaning
or internal feelings
 Discussion

• Imagine that you work for the marketing

department of your college or university and have
segmented students into four different clusters,
each representing one of the four functions
identified by Katz.
• Develop a marketing strategy based on each of the
four functions to motivate students to stay in
school and complete their degrees.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
An attitude can serve more than one function, but in
many cases a particular one will be dominant. By
identifying the dominant function a product serves
for consumers – what benefits it provides –
marketers can emphasize these benefits in their
communications and packaging.
One study determined that for most people, coffee
serves more of a utilitarian function than a value-
expressive function. As a consequence, subjects
responded more positively to ads that said
something about flavour and aroma of a coffee
than the ads that said about the type of person
while drink a coffee.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Three distinct clusters of fans:
1. The real die-hard fans who were highly committed to their
team and who displayed an enduring love of the game. To
reach these fans, marketers should provide sports knowledge
and relate attendance to personal goals and values.
2. Attitudes were based on the unique, self-expressive
experience provided by the game. They enjoy the
stimulation of cheering for a team and the competition itself.
They are more likely to be “brand switchers” who seek
thrills wherever they can get them, and shifting allegiances
when the team no longer provides the thrills. Marketers can
reach this fan by advertising the appearance of stars who are
likely to give the fans a game they will remember.
3. Attend games primarily to take part in small-group activities
(looking for camaraderie). Marketers can reach it by
providing benefits related to small-group activities, such as
improving parking, multiple-unit pricing, etc.
camaraderie = companionship
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The Nature of Attitudes
An attitude has three components:
• Affect: the way a consumer feels about an attitude
object
• Behavior: person’s intentions to do something with
regard to an attitude object
• Cognition: beliefs a consumer has about an attitude
object
Consumers’ attitudes towards a product cannot be determined
by simply identifying their beliefs about it. For example,
a researcher may find that shoppers know a particular
camcorder has an 8:1 power zoom lens and auto focus,
but such findings do not indicate whether they feel these
attributes are good, bad or irrelevant, or whether they
would actually buy the camcorder.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Attitude is important because of the relationship with
behavior. For issues or products that are high
involvement, complex or risky purchases, we tend to
develop highly embedded attitudes and these attitudes are
likely to predict our behavior.
There are many products that we don’t think very much about
such as buying toilet paper or petrol (except when the
prices sky-rocket). In these instances, there may be little
or no relationship between what we think (our attitude) and
what we do (our behavior).
Hierarchy of effects
• Relative impact/importance of attitude components depends on
consumer’s motivation toward attitude object
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes

Hierarchies of Effects
Which comes first: knowing, feeling, or
doing? It turns out that each element may
lead things off, depending on the situation.
Attitude researchers developed the concept
of a hierarchy of effects to explain the
relative impact of the three components.
Each hierarchy specifies that a fixed sequence
of steps occurs en route to an attitude.
Hierarchy of Effects
 Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Effects
Effects
Standard Learning Hierarchy
• Results in strong brand loyalty
• Assumes high consumer involvement
Low-Involvement Hierarchy
• Consumer does not have strong brand preference
• Consumers swayed by simple stimulus-response
connections
Experiential Hierarchy
• Consumers’ hedonic motivations and moods
• Emotional contagion
• Cognitive-affective model vs. independence hypothesis
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The Standard Learning Hierarchy: Learn-Feel-Do
Angela’s positive attitude towards women’s soccer closely resembles the
process by which most attitudes are assumed to be constructed.
A consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving process.
First, a consumer forms beliefs about a product by accumulating
knowledge (cognition) regarding relevant attributes.
Next, the consumer evaluates these beliefs and forms a feeling about the
product (affect). Over time, Angela assembled information about the
sports, began to recognize the players, and learned which teams were
superior to others.
Finally, based on the evaluation, the consumer engages in a relevant
behavior, such as buying the product or supporting a particular team by
wearing its jersey.
This careful choice process often results in the type of loyalty displayed
by Angela; the consumer bonds with the product over time and is not
easily persuaded to experiment with other brands.
It is assumed that a consumer is highly involved in making a purchase
decision.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The Low-Involvement Hierarchy: Learn-Do-Feel
In contrast to Angela, Sophie’s interest in the attitude object
(women’s soccer) is at best lukewarm (little interest). She is not
particularly knowledgeable about the sport, and she may have an
emotional response to an exciting game but not to a specific
team.
In this sequence, the consumer does not initially have a strong
preference for one brand over another, but instead acts on the
basis of limited knowledge and then forms an evaluation only
after the product has been purchased or used.
The attitude is likely to come about through behavioral learning in
which the consumer’s choice is reinforced by good or bad
experiences with the product after purchase. For example, a
consumer choosing among paper towels might remember that
“Paseo is the quicker picker-upper” rather than bothering to
systematically compare all of the brands on the self.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Consumers are not motivated to process a lot of
complex, brand-related information. Instead, they
will be swayed by principles of behavioral
learning, such as the simple responses cause by
conditioned brand names, point-of-purchase
displays, and so on. This is what called
involvement paradox.
Involvement Paradox:
The less important the product is to consumers,
the more important are many of the marketing
stimuli (e.g., packages, jingles) that must devised
to sell it.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The Experiential Hierarchy: Feel-Do-Learn
In this hierarchy, consumers act on the basis of their
emotional reactions. Melanie just enjoys watching
television with her friends, regardless of what is on. Thus,
Coca-Cola and Pepsi are starting to promote the product in
more emotional ways.
Consumers told researchers they value attributes like
authenticity and optimism as they move toward beverages
like water, juices and flavored teas.
Highlighted the idea that attitudes can be strongly influenced
by intangible product attributes, such as package design,
and by consumers’ reactions toward accompanying
stimuli, such as advertising, brand names, and the nature of
the setting in which the experience occurs.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Emotions expressed by the communicator have an
impact. A smile is infectious.
Emotional Contagion: Messages delivered by happy
people enhance our attitude toward the product.
The mood a person is in when exposed to a
marketing message influences how the ad is
processed, the likelihood that the information
presented will be remembered and how the person
will feel about the advertised item and related
products in the future.
 Contextual Marketing

