ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Mayra Christina M. Ambrocio, DEM

Loreta L. Apaya
Milben A. Bragais
Roel L. Fucio
Ozzy Boy S. Nicopior
 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY

Vision

Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational institution of

choice providing holistically developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

Mission

Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared and

technically skilled individuals who are socially and morally upright.
Course Code: MST01

Course Description: This course explores on the Interrelationships among the

components of the natural world, environmental problems, their causes, associated
risks, preventive measures and alternative solutions.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Become familiar with environmental problems in the locality and the

world.
2. Grasp the principles and theories of environmental science, stewardship
and sustainability, and recognize their role in evaluating and
establishing a viable human society within earth’s system.
3. Understand the occurrence of environmental issues, problems, climate
change, apply scientific method and observation, and solve the problem.
4. Explore on environment biology, chemistry or chemical aspects,
geological, energy sources and management.
5. Explore and familiarized with the different environmental approaches
and management.
6. Be aware with the ethics towards the environment.
7. Apply environmental awareness, like tree planting, waste segregation
management and catalogue making.

Course Requirements:
 Assessment Tasks - 60%
 Major Exams- 40%
____
Periodic Grade 100%

Prelim Grade = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

Midterm Grade = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 5-7)
+ 40% (Midterm exam) ]
Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the
Midterm

Final Grade = 30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 8-10)

+ 40% (Final exam)]
 Table of Contents

Module 1: Fundamentals of Environmental Science 1

Introduction 1
Learning Outcomes 1
Lesson 1. Environment and Environmental Science 2
Lesson 2. Natural resources: vital to human survival 5
Lesson 3. Importance (Significance) of Environmental Education 8

Module 2. Basic Ecological and Biological Concepts of the Environment

Introduction 11
Learning Outcomes 11
Lesson 1. Ecological and Biological Concepts of the Environment 12
Lesson 2. Ecosystem 15
Lesson 3. Components of Ecosystems 16
Lesson 4. Relationships in the ecosystem 20
Lesson 5. Limiting Factors inn an Ecosystem 22

Module 3. Environmental Chemistry 31

Introduction 31
Learning Outcomes 31
Lesson 1. Environmental Chemistry 32
Lesson 2. Environmental Indicators 33
Lesson 3. Biogeochemical Cycles 39
Lesson 4. Applications 49
Lesson 5. Methods 51

Module 4. Environmental Geosciences

Introduction 57
Learning Outcomes 58
Lesson 1. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy 59
Lesson 2. Renewable Energy and Alternative Energy Sources 63
Lesson 3. Nuclear Energy: A Closer Look 71
Lesson 4. Biofuels, Carbon Capture and Reuse, Waste to Energy
Technologies 73
Lesson 5. Environmental Impacts of Energy Use 76
Lesson 6. Current Transportation Technologies and Infrastructure and
Emerging Trends 82
Lesson 7. Electricity Generation & Air Pollution 90
Lesson 8. Urban and Indoor Air Pollution 93
Lesson 9. Sustainability and Energy Usage of Food Production 94
 List of Figures

Figure Description Page No.

1 Key Goals 4
2 Environmental Education 5
3 Levels of Biological Organization 13
4 Ecosystem Organization 14
5 Food chain 18
6 Food web 18
7 Predator/Prey 20
8 Symbiotic Relationships 21
9 Mutualism 21
10 Commensalism 21
11 Population Increase 24
12 Biogeochemical cycles 40
13 Water Cycle 42
14 Carbon Cycle 43
15 Nitrogen Cycle 44
16 Oxygen Cycle 45
17 Sulfur cycle 46
18 Phosphorus Cycle 48
 MODULE 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Introduction

Our lives are very much affected by environmental science every day. The
knowledge and technology we have are products of environmental sciences, the
study of how humans interact with their environment and what can be done to
improve these interactions.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Define Environment, Environmental Science and Environmental Education.
2. Determine the importance of the study of Environmental Science
3. Discuss its goals, resource management of Environmental Education
4. Explain environmental Education (EE) and its goals

1
Lesson 1. Environment and Environmental Science

1.1 Environment (Marcum, 2009)

As a broad term, environment, encompasses all that surrounds us—the natural world in
which we live, and all the things that are produced by people. We, humans, have used the
world’s environment including resources, with little knowledge or understanding of the
consequences of our actions.

