Sun drying

The main problems for sun drying are dust, rain and cloudy weather. Therefore, drying areas
should be dust-free and whenever there is a threat of a dust storm or rain, the drying trays
should be stacked together and placed under cover.

In order to produce dust-free and hygienically clean products, fruit and vegetable material
should be dried well above ground level so that they are not contaminated by dust, insects,
livestock or people. All materials should be dried on trays designed for the purpose; the most
common drying trays have wooden frames with a fitted base of nylon mosquito netting. Mesh
made of woven grass can also be used. Metal netting must NOT be used because it discolours
the product.

The trays should be placed on a framework at table height from the ground. This allows the
air to circulate freely around the drying material and it also keeps the food product well away
from dirt. Ideally the area should be exposed to wind and this speed up drying, but this can
only be done if the wind is free of dust.

With 80 cm x 50 cm trays, the approximate load for a tray is 3 kg; the material should be
spread in even layers. During the first part of the drying period, the material should be stirred
and turned over at least once an hour.

This will help the material dry faster and more evenly, prevent it sticking together and
improve the quality of the finished product. Products for sun drying should be prepared early
in the day; this will ensure that the material enjoys the full effect of the sun during the early
stages of drying.

At night the trays should be stacked in a ventilated room or covered with canvas. Plastic
sheets should NEVER be used for covering individual trays during sun drying.

Dry or nearly dry products can be blown out of the tray by the wind. However, this can be
protected by covering the loaded tray with an empty one; this also gives protection against
insects and birds.

Shade drying

Shade drying is carried out for products which can lose their colour and/or turn brown if put
in direct sunlight. Products which have naturally vivid colours like herbs, green and red sweet
peppers, chilies, green beans and okra give a more attractive end-product when they are dried
in the shade.

The principles for the shade drying are the same as for sun drying. The material to be dried
requires full air circulation. Therefore, shade drying is carried out under a roof or thatch
which has open sides; it CANNOT be done either inside conventional buildings with side
walls or in compounds sheltered from wind. Under dry conditions when there is a good
circulation of air, shade drying takes little more time than is normally required for drying in
full sunlight.
5.2.4 Identification of suitable designs of solar dryers for different applications

In the selection of appropriate solar dryers for commercial scale operation, it is imperative
that economics be kept in view at all time. A total Energy System concept should be
employed and due consideration be given to parasitic energy consumption.

The following features have been identified:

 large scale dryers are more promising than small scale ones. However, small scale
dryers should not be neglected.
 the dryer should be designed to maximise the utilisation factor of the capital
investment, i.e. multi-products (fruit, vegetables and other raw material) and multi-use
(e.g. drying and heating water for domestic use).
 in general, an auxiliary heat source should be provided to assure reliability, to handle
peak loads and also to provide continuous drying during periods of no sunshine.
 forced convection indirect dryers are preferred because they offer better control, more
uniform drying and because of their high heat collection efficiency result in smaller
collector area. However, parasitic power should be kept to a minimum.

Two dryer systems have been identified:

 a cabinet type dryer with natural convection for internal air circulation for the
processing of dried fruit such as mango, banana, pineapple, apricot, pear, apple, etc.
and also for potato chips and other vegetables;
 a greenhouse type dryer with forced air circulation.

Some of the barriers to the commercial development of solar dryers have been attributed to:

 initial cost - poor farmers cannot afford them

 durability - constant breakdown due to using low cost building materials
 misuse - through lack of training and technical skills
 dependability and reliability - during the wet season when drying is critical there is not
enough solar energy available
 the wider use of Solar Drying Systems has been limited by other factors which are not
necessarily of a technical or technological nature. Among the most important are the
lack of national policies directed to promoting the drying of produce at the production
site, in order to reduce losses, improve quality and increase farmers' earnings.

5.2.5 Construction of solar dryers

In the case of simple natural convection dryers, it may be more appropriate to build and
operate a number of small units. Multiplicity allows diversity, since more than one crop can
be dried at a time. A further advantage is that if one dryer is out of operation due to damage,
drying can still continue at reduced capacity using the other dryers.

On the other hand, more sophisticated dryers, such as forced convection solar dryers, benefit
from economies of scale due to the investment tied up in the fan and the source of heat.
Generally speaking, one large dryer will be more cost-effective than two smaller units.
However, it should be taken into consideration that an oversized unit will be operating at less
than full capacity, reducing any cost advantage. The drying area required will depend on local
conditions, commodity and number of trays on each rack or trolley.

5.2.5.1 Construction methods and materials

Construction methods and available materials may vary considerably from location to
location. It is not within the scope of this document to discuss individual, local circumstances.
Some general guidelines regarding factors which must be considered can, however, be given:

- dimensions of standard materials. Where possible, design should take account of the sizes of
material locally available. For example, it would be poor design to specify the width of a
corrugated iron collector as 1.1 m if the standard width of a corrugated iron sheet is 1 m.