• Providing customers with information about

competitors at the exact time when they are
searching for details/shopping for a
particular product category
 Discussion

• Contrast the hierarchies of effects outlined

in this chapter
• How should marketers’ strategic decisions
related to the marketing mix change depending
upon which hierarchy is operative among
target consumers?
 Discussion

• One person’s “contextual marketing” is

another person’s “spyware”
• Is it ethical for marketers to track which Web
sites you visit, even if by doing so they can
provide you with information that might help
you save money by buying a competing brand?
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Product Attitudes don’t Tell the Whole Story
In decision-making situations, people form attitudes
toward objects other than the product itself that
can influence their ultimate selections.
Attitudes toward the act of buying in general,
sometimes people simply are reluctant,
embarrassed, or just plain too lazy to expend the
effort to actually obtain a desired product or
service.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Attitude Toward the Advertisement
Consumers’ reactions to a product are also influenced by their
evaluations of its advertising, over and above their feelings
about the product itself.
Our evaluations of a product can be determined solely by our
appraisal of how it’s depicted in marketing
communications – we don’t hesitate to form attitudes
toward products we’ve never seen in person, much less
used.
• We form attitudes toward objects other than the
product that can influence our product selections.
• We often form product attitudes from its ads
• Ad: attitude toward advertiser + evaluations of ad
execution + ad evoked mood + ad arousal effects on
consumer + viewing context
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
The Attitude toward the Advertisement (Aad) is
defined as a predisposition to respond in a
favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular
advertising stimulus during a particular exposure
occasion.
For example, attitudes about an ad and the brand
depicted will be influenced if the consumer see the
ad while watching a favorite TV program.
If consumers are not able to view an ad again, both
belief and attitude confidence about the ad rapidly
diminish. Thus, marketers need to pulse or
frequently repeat advertisements in the media.
 The
The Power
Power of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
Ads Have Feeling Too
The feelings generated by an ad have the capacity to directly
affect brand attitudes.
Three emotional dimensions in commercials:
• Pleasure
• Arousal
• Intimidation

Specific types of feeling that can be generated by an ad:

 Upbeat feelings : amused, delighted, playful.
 Warm feelings : affectionate, contemplative, hopeful.
 Negative feelings : critical, defiant, offended.
 Ads Have Feelings Too

 Commercials evoke emotion

• Pleasure
• Arousal
• Intimidation
 Discussion

• Interview a student next to you about a behavior

that he or she has that is inconsistent with his or
her attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward healthy eating
or active lifestyle, attitudes toward materialism,
etc.)
• Ask the student to elaborate on why he or she has
the behavior, then try to identify the way the
person has resolved dissonant elements.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
An Attitude can form in several different ways:
1. It can occur because of classical conditioning, in
which an attitude object name is repeatedly paired
with a catchy jingle. For example, “You’re in the
Pepsi generation.”
2. It can be formed through instrumental conditioning,
in which consumption of the attitude object is
reinforced. For example, Pepsi quenches one’s thirst.
3. The learning of an attitude can be the outcome of a
very complex cognitive learning process. For
example, a teenager may come to model the behavior
of friends and media endorsers like Beyonce Knowles
who drink Pepsi because they believe that this will
allow them to fit in with the desirable lifestyle
portrayed in Pepsi commercials.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?

A highly brand-loyal consumer has an

enduring, deeply held positive attitude
toward an attitude object, and this
involvement will be difficult to weaken.
Another consumer may be a more fickle
consumer: she may have a mildly positive
attitude toward a product but be quite
willing to abandon it when something better
comes along.
fickle = changeable
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
All Attitudes Are Not Created Equal
Levels of Commitment to an Attitude
Degree of commitment is related to level of
involvement with attitude object
 Compliance
An attitude is formed because it helps in gaining rewards
or avoiding punishment from others. The lowest level
of involvement. This attitude is very superficial. It is
likely to change when others no longer monitor the
person’s behavior or when another option becomes
available.
For example, a person may drink Pepsi because this
brand is sold in cafeteria, and it is too much trouble to
go elsewhere for a Coca Cola.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
 Identification
Occurs when attitudes are formed in order to conform to another
person or group.
Advertising that depicts the social consequences of choosing some
products over others is relying on the tendency of consumers to
imitate the behavior of desirable models.