Every aspect of human endeavor has some relationship with the natural environment.
Our existence depends much on what our environment can provide. As our numbers grow, our
demands on our environment also increase. Environmental science has its roots in natural
history, the study of where and how organisms carry out their life cycles, and ecology, the study
of environmental factors and how organisms interact with them.

Environment: the total of our surroundings. All the things around us with which we
interact:

 Living things -- Animals, plants, forests, fungi, etc.

 Non-living things--Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks

 Our built environment-- Buildings, human-created living centers

 Social relationships and institutions

1.2 Humans Exist Within the Environment (Marcum, 2009)

Humans exist within the environment and are part of nature. Our survival depends on a
healthy, functioning planet. The fundamental insight of environmental science is that we are part
of the natural world. Our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal.

Humans and the world around us and depend completely on the environment for
survival, leisure time. Enriched and longer lives, increased wealth, health, mobility and leisure
time. But natural systems have been degraded by Pollution, erosion, and species extinction.
Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival.

2
1.3 Environmental Science (Marcum, 2009)

According to Marcum (2009) Environmental science is the study on a.) How the natural
world works; and b.) How the environment affects humans and vice versa? With environmental
problems come opportunities for solutions

Environmental science is the study of the interaction of humans with the natural
environment. It deals with the study of our environment, either globally or locally, and its living
and non-living components.

Natural Sciences this is a field of science that includes: Biology, Chemistry, Earth
science, Physics and medicine.

 Biology. The study of living organisms.

 Chemistry. The study lf chemicals and their interactions.
 Earth Science. The study of the earths nonliving systems and the planet as a
whole.
 Physics. The study of matter and energy.
 Chemistry. The study lf chemicals and their interactions.

Social Sciences (Lee et al., 2010)

The study of human populations, which includes economics, political science,

sociology, history, philosophy and ethics.

Other sciences (Lee et al., 2010)

Such as mathematics, statistics, technology, business and management, law,

religion, morality and aesthetics.

3
1.4 Goals of Environmental Science (Lee et al., 2010)

1. To develop a sustainable world – a world in which a supply of food and water, building
materials, clean air, and other resources can sustain human population to continue to
exists indefinitely with a high standard of living and health.
2. One of the major goals of environmental science is to understand and to
solve environmental problems. In order to accomplish this goal, scientists study
two main types of interactions between humans and their environment. One area of
focus is on how we use natural resources, such as water and plants

Dr. Rex N. Olinares, a professor emeritus at the University of the Philippines, is

considered to be the "father of Environmental Science." He proposed that sanitation and
hygienic measures are necessary to prevent spread of microorganism. He also proposes
that sanitation is the root cause of environmental pollution (Lee et al., 2010).

1.5 Key Goals for Excellent Human Resource Management

1. Helps the organization reach its goals.

2. Ensures effective utilization and maximum development of human resources.

3. Identifies and satisfies the needs of individuals.

4. Achieves and maintains high morale among employees.

5. The environment includes all conditions that surround living organisms:

 Climate  Soil and landforms

 Air and water  Presence of other
quality living organisms

Figure 1. Key Goals

4
Lesson 2. Natural Resources: Vital To Human Survival (Lee et al., 2010)

Natural resources: substances and energy sources needed for survival

1. Non- renewable – resources that can be retrieved from the environment once, but
are not generated. They are pepper Oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy.
Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels

2. Renewable – resources that can be renewed, adjusted and manipulated such as

some of our biological resources. solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
biofuels, cultivated plants, biomass, air, water and soil.

Figure 2. Environmental Education

5
1.7 Environmental Education

Environmental Education, which is relatively new, is an interdisciplinary process that

aims at equipping people with the knowledge, attitudes, skills and motivation that they need to
help resolve environmental issues.

1.8 The Goal of Environmental Education (Lee et al., 2010)

The goal of environmental education is to develop a world population that is aware of,
and concerned about, the environmental and its associated problems, and which has the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively
towards solutions of current problems

The quality of the environment and the quality of life we enjoy are directly related. We
have the power to control the quality of the environment, but commonly, in using our power, we
damage the environment, often irreversibly.