Before finalising a design, the commercial availability of materials must be ascertained.

- use of rural materials. The cost of building of solar dryer can be minimised if the producer is
able to use wood cut straight from the forest rather than prepared timber.

Careful design in the development stage of a dryer can often facilitate the use of cheaper
materials. Difficulties caused by these materials are in joining pieces of the structure, in
sealing the structure against air leaks, and in attaching the plastic sheet to the (wooden) frame.
There is obvious scope for designs which use prepared timber for strategic points and
unprepared at others.

Where the use of wood is necessary, remember to take environmental factors into
consideration. For example, determine the effect of flash flooding or termites might be and
take the appropriate preventive action.

- use of plastic sheets. For many solar dryers, the clear plastic sheet used is the major capital
cost to the farmer; therefore, the type of plastic chosen is important.

A choice must be made between a relatively cheap plastic such as ordinary polyethylene
which will last, at best, for one season due to photo-degradation and wear and tear; and a
more expensive, better quality plastic less prone to photo-degradation; or even glass or a rigid
plastic.

Attaching plastic sheet to the framework structure, so as to minimise the likelihood of the
plastic being torn is, perhaps, the most difficult part of building a dryer. Listed below are
some general points which should be followed to prolong the useful lifetime of plastic sheet
on a solar dryer:

 when attaching plastic sheet to the framework, care should be taken to stretch the
plastic at the points of attachment, but the plastic should not be so loose that it will
flap about in the wind;
 rather than merely stapling or nailing the plastic directly to the framework, it is
preferable to sandwich the plastic between the framework and a batten. This may not
be practical when unprepared wood or other materials are being used.
 no sharp edges should come in contact with the plastic sheet since these will initiate
tears;
  fold over the plastic at the point of attachment to the frame, so that there are two or
more layers of plastic. This will help prevent tears;
 when fixing the sheet over the framework, sags and hollows in which water can collect
should be avoided wherever possible;
 the dryer should be handled as carefully and as seldom as possible during operation
and when not in use.

5.2.5.2 Technical criteria

The following design factors must be established:

 the throughput of the dryer over the productive season; the size of batch to be dried;
 the drying period(s) under stated conditions;
 the initial and desired final moisture content of the commodity (if known);
 the drying characteristics of the commodity, such as maximum drying temperature,
effect of sunlight upon the product quality, etc.;
 climatic conditions during the drying season, i.e. sunlight intensity and duration; air
temperature and humidity; wind speed (such data may be available from local
meteorological stations);
 availability and reliability of electrical power;
 the availability, quality, durability and price of potential construction materials such
as:

o glazing materials: glass, plastic sheet or film;

o wood (prepared or unprepared);
o nails, screw, bolts, etc.;
o metal sheet, flat or corrugated angle iron;
o bricks (burnt or mud), concrete blocks, stones, cement, sand, etc.
o roofing thatch;
o metal mesh, wire netting, etc.
o mosquito netting, muslin, etc.
o bamboo or fibre weave;
o black paint, other blackening materials;
o insulation material; sawdust, etc.;

 the type of labour available to build and operate the dryer;

 the availability of clean water at the site for preparation of the commodity prior to
drying.

In any one situation there may well be other technical factors that need to be considered.

5.2.5.3 Socio-economic criteria

From the initial considerations, estimates of the capital costs of the dryer, the price of the
commodity to be dried, and the likely selling price of the dried product will have been made.
Other question that need to be considered are the following:

 who will own the dryer?

 is the dryer to be constructed by the end-user (with or without advice from extension
agencies), local contractors, or other organisations?
  who will operate and maintain it?
 how can the drying operation be incorporated into current practices?
 are sources of finance from local authorities or extension agencies available, etc.?

Obviously there are many other socio-economic factors, particularly those of a local nature,
which must be taken into account. It cannot be stressed too highly that if such factors are not
taken into account and evaluated, then is every chance that an inappropriate dryer design may
result. Equal emphasis must be placed on both technical and socio-economic factors.

Summary

a) Situations where solar dryer may be useful:

 where the cost of conventional energy is prohibitive and/or the supply is erratic, to
supplement existing artificial drying systems and reduce fuel costs;
 where land is in short supply or expensive;
 where the quality of existing sun dried products can be improved upon;
 where the labour is in short supply;
 where is plenty of sunshine, but high humidity.

b) Situations where solar dryers may not be useful:

 where conventional energy sources are abundant and cheap;

 where large amounts of combustible by-products or waste materials are freely
available;
 where there is insufficient sunshine;
 where is plenty of sunshine and arid conditions (sun drying may suffice);
 where the quality of sun dried products already made cannot be improved upon;
 where local operators are insufficiently trained;
 where the ramifications of introducing a solar dryer have not been completely thought
out.