 Internalization
At a high level of involvement, deep-seated attitudes are internalized
and become part of the person’s value system. This attitudes are
very difficult to change because they are so important to the
individual.
For example, many consumers had strong attitudes toward Coca-
Cola and reacted quite negatively when the company attempted to
switch to the New Coke formula.
 Attitude Commitment

INTERNALIZATION
Highest level: deep-seeded attitudes become part
of consumer’s value system

IDENTIFICATION
Mid-level: attitudes formed in order to conform to
another person or group

COMPLIANCE
Lowest level: consumer forms attitude because it
gains rewards or avoids punishments
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
The Consistency Principle
Principle of Cognitive Consistency
Consumers value harmony among their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors, and they are motivated to
maintain uniformity among these elements. If
necessary, consumers will change their thoughts,
feelings or behaviors to make them consistent with
their other experiences.
Relates to the theory of cognitive dissonance – we
take action to resolve dissonance when our
attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Cognitive Dissonance and Harmony between Attitudes and Behaviors
The theory of cognitive dissonance
Stated that when a person is confronted with inconsistencies among
attitudes and behaviors, he or she will take some action to resolve this
“dissonance,” perhaps by changing an attitude or modifying a
behavior. This is because people are often confronted with situations
in which there is some conflict between their attitudes and behaviors.
According to the theory, people are motivated to reduce the negative
feelings caused by the dissonance by somehow making things fit with
one another. For example, the two cognitive elements, “I know
smoking cigarettes causes cancer” and “I smoke cigarettes” are
dissonant with one another.
Dissonance reduction can occur either by eliminating, adding, or
changing elements. For example, the person could stop smoking
(eliminating) or remember great aunt Sophie, who smoked until the
day she died at age 90 (adding). Alternatively, he might question the
research that links cancer and smoking (changing), perhaps by
believing industry-sponsored studies that try to refute this connection.

refute = counter
 Cognitive Dissonance & Harmony
• Conflict of attitudes and
behavior motivates us to
reduce dissonance
• We make them fit by
eliminating, adding, or
changing elements
• Explains why evaluations of
products increase after
purchase
• Horse race experiment
• Marketers: post-purchase
reinforcement
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Dissonance theory can help to explain why evaluations of a
product tend to increase after it has been purchased. The
cognitive element, “I made a stupid decision,” dissonance
with the element “I am not a stupid person,” so people tend
to find even more reasons to like something after it
becomes theirs.
A classic study performed at a horse race demonstrated
postpurchase dissonance. Better evaluated their chosen
horse more highly and were more confident of its success
after they had placed a bet than before. Because the better
is financially committed to the choice, he or she reduces
dissonance by increasing the attractiveness of the chosen
alternative relative to the unchosen ones.
 Discussion

• Think of a behavior someone does that is

inconsistent with his or her attitudes (e.g.,
attitudes toward cholesterol, drug use, or
even buying things to make him or her stand
out or attain status)
• Ask the person to elaborate on why he or she
does the behavior, then try to identify the way
the person has resolved dissonant elements
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Self-Perception Theory
Do we always change our attitudes to be in line with our behavior because
we're motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance?
Self-perception theory provides an alternative explanation of dissonance
effects.
It assumes that people use observations of their own behavior to determine
what their attitudes are, just as we assume that we know the attitudes
of others by watching what they do.
The theory states that we maintain consistency by inferring that we must
have a positive attitude toward an object if we have bought or
consumed it (assuming that we freely made this choice).
For example, Angela might say to herself, “ I guess I must be into
sports pretty big time, I sure choose to watch it a lot.”
Self-perception theory us relevant to the low-involvement hierarchy,
because it involves situations in which behaviors are initially
performed in the absence of a strong internal attitude.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Self-Perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a
sales strategy called the foot-in-the-door technique, which
is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely
to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to
comply with a smaller request.
Salespeople were taught to plant their foot in a door so the
prospect could not slam it on them.
A good salesperson knows that he or she is more likely to get
an order if the customer can be persuaded to open the door
and talk. By agreeing to do so, the customer has
established that she or he is willing to listen to the
salesperson. Placing an order is consistent with this self-
perception.

comply = fulfill
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Other variations on the Self-Perception strategy
include the Low-Ball Technique, in which a
person is asked for a small favor and is informed
after agreeing to it that it will be very costly;
or the Door-in-the-face technique, in which a
person is first asked to do something extreme (a
request that is usually refused) and then is asked to
do something smaller.
In each of these cases, people tend to go along with
the smaller request, possibly because they feel
guilty about denying the larger one.
 Self-Perception Theory

FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE
Consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he has
first agreed to comply with a smaller request

LOW-BALL TECHNIQUE
Person is asked for a small favor and is informed after
agreeing to it that it will be very costly.

DOOR-IN-THE-FACE TECHNIQUE
Person is first asked to do something extreme (which he
refuses), then asked to do something smaller.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Social Judgment Theory
Assume that people assimilate new information about attitude objects
in light of what they already know or feel.
For example, our decision that a box is heavy depends in part on the
weight of other boxes we have lifted, we develop a subjective standard
when making judgments about attitude objects.

Attitudes of Acceptance and Rejection

Ideas that fall within a latitude will be favorably received, but those
falling outside of this zone will not.
For example, Angela already had a favorable attitude toward the
concept of women playing professional soccer, she is likely to be
receptive to ads such as Nike’s that promote female athletic
participation. If she were opposed to these activities, these messages
would probably not be considered.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?