We must accept responsibility and participate actively in achieving the goals of

environmental education (EE)

1. Society prepares its citizens to carry out their responsibilities through its system of
education.
a. Education must develop in each citizen an awareness of, and a sensitivity to the
environment and its problems.
b. Education must teach each citizen the knowledge, understanding and skills
needed to solve problems.
c. Education must foster positive attitudes and patterns of conduct toward the
environment.

2. E.E. must consider all aspects of the environment – natural and man-made,
technological, social, economic, political, cultural, aesthetic and knowledge.

6
 3. E.E. must emphasize an enduring continuity, linking actions of today top the
consequences for tomorrow and the need to think globally.
4. E.E. must aid young citizen in developing a sense of responsibility and commitment to
the future, and prepare them to carry out the role safeguarding and improving the
environment upon which all life depends.
5. Real E.E. is different. It teaches students critical thinking and informs them of
environmental science as it really is; an ongoing search for truth.
6. In sum, E.E. is valuable part of science instruction. It molds students into smug crusader
whose initial foundation of knowledge is shaky at best.

Nov 8, 2016 - The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early as the
18th century when Jean- Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an education that
focuses on the environment in Emile: or, On Education • Several decades later, Louis Agassiz,
a Swiss-born naturalist, echoed Rousseau's philosophy as he

Environmental Education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about how natural
environments function and particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and
ecosystems in order to live sustainability

7
Lesson 3. Importance of Environmental Education (Yadav, n.d.)

Environmental education is essential for the self-fulfillment and social development of

the child and the adult it increases student’s engagement in science. It is also essential for
understanding the different food chains and the nature’s ecological balance. And it plays an
important role in understanding and appreciating how the environment is used for making a
living and promoting material culture.

8
ASSESSMENT TASK

1. Relate Environmental science with the following fields of study:

a. Atmospheric Sciences,
b. Ecology,
c. Environmental Chemistry,
d. Geosciences, And
e. Social Sciences.

2. Differentiate environment, Environmental Science and Environmental Education

3. What is the use of Environmental Science?

4. What is the importance of Environmental Education?

8
SUMMARY

The environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living
elements and their effects which influence human life. While all living or biotic elements are
animals, plants, forests, fisheries, and birds, etc. The non-living or abiotic elements include
water, land, sunlight, rocks, and air, etc.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical,

biological and information sciences (including ecology, biology, physics, chemistry, plant
science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical
geography, and atmospheric science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of
environmental problems.

Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during
the Enlightenment. Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach
to the study of environmental systems.

Environmental science is important because it enables you to understand how these

relationships work. For example, humans breathe out carbon dioxide, which plants need for
photosynthesis. Plants, on the other hand, produce and release oxygen to the atmosphere,
which humans need for respiration.

Environmental Education is a process by which people develop awareness, concern

and knowledge about the environment and learn to use this understanding to preserve,
conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable manner for the benefit of the present and
future generations.

Environmental Education (EE) is intended for all types learners, students, out-of-
school youth, community leaders, policy makers and the general public to develop appropriate
environment – related skills.

9
REFERENCES

Climate Change , PPT: Introduction to Environmental Science -2nd Edition retrieved from
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/introduction-to-environmental-science-
2nd-edition
Environment, Retrieved on Aug.5,2020 from PPT: Introduction to Environmental Science
https://www.slideshare.net/wtidwell/introduction-to-environmental-science 8.
Lee, Sergio J. et.al., Environmental Science, 2010
Miller, G. Tyler, Living in the Environment, Brooks/cole, Thomas Learning, Inc., 12th ed., USA,

2014

Natural resources vital to human survival, Retrieved on Aug.5,2020 from PPT: Introduction to
Environmental Science https://www.slideshare.net/wtidwell/introduction-to-
environmental-science
Natural resources vital to human survival, Retrieved on Aug.5,2020 from PPT: Introduction to
Environmental Science https://www.slideshare.net/wtidwell/introduction-to-
environmental-science 8.
Odum, E.P. fundamentals of Ecology, W.B. Saunders Company, Japan, 30 ed, 2015

Stanley, E. Manahan, Environmental Science and Technology, Lewis Publisher, CRC Press,
2015

Subba Rao, S., Ethics of Ecology and Environment, Rajat Publications, New Delhi, 2015

Withgott, Jay and Marcum, Heidi; Environmental Science Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/pavan90557/importance-of-environmental-education

10
 MODULE 2
BASIC ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
CONCEPTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