5.2.6 Sun/solar drying tray

The drying tray described requires seasoned timber 22.5 mm thick x 50 mm wide.

The drawings that accompany these instructions are in Fig. 5.2.3.

Figure 5.2.3 Sun/solar drying tray

A sun drying tray requires 6 meters of seasoned timber 22.5 mm thick x 50 mm wide.

Cut the timber into lengths of 900 mm long for the sides of the tray and 600 mm long for the
ends - 4 pieces of each length will be needed. The ends of each piece are cut as shown in the
drawing - this is to make flush fitting joints. Join the corners using small brass screws 20 mm
long. To make extra strong joints use good quality wood glue as well as the screws.
The nylon mosquito netting or grass woven mesh can be fitted between the frames as shown
in the bottom drawing. Cut the mesh a little larger than the size of the frame. Using drawing
pins, pin the mesh to the OUTSIDE edges of one of the frames - the mesh should be pulled
tight as the pins are put in around the edges.

Lay the other frame on top and drill holes about 3 mm in diameter at the points marked X in
the top drawing. Use nails that are a tight fit in the holes and tap gently into place leaving a
portion standing above the frame.

Cut off the standing part to leave a piece about 12 mm long which is then bent over and
tapped firmly down onto the frame. When the frame has been put together tightly, the drawing
pins can be removed.

5.2.7 Dryers

Figures 5.2.4 to 5.2.19 illustrated various types of sun/solar dryers along with examples of
drying and dehydration equipment.

5.2.8 Preservation by concentration

Foods are concentrated for many of the same reasons that they are dehydrated; concentration
can be a form of preservation but this is true only for some foods. Concentration reduces
weight and volume and results in immediate economic advantages.

Nearly all liquid foods which are dehydrated are concentrated before they are dried. This is
because in the early stages of water removal, moisture can be more economically removed in
highly efficient evaporators than in dehydration equipment. Further, increased viscosity from
concentration often is needed to prevent liquids from running off drying surfaces or to
facilitate foaming or puffing.

Foods are also concentrated because the concentrated forms have become desirable
components of diet in their own right. Thus, fruit juices plus sugar with concentration
becomes jelly. The more common concentrated fruit and vegetable products include items as
fruit and vegetable juices and nectars, jams and jellies, tomato paste, many types of fruit
purées used by bakers, candy makers and other food manufacturers.

5.2.8.1 Aspects of preservation by concentration

The level of water in virtually all concentrated foods is in itself more than enough to permit
microbial growth. Yet while many concentrated foods such as non-acid fruit and vegetable
purées may quickly undergo microbial spoilage unless additionally processed, such items as
sugar syrups, jellies and jams are relatively "immune" to spoilage; the difference of course is
in what is dissolved in the remaining water and what osmotic concentration is reached.
Figure 5.2.4 Sun drying tent

Figure 5.2.5 Solar tent dryer

Figure 5.2.6 Cabinet or tray dryer

Figure 5.2.7 Solar cabinet dryer

Figure 5.2.8 Solar dryer
Figure 5.2.9 Solar dryer in combined mode
Figure 5.2.10 Solar cabinet dryer with separate air heater

Figure 5.2.11 Basic form of flat-plate solar air heater

Figure 5.2.12 End-profile views of flat-plate solar air heater
Figure 5.2.13 Natural convection solar dryer

Figure 5.2.14 Simple sulphuring cell

1. Cell walls
2. Trays on a car
3. Metal plat with burning sulphur
4. Hole for sulphur dioxide fumes
 5. Exhaust hole

Figure 5.2.15 Solar wind-ventilated dryer

Figure 5.2.16 Tunnel dryer for fruit and vegetables. Capacity: 6 to 12 cars with 25 or 18 trays
each

Figure 5.2.17 Cabinet/cell dryer for fruit and vegetables. Capacity: 2 to 4 cars with 25 trays
each; 1 tray = 1 m²

Courtesy of U.T.A. Industrie

 Figure 5.2.18 Tunnel type dehydration unit - tunnel dryer

1. Control and switch-board

2. Burner
3. Platform for burner
4. Frontal plate
5. Air flow regulating plate
6. Burner's cylinder
7. Air circulating fan
8. Air direction conveying plates
9. Cars rail
10. Tunnel "feeding" door: inlet of cars with fresh product
11. Tunnel "evacuating" door: outlet of cars with dry product
12. Cars pushing device
13. Cars with trays
14. Drying trays

Figure 5.2.19 Typical counterflow tunnel dryer construction