Assimilation Effect
Messages that fall within the latitude of
acceptance tend to be seen as more
consistent with one’s position than they
actually are.
For example, choosy mothers choose JIF
peanut butter.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?

Contrast Effect
Messages falling in the latitude of rejection
tend to be seen as even farther from one’s
position then they actually are.
For example, relatively uninvolved
consumers will consider a wider range of
alternatives. They are less likely to be brand
loyal and will be more likely to be brand
switchers.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?

Balance Theory
Considers how a person perceives relations
among different attitude objects, and how
he alters his attitudes so that these remain
consistent (or "balanced").
This perspective involves relations (always
from the perceiver's subjective point of
view) among three elements, so we call the
resulting attitude structures triads.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Three elements of Triads:
• A person and his or her perceptions of.
• An Attitude object
• Some other person of object.

The theory specifies that we want relations

among elements in a triad to be harmonious.
If they are unbalanced, this creates tension
that we are motivated to reduce by changing
our perceptions in order to restore balance.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Elements can be perceived as going together in one
of two ways:
• A Unit Relation, in which one element is seen as
somehow belonging to or being a part of the other
(something like a belief).
For example, a dating couple might be seen as
having a positive sentiment relation. On getting
married, they will have a positive unit relation.
• A Sentiment Relation, in which the two elements
are linked because one has expressed a preference
(or dislike) for the other.
For example, the process of divorce is an attempt
to sever a unit relation
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?

To see how balance theory work, consider the

following scenario:
• Alex would like to date Elliot, who is in their
consumer behavior class. In balance theory
terms, Alex has a positive sentiment relation
with Elliot
• One day, Elliot shows up in class wearing an
earring. Elliot has a positive unit relation with
the earring. It belongs to him and is literally a
part of him
• Alex does not like men who wear earrings. He
has a negative sentiment relation with men’s
Balance Theory
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Marketing Applications of Balance Theory
When perceptions are balanced, attitudes are likely to be
stable.
When inconsistencies are observed, we are more likely to
observe changes in attitudes.

Balance theory also helps explain why consumers like to

be associated with positively valued objects. For example,
buying and wearing fashionable clothing, driving a flashy
car may improve one’s chances of being included as a
positive sentiment relation in other people’s triads.
Balance theory is useful in accounting for the widespread
use of celebrities to endorse products.
e.g., Athletes appear in anti drug public service
advertisements.
 How
How Do
Do We
We Form
Form Attitudes?
Attitudes?
This "balancing act" is at the heart of celebrity endorsements,
in which marketers hope that the star's popularity will
transfer to the product or when a nonprofit organization
recruits a celebrity to discourage harmful.
It pays to remember that creating a unit relation between a
product and a star can backfire if the public's opinion of
the celebrity endorser shifts from positive to negative.
For example, Pepsi pulled an ad that featured Madonna after
she released a controversial music video involving religion
and sex; it also happened when celebrity bad girl Paris
Hilton got busted.
The strategy can also cause trouble if people question the
star-product unit relation: This occurred when the late
singer Michael Jackson, who also did promotions for
Pepsi, subsequently confessed that he didn't even drink
soda.
 Discussion

• Students often bask in reflected glory by

taking credit for victories their teams earn
over other colleges
• Should students who just watch the games
rather than play them take credit for their
team’s performance?
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
A consumer’s overall evaluation of a product sometimes
accounts for most of his or her attitude. When market
researchers want to assess attitudes, it can sometimes be
sufficient for them to simply ask a bunch of guys, for
example, “How do you feel about Carlton Draught?”

However, attitude can be a lot more complex problems.

• A product or service may be composed of many attributes,
or qualities, some of these may be more important than
others to particular people.
• A person’s decision to act on his or her attitude is affected
by others factors, such as whether it is felt that buying a
product would be met with approval by friends or family.
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
Multi-attribute Attitude Models
A simple response does not always tell us everything we need to know
about either why the consumer feels a certain way towards a product or
what marketers can do to change the consumer’s attitude. Beliefs about
specific brand attributes can be pivotal to the success or otherwise of a
product.
Warner-Lambert discovered this in research it did for its Fresh Burst
Listerine mouthwash. A research firm paid 37 families to allow it to set
up cameras in their bathrooms to watch their daily routines. Users of
both Fresh Burst and rival Scope said they used mouthwash to make
their breath smell good.
But Scope users swished the liquid and then spat it out, while Listerine
users kept the product in their mouths for a long time (one user kept it
in until he got in the car and finally spat it out in a sewer a block
away!).
These findings meant that Listerine hadn’t shaken its medicine-like image.
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
Multi-attribute Attitude Models assumes that a consumer’s attitude
(evaluation) toward an attitude object (A0) will depend on the beliefs
he or she has about several or many attributes of the object.

Three elements of Basic Multi-attribute Models:

1. Attributes are characteristics of the AO (e.g., college, scholarly
reputation is an attribute to a college – attributes that consumers take
into considerations when evaluating the AO)
2. Beliefs are cognitions about the specific AO (usually relative to others
like it – assesses the extend to which the consumer perceives that a
brand possesses a particular attribute)
e.g., A student might have a belief that the University of North
Carolina has a strong academic standing.
3. Importance weights reflect the relative priority of an attribute to the
consumer.
e.g., In the case of colleges and universities, one student might stress
job opportunities, whereas another might assign greater weight to
creative industries programs.
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
The Fishbein Model
The most influential multi-attribute model.