In ecology, ecosystems are composed of organisms, the communities they

comprise, and the non-living aspects of their environment. The four main levels of
study in ecology are the organism, population, community, and ecosystem.
Ecosystem processes are those that sustain and regulate the environment.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Define Ecosystem, population, community and its properties

2. Differentiate biotic component and abiotic components in an environment
3. Compare food chain to food web
4. Distinguish between each of the symbiotic relationship that exists in an
environment.
5. Describe each of the members of Ecosystem Organization
6. Explain the limiting factors that exists in an ecosystem

11
Lesson 1. Ecological and Biological Concepts of the Environment

1. Ecosystem – ecological system.

Keyword: Ecology – from the Greek word “oikos” meaning house and “logos” which
means science of or the study of.

The study of the earth’s households, including plants, animals, microorganism and
people that live together as interdependent components, study of the earth’s life including
plants, animals, and people that live together as independent components. It is viewed as study
of the structure & functions of nature. It is understood that humankind is a part of nature. This is
because ecology is concerned not only with organism but with energy flows and materials cycle
in the land, in ocean, in air and in freshwater (Odum, 2015).

2. Economics – is viewed as a study of the management of household?

However, in the course of human interaction? These two disciplines develop

independently. Economic theory is about resources limitation & availability and how can it meet
the infinite needs of mankind. Since they develop separately, economic development developed
without the limits of ecology (Salkind, 2020).

Example: Fish population

Phil. Eagle & forest cover – decrease up to the critical/threshold limit.
Exploitation of mineral resources & forest covers

Economic theory - states that resources can be exploited as long as its profitable.

12
 Energy flow & material cycles are major concepts of ecology. There is a particular way
by which energy will flow and materials will cycle. Any disturbance to these flows will create a
problem (Odum, 2015).

System

Sub-System Sub-System

Sub-System Sub-System Sub-System Sub -System

Figure 3. Levels of Biological Organization

Communities Ecosystem
 
Population Energy Population system
 
Organisms Organism System
 
Organs Organ System
 
Tissues Tissue System
 
Cells Matters Cell System
 
Genes Genetic System

Biotic components + Abiotic Components = Biological systems

13
Figure 4. Ecosystem Organization

14
Lesson 2. Ecosystem (Odum, 2015)

What is an Ecosystem?

According to Odum (2015), Ecosystem is an assemblage of living and non-living

elements contained within a boundary such that these elements have functional relationships
with each other and can maintain the flow of energy and complete the chemical cycle.

It is also a combination of various systems interacting with one another and their
physical environment. Complex nature of several units.

Example: Organism vs. Population Attributes

no birth
 rate  birth rate & death rates, growth rate, etc.
Deviation of behavior is less than other
 no death rate  organisms.

15
Lesson 3. Components of Ecosystem (Odum, 2015)

1. According to standpoint of Trophic Level (Odum, 2015)

Autotrophic
- Related to components in which activity is photosynthesis – the production of
organic matter from simple & drawn from the surrounding & build into a complex
organic material.
- In photosynthesis,
CO2 + H2O + Energy from Light
CO2 + H2O + Eight + Carbohydrates/Sugar
Heterotrophic
- Transformation of primary products to secondary products from the plants.
- Rearrangement of synthesis. - Decomposition is included.
- Animals, micro-organism and other user of plants.
- Heterotrophs are predators.

a. Bio phages – animals consume other animals/plants/other organisms.

b. Saprophages – refers to heterotrophic feeds on dead organic matters.
Ex. Micro-organism

2. According to Structure (Odum, 2015)

2.1 Abiotic factors are non-living.

 Abiotic factors include science like chemistry, physics and geology.
 Interactions of abiotic factors result in weather, seasonal changes, tides, air quality,
and water quality
 Biotic factors are living and can be categorized within an ecosystem structure…
 Species Population Community

Abiotic Components:
They form the environment and determine the type / structure of ecosystem.
Sunlight (temperature)
Nutrients; Rainfall, minerals, carbon, nitrogen, etc.