The Fishbein Model measure three components of

Attitude:
1. Salient Beliefs people have about an AO.
e.g., Those beliefs about the object that are
considered during evaluation.
2. Object-Attribute Linkages or the probability that
a particular object as an important attribute.
3. Evaluation of each of the important attributes.
The Fishbein Model

Salient Beliefs

Object-Attribute Linkages

Evaluation
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
It assumes that we have been able to adequately
specify all of the relevant attributes that, for
example, a student will use in evaluating his or her
choices about which college to attend.
The model also assumes that he or she will go
through the process (formally or informally) of
identifying a set of relevant attributes, weighing
them and adding them up.
Although this particular decision is likely to be
highly involving, it is still possible that his or her
attitude will instead be formed by an overall
affective response (a process known as affect
referral)
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
By combining these three elements, a consumer’s overall
attitude towards an object can be computed. The basic
formula is
Aijk = ΣβijkIik
• Overall Attitude Score = (consumer’s rating of each attribute for all
brands) x (importance rating for that attribute)
 Sandra’s College Decision
Beliefs (β)
Attribute Import. (I) Smith Princeton Rutgers Northland

Academic 6 8 9 6 3
reputation
All women 7 9 3 3 3
Cost 4 2 2 6 9
Proximity to home 3 2 2 6 9
Athletics 1 1 2 5 1
Party atmosphere 2 1 3 7 9
Library facilities 5 7 9 7 2
Attitude Score 163 142 153 131
 Marketing Applications
of the Multiattribute Model

Capitalize on Relative Advantage

Strengthen Perceived Linkages

Add a New Attribute

Influence Competitor’s Ratings

 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
Strategic Applications of the Multi-attribute Model
 Capitalize on Relative Advantage.
If one’s brand is viewed as being superior on a particular attribute,
consumers need to be convinced that this particular attribute is an
important one.
e.g., Although Sandra rates Ohio University’s social atmosphere
highly, she does not believe this attribute is a valued aspect for a
college. Thus, marketers must emphasize the importance of an
active social life forged through strong university friendships.
 Strengthen perceived product / attribute linkages.
A marketer may discover that consumers do not equate his or her
brand with a certain attribute.
e.g., Sandra apparently does not think much of Ohio University’s
academic quality, athletic programs, or library facilities. Marketers
might develop an informational campaign to improve these
perceptions, like ‘little known facts about’
 Attitude
Attitude Models
Models
 Add a new attribute
Product marketers frequently try to distinguish
themselves from their competitors by adding a product
feature.
e.g., Ohio University might try to emphasize some
unique aspect, such as hands-on internship program for
business majors that takes advantage of ties to the local
community.
 Influence competitors’ ratings
Try to decrease the positivity of competitors.
e.g., Publish an ad that lists the tuition rates of a number
of area colleges, as well as their attributes, which Ohio
University can be favorably compared as the basis for
emphasizing the value obtained for the money to be
outlaid for Ohio University
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
In many cases, knowledge of a person’s attitude is
not a very good predictor of behavior.

Consumers can love a commercial, yet still not buy

the product.
e.g., One of the most popular TV commercials in
recent years featured basketball player Shaquille
O’Neal for Pepsi. Although the company spent
$67 million on this spot and other similar ones in a
single year, sales of Pepsi-Cola fell by close to
2%, even as sales of arch-rival Coca-Cola
increased by 8% in the same period.
 The
The Extended
Extended Fishbein
Fishbein Model
Model
The original Fishbein Model focused on measuring a
consumer’s attitude towards a product, has been
extended to improve predictive ability. The newer
version of Fishbein Model is called The Theory of
Reasoned Action. Some of the modifications are:
• Intentions versus behavior: measure behavioral
intentions, not just intentions
• Social pressure: acknowledge the power of
other people in purchasing decision
• Attitude toward buying: measure attitude
toward the act of buying, not just the product
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Intentions Versus Behavior
One study on environmental issues and marketing activities
found that people who express greater conviction in their
feelings regarding environmentally responsible behaviors such
as recycling show greater consistency between attitude and
behavioral intentions.
Past purchase behavior has been found to be a better predictor of
future behavior than is a consumer’s behavioral intention.
Social Pressure
The theory acknowledges the power of other people in
influencing behaviors.
e.g., One firm uses a technique calls “engineered theatre.” The
researchers go to the actual site where a product is being
consumed, such as bar. They arrange for the wrong product to
be “mistakenly” be served, and then observe the consumer’s
“naked response” to the brand and her reaction to consuming the
brand in a social context.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
In university’s case, note that Sandra was very positive about
her choice to go to a predominantly academic university.
However, if she had felt that this choice would be
unpopular and might have ignored or downgraded this
preference when coming to a decision.
A new element, the Subjective Norm (SN), was thus added to
include the effects of what we believe other people think
we should do.
The value of SN is arrived by including two other factors:
1. The intensity of a Normative Belief (NB) that others believe an
action should be taken or not taken.
2. The motivation to comply (MC) with that belief (the degree to
which the consumer takes others’ anticipated reactions into
account when evaluating a course of action or a purchase).
Thus:
SN = NB + MC
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Attitude Towards Buying
Is a measures about Attitude Toward the Act of Buying
(Aact), rather than just the attitude towards the product
itself. It focuses on the perceived consequences of a
purchase.
Knowing how someone feels about buying or using an
object turns out to be more valid than merely knowing
the consumer’s evaluations of the object itself.
e.g., Attitude toward condoms, although a group of
college students might have a positive attitude toward
condoms, does this necessarily predict that they will
buy and use them? The college students might have a
positive AO toward condoms, but Aact might be negative
due to the embarrassment or the hassle involved.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Obstacles to Predicting Behavior in the Theory of Reasoned Action:
 The model was developed to deal with actual behavior (e.g.,
taking a diet pill), not with the outcomes of behavior that are
instead assessed in some studies (e.g., losing weight).
 Some outcomes are beyond the consumers’ control, such as
when the purchase requires the cooperation of other people. For
example, a woman might want to get a mortgage, but this
intention will be worthless if she cannot find a banker to give
her one.
 The basic assumption that behavior is intentional may be invalid
in a variety of cases, including impulsive acts, sudden changes
in one’s situation, novelty seeking, or even simple repeat
buying.
 Measures of attitude often do not really correspond to the
behavior they are supposed to predict, either in terms of the AO
or when the act will occur. For example, knowing a person’s
attitude toward sports cars may not predict whether he or she
will purchase a BMW Z4.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
 A similar problem relates to the time frame of the attitude
measure. In general, the longer the time between the
attitude measurement and the behavior it is supposed to
assess, the weaker the relationship will be. For example,
predictability would improve markedly by asking
consumers the likelihood that they would buy a house in
the next week as opposed to within the next five years.
 Attitudes formed by direct, personal experience with an AO
are stronger and more predictive of behavior than those
formed indirectly, such as through advertising.
Marketers need to know the importance of strategies that
induce trial by widespread product sampling to encourage
the consumer to try the product at home, by taste tests,
test drives, etc.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
The theory of reasoned action has primarily been applied in
Western settings. Several cultural roadblocks diminish the
universality of the Theory of Reasoned Action:
 The model was developed to predict the performance of
any voluntary act. Across cultures, many consumer
activities, ranging from taking exams and entering military
service to receiving an inoculation or even choosing a
marriage partner, are not necessary voluntary.
 The relative impact of subjective norms may vary across
cultures. e.g., Asian cultures tend to value conformity and
“face saving,” so it is possible that subjective norms that
involve the anticipated reactions of others to the choice
will have an even greater impact on behavior for many
Asian consumers.
inoculation = immunization, vaccination
conformity = traditional values
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
 The model measures behavioral intentions, and thus
presupposes that consumers are actively thinking ahead
and planning future behaviors. The perspective on time is
not held by all cultures.
 A consumer who forms an intention is (implicitly)
claiming that he or she is in control of his or her actions.
e.g., Some cultures (such as Muslim peoples) tend to be
fatalistic and do not necessarily believe in the concept of
free will.

Implicitly = absolutely
Fatalism is a philosophical doctrine
emphasizing the subjugation of all
events or actions to fate.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Theory of Planned Behavior
To address the problem of the gap between attitudes and
behavior, Fishbein added the notion of perceived
behavioral control called theory of planned behavior.
The model includes both the attitude towards the behavior
and the subjective norm (social pressure) from the theory
of reasoned action and added a new concept of perceived
behavior control (the belief that you can actually control
the situation and make changes).
When people believe they can actually perform the behavior
easily, the attitude towards the behavior becomes an
effective predictor of the actual behavior.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Trying to Consume
The Theory of Trying states that the criterion of behavior
in the reasoned action model should be replaced with
trying to reach a goal. It recognizes that additional factors
might intervene between intent and performance – both
personal and environmental barriers might prevent the
individual from attaining the goal.
For example, a person who intends to lose weight may
have to deal with numerous issues: he may not believe he
is capable of slimming down, he may have a roommate
who loves to cook and who leaves tempting goodies lying
around the apartment, his friends may be jealous of his
attempts to diet and will encourage him to pig out /
sabotage the effort, or he may be genetically predisposed
to obesity and cutting down on calories simply will not
produce the desired results.
Theory of Trying
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
To predict whether someone would try to lose weight, here are few
sample issues that might be addressed:
 Past Frequency: How many times in the past year did the
person try to lose weight?
 Recency: Did he try to lose weight in the last week?
 Beliefs: Did he believe he would be healthier if he lost weight?
 Evaluations of Consequences: Did he believe his girlfriend
would be happier if he succeeded in losing weight? Did he
believe his friends would make fun of him if he tried but failed
to lose weight?
 The process: Would the diet make him uncomfortable or
depressed?
 Expectations of success and failure: Did he believe it likely he
would be able to lose weight if he tried?
 Subjective norms toward trying: Would the people who are
important to him approve of his efforts to lose weight?
 Discussion

• Construct a multi-attribute
model for a set of local
restaurants
• Based on your findings, suggest
how restaurant managers can
improve an establishment’s
image via the strategies
described in this chapter
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Tracking Attitudes Over Time
An attitude survey is like a snapshot taken at a single point in
time. It may tell us a lot about a brand’s position at that
moment, but it does not permit mamy inferences about
progress the brand has made over time or any predictions
about possible future changes in consumer attitudes.
It is necessary to develop an attitude-tracking program. It
helps to increase the predictability of behavior by allowing
researchers to analyze attitude trends during an extended
period of time. More like a “movie” than a “snapshot” of
attitudes.
e.g., A longitudinal survey conducted by the Food Marketing
Institute of consumers’ attitudes toward food content during
the last decade illustrates how priorities can shift in a fairly
short time. Concerns about fat and cholesterol content rose
dramatically during this period, while a focus on nutritional
issues such as interest in sugar content decreased.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Ongoing Tracking Studies
Attitude tracking involves the administration of an attitude
survey at regular intervals.
Several syndicated services, such as Gallup Poll or the
Yankelovich Monitor, track consumer attitude over time.
This activity can be extremely valuable for many strategic
decisions. For example, one firm monitored changes in
consumer attitudes towards one-stop financial centers.
Although a large number of consumers were warm to the idea
when it was first introduced, the number of people who liked the
concept did not increase over time despite the millions of dollars
invested in advertising to promote the centers.
This finding indicated some problems with the way the concept
was being presented to consumers, and the company decided to
go back to the drawing board, eventually coming up with a new
way to communicate the advantages of this service.
 Do
Do Attitudes
Attitudes Predict
Predict Behavior?
Behavior?
Changes to Look for over Time
Some of the dimensions in attitude tracking
include:
1. Changes in different age groups: Attitude tend to
change as people age (a life cycle effect).
2. Scenarios about the future: Consumers are frequently
tracked in terms of their future plans, confidence in the
economy, etc.
3. Identification of change agents: Social phenomena can
alter people’s attitudes towards basic consumption
activities over time. For example, consumers’
willingness to buy fur changed. Or the likelihood of
desiring a divorce may be affected by such facilitators
as changes in the legal system that make this action
easier, or by inhibitors, such as the value of two pay
checks in today’s economy.
How Do Marketers Change Attitudes?

Reciprocity Scarcity

Authority Consistency

Liking Consensus
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
• BUY NOW! Advertisers constantly bombard us with
messages imploring us to change our attitudes—and of
course buy their products. These persuasion attempts can
range from logical arguments to graphic pictures, from
peers who try to intimidate us to celebrities who try to
charm us.
• Now we'll review some of the factors that help gauge the
effectiveness of marketing communications. Our focus will
be on some basic aspects of communication that
specifically help to determine how and if consumers will
form new attitudes or modify existing ones.
• Persuasion involves an active attempt to change attitudes.
This is of course Job #1 for many marketing
communications.
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Some basic psychological principles that influence people to
change their minds or comply with a request:
• Reciprocity—We are more likely to give if first we receive. That's
why including money in a mail survey questionnaire increases the
response rate by an average of 65 percent over surveys that come
without financial incentives in the envelope.
• Scarcity—Like people, items are more attractive when they aren't
available. In one study, researchers asked people to rate the quality
of chocolate chip cookies. Participants who only got one cookie
liked them better than did those who evaluated more of the same
kind of cookie. That helps explain why we tend to value "limited-
edition“ items.
• Authority—We believe an authoritative source much more readily
than one that is less authoritative. That explains why the American
public's opinion on an issue can shift by as much as 2 percent when
the New York Times (but not the National Enquirer) runs an article
about it.
How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
• Consistency—As we saw earlier in this chapter, people
try not to contradict themselves in terms of what they
say and do about an issue. In one study, students at an
Israeli university who solicited donations to help
disabled people doubled the amount they normally
collected in a neighborhood if they first asked the
residents to sign a petition supporting this cause two
weeks before they actually asked for the donations.
• Liking—We agree with those we like or admire. In one
study, good-looking fundraisers raised almost twice as
much as other volunteers who were not as attractive.
• Consensus—We consider what others do before we
decide what to do. People are more likely to donate to a
charity if they first see a list of the names of their
neighbors who have already done so.
Tactical Communications Options

• Who will be source of

message?
• How should message be
constructed?
• What media will transmit
message?
• What target market
characteristics will influence
ad’s acceptance?
The Traditional Communications Model
An Updated Communications Model
 New Message Formats

• M-commerce - marketers promote goods

and services via wireless devices
• New social media platforms
• Blogging
• Video blogging (vlogging)
• Podcasting
• Tweeting
• Virtual worlds
• Widgets
 The Source

• Source effects mean the same words by

different people can have very different
meanings
• A “source” may be chosen due to expertise,
fame, attractiveness, or similarity
• What makes a good source?
• Source credibility: a source’s perceived
expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness
• Source attractiveness: social value
Star Power
Nonhuman Endorsers
 Decisions to Make About the Message

• Should we use pictures or words?

• How often should message be repeated?
• Should it draw an explicit conclusion?
• Should it show both sides of argument?
• Should it explicitly compare product to
competitors?
• Should it arouse emotions?
• Should it be concrete or based on imagery?
 The Message
Characteristics of Good and Bad Messages

Positive Effects Negative Effects

Showing convenience of use Extensive information on
components, ingredients,
nutrition
Showing new Outdoor setting (message
product/improved features gets lost)
Casting background (i.e., Large number of onscreen
people are incidental to characters
message)
Indirect comparison to other Graphic displays
products
Two-Factor Theory
 How Do We Structure Arguments?

• One-sided: supportive arguments

• Two-sided: both positive and negative
information
• Refutational argument: negative issue is raised,
then dismissed
• Positive attributes should refute presented
negative attributes
• Effective with well-educated and not-yet-loyal
audiences
 Comparative Advertising

• Comparative advertising: message

compares two+ recognizable brands on
specific attributes
• “Unlike McDonalds, all of Arby's
chicken sandwiches are made with 100%
all-natural chicken”
• Negative outcomes include source
derogation
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?

Types of Message Appeals

A persuasive message can tug at the
heartstrings or scare you, make you laugh,
make you cry, or leave you yearning to
learn more.
Types of Message Appeals

Emotional versus Rational Appeals

Sex Appeals

Humorous Appeals

Fear Appeals
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Emotional versus Rational Appeals
• Colgate-Palmolive's Total brand was the first
toothpaste to claim that it fights gingivitis, a
benefit that let Colgate inch ahead of Procter &
Gamble's Crest for the first time in decades.
Colgate initially made a scientific pitch for its new
entry as it emphasized Total's germ-fighting
abilities. In newer ads, however, former model
Brooke Shields cavorts with two children (not
hers) as soft music plays in the background. She
states, “Having a healthy smile is important to me.
Not just as an actress but as a mom."
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Sex Appeals
Perhaps not surprisingly, female nudity in print ads
generates negative feelings and tension among
female consumers, whereas men's reactions are
more positive—although women with more liberal
attitudes toward sex are more likely to be
receptive. In a case of turnabout being fair play,
another study found that males dislike nude males
in ads, whereas females responded well to
undressed males—but not totally nude ones.
Women also respond more positively to sexual
themes when they occur in the context of a
committed relationship rather than just gratuitous
lust.
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Humorous Appeals
Does humor work? Overall, humorous advertisements do get attention.
One study found that recognition scores for humorous liquor ads were
better than average. However, the verdict is mixed as to whether
humor affects recall or product attitudes in a significant way. One
reason silly ads may shift opinions is that they provide a source of
distraction. A funny ad inhibits counterarguing (in which a consumer
thinks of reasons why he doesn't agree with the message), so this
increases the likelihood of message acceptance because he doesn't
come up with arguments against the product.
Humor is more likely to be effective when the ad clearly identifies the
brand and the funny material does not "swamp" the message. This
danger is similar to one we've already discussed about beautiful
models who divert attention from copy points. Subtle humor is usually
better, as is humor that does not make fun of the potential consumer.
Finally, humor should be appropriate to the product's image.
 How
How Do
Do Marketers
Marketers Change
Change Attitudes?
Attitudes?
Fear Appeals
Volkswagen's advertising campaign to promote the safety of its Jetta
model really got people's attention. The spots depict graphic car
crashes from the perspective of the passengers who chatter away as
they drive down the street. Without warning, other vehicles come out
of nowhere and brutally smash into their cars. In one spot, viewers see
a passenger‘s head striking an airbag. The spots end with shots of
stunned passengers, the damaged Jetta, and the slogan: "Safe happens."
The ads look so realistic that consumers called the company to ask if
any of the actors were hurt.
Fear appeals emphasize the negative consequences that can occur unless
the consumer changes a behavior or an attitude. Fear appeals are fairly
common in advertising, although they are more common in social
marketing contexts in which organizations encourage people to convert
to healthier lifestyles by quitting smoking, using contraception, or
relying on a designated driver.
 Discussion

• Name ads that rely on sex appeal to

sell products.
• What benefits are communicated in the
ad?
• Is the message implicit or explicit?
How?
 Message As Art Form

• Advertisers use literary elements to

communicate benefits and meaning
• Allegory: story about an abstract concept
personified in a fictional character
• Metaphor: two dissimilar objects in a close
relationship (“A is B”)
• Simile: compares two objects (“A is like
B”)
• Resonance: play on words with pictures
 Examples of Advertising Resonance
Product Headline Visual
Embassy Suites “This Year, We’re Unwrapping Chocolate kisses with hotel
Suites by the Dozen” names underneath each

Toyota auto parts “Out Lifetime Guarantee May Man holding a shock absorber
Come as a Shock”
Bucks filter “Herd of These?” Cigarette pack with a picture of
cigarettes a stag
Bounce fabric “Is There Something Creeping Woman’s dress bunched up on
softener Up Behind You?” her back due to static

Pepsi “This Year, Hit the Beach Pepsi bottle cap lying on the
Topless” sand
ASICS athletic “We Believe Women Should Woman jogging in a rural
shoes Be Running the Country” setting
 Forms of Story Presentation

• Lecture: speech • Drama: story that

in which the draws viewers
source speaks into the action
directly to the • Characters
audience indirectly address
the audience
• Attempts to
persuade • Interact with each
other in an
• Cognitive responses
imaginary setting
may occur
 Discussion

• Sell the steak or the sizzle?

• What’s more important in an advertisement:
• What is said? or
• Who says it?
• Give examples of ads that use one strategy
versus the other. What types of ads are
more effective for each strategy?
Elaboration Likelihood Model
 Chapter Summary

• Attitudes are very powerful, and they are

formed in several ways.
• People try to maintain consistency among
their attitudinal components and their
attitudes and behaviors.
• The communications model includes
several important components which can be
influenced by marketers to enhance the
persuasiveness of the message.
Introduction
Introduction