16
Type of ecosystems:
a) Terrestrial ecosystem
b) Forest ecosystem
c) Grassland ecosystem
d) Desert ecosystem
e) Tundra ecosystem
f) Freshwater ecosystem
g) Marine ecosystem

2.2 Biotic Components (Odum, 2015):

o Producers (Autotrophs) - All green plants. They use solar energy, chlorophyll,
inorganic nutrients and water to produce their own food. (Photosynthesis)

o Consumers - They consume the organic compounds in plant and animal

tissues by eating.
 Herbivores (plant feeders) Primary consumers
 Carnivores (meat eaters) Secondary consumers
 Omnivores (general feeders)

o Decomposers - They are tiny organisms includes bacteria and fungi, which
turn organic compounds in dead plants and animals into inorganic materials.
They cause the continual recirculation of chemicals within ecosystem (nutrient
cycle)

2.3 According to Function Functions of Ecosystem (Odum, 2015)

1. Energy circuit/flow – energy flows through the structural elements of an

ecosystem.
a. Food chain - a linear relationship such as leaves --- caterpillar --- chickadee
--- hawk
Grazing food chain – organisms feeding on living organisms

17
 Detritus food chain – organisms feeding on dead organisms

Figure 5. Food Chain

b. Food web – more intricate and complicated. Diversity pattern in time and space

Figure 6. Food web

18
2. Nutrient cycling – nutrients are alternately bound up in living organisms, freed in the
environment and bound up again in living tissues.
a. Closed system – system that neither receive inputs from nor contributes outputs to
the external environment
b. Open system – system with exchange of materials and energy to the surrounding
environment

19
Lesson 4. Relationships in the Ecosystem (Odum, 2015)

Ecological relationships describe the interactions between and among organisms within
their environment. The successful physical traits and behaviors (fitness) are inherited by the
offspring of organisms.

The populations of all the different species that live together in an area make up
an ecological community. Interactions between two or more species are called interspecific
interactions.

Predator/Prey: One organism (predator) will actively hunt and consume another (prey).

Competition: two or more organisms of same or different species compete to use the same
limited resources or basic needs. It is a relationship between organisms in which
one is harmed when both are trying to use the same resource related to growth,
reproduction, or survivability. (Odum, 2015)

Figure 7. Predator/Prey

20
 Parasitism: is a symbiotic relationship
between species, where one organism
(parasite) lives in or on another (host) and
feeds on it without immediately killing it.
(Odum, 2015)

Figure 8. Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism: a
cooperative partnership
between two species
(both benefit) (Odum,
2015).

Figure 9. Mutualism

Commensalism: a relationship
where one species benefits and
the other remains unaffected
(Odum, 2015).

Figure 10. Commensalism

21
Lesson 5. Limiting Factors in an Ecosystem (Miller, 2014)

Definition of Terms (Miller, 2014):

1. Population – a group of potentially interbreeding and interacting individuals of the

same species living in the same place at the same time. It is a group of individuals
which the organism is necessarily a part.

2. Community – group of populations in a particular area. All plants, animals, and fungal
populations make up a given community.

3. Ecosystem – refer to previous definition

4. Biomes – large complexes of ecosystem with similar characteristics.

Ex. Deciduous forest biome or dessert biome

In Interbreeding, there is:

Gene flow
Life of its own
Unique way of allocating resources (eg. Food, water, nutrients)
 Regulate growth
 Cooperate for defense

Population responds to:

a. Competition
b. Predation
c. Other pressures

22
 General Forms Of Competition (Miller, 2014)

1. Scramble competition – no individual has enough resource for growth and

development, high population density

2. Contest competition – some members of population get more resource

denying other members of that resource (imbalance of allocation)

3. Predation – prey-predator relationship, balances ecosystem

Unique Features of Population (Miller, 2014):

1. Age structure - The ratio of the various age classes to each other at given
time. It is determined by finding individual ages of members of the population

a. Density - number of individuals expressed per unit of space or area

Abundance – number of individuals in a given area (no boundary) Population
parameters affected by Density:
- Birth rate
- Death rate
- Growth rate (e.g. fuel wood – 2x2 m2, rambutan: 8-10 m, timber – 3x3)

2. Distribution on time and space

Birth rate/natality - production of new individuals in a population

the inherent ability of population to increase

2. Death rate/mortality - no. of individuals dying in a given time period

Mortality rate (qx) – dt/Nt x 100

Where: d = no. of ind. that died at an interval of time
N = no. alive at the beginning of the period

23
 3. Population Growth Rate – some of the forces influencing growth rate:

 Mortality (d) and natality (b): rate of increase = (b-d)

 Immigration (i) – influx of new individuals into a population
 Emigration (e) – dispersal of individuals from a population

Hence, to account for those gain and loss the general formula for the rate of
increase or decrease is: (b+i) – (d+e)

Major Determinants of Population Increase (Miller, 2014)

Immigration Natality

Population increases

Population

Population decreases

Emigration Mortality

Figure 11. Population Increase

Advantages (Miller, 2014):

1. Protection – plants gain protection from adverse environmental condition in
clumped distribution ex. Bees and ants
2. Reproduction – critical level of population to maintain genetic material.
Higher no. Will serve as defense mechanism
3. Genetic mechanism – able to compete and survive within sp. Will form ability
to compete w/ other sp. (interspecific)
4. Division of labor and cooperation – each member has improved efficiency

24
Disadvantages (Miller, 2014):
1. Intraspecific competition – steeper competition due to same needs
2. Increase in level of stress – physical proximity of others in population will
increase stress in individual
3. Alteration of the environment – higher population will cause environment to be
unhealthy
4. Disease transmission – parasites/diseases are favored in congested areas
5. Physical interference – will interrupt physiological behavior among individuals

25
 ASSESSMENT TASK

A. How may volcanoes disrupt ecosystems? Give specific example for each.

1. Producers?

2. Consumers?

3. Biotic Factors?

4. Abiotic Factors?

26
B. Use the diagram to respond to each of the following:

1. Identify the decomposer. What are the benefits of decomposer?

2. Which are the primary consumers? What is being consumed?

3. Which are the tertiary consumer? What does this consumer eat?

27
4. Define a niche.

5. What happens when two or more organisms coexists in the same niche?

28
SUMMARY

An ecosystem is a community of living things that interact with each other and with the
physical world. The balance of an ecosystem is important. All things must work together to
provide a good living environment.

Populations are groups of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the
same time. Population density is the number of individuals living in a given unit of space. Their
arrangement in the space is the population distribution. Population is concerned with changes in
the number of individuals. Such changes are the result of biotic potential and environmental
resistance.

The biotic potential of a population is its maximum reproductive rate under ideal
conditions, assuming that all the young survive to reproductive age. Environmental resistance is
the total of all factors, both biotic and abiotic, that influence population growth.

A community consists of a group of organisms that interact and live together. The major
community roles are those of producers, consumers, and decomposers. Organisms play
particular parts in ecosystem. The destructive life style and adaptation packages of an organism
is its ecological niche. The trophic relationship of a community may be expressed as food
chains and food webs and show the multitude of alternative pathways that energy may take
among the consumers and decomposers of a community.

29
REFERENCES

Lee, Sergio J. and Anes, Myra L., Lecture Notes in Environmental Science

Miller, G. Tyler, Living in the Environment, Brooks/cole, Thomas Learning, Inc., 12th ed., USA,
2014

Odum, E.P. fundamentals of Ecology, W.B. Saunders Company, Japan, 30 ed, 2015

Ordonez, Jose A. II. Environmental Biology, Phil. Setting Natl Book Store 2006

Salkind, N. J. (2020). An Introduction to Theories of Human Development. (SAGE Publications)

Retrieved from SAGE Publications: https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/an-introduction-
to-theories-of-human-development/book220853

Stanley, E. Manahan, Environmental Science and Technology, Lewis Publisher, CRC Press,
2015

Subba Rao, S., Ethics of Ecology and Environment, Rajat Publications, New Delhi, 2015

30
 MODULE 3
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Introduction

The industries with the modern technology have produced immense amounts of
chemicals that have given the world an extraordinary quality of life but have also caused
environmental degradation. In this respect, we need to have some knowledge of the source,
fate and reactivity of compounds in the natural and contaminated environment. It is imperative
to learn how the uncontaminated environment works to accurately study the effects of humans
on the environment through the release of chemicals.

Likewise, in this module, we will understand how matter specifically the chemical
elements are recycled in the environment through the process known as biogeochemical cycles.
Energy flows but matter is recycled making them part of many organisms and nonliving
compounds. (www.khanacademy.org)

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Define environmental chemistry;

2. Explain the environmental indicators of the quality of water;
3. Define biogeochemical cycles;
4. Enumerate and describe the six important biogeochemical cycles;
5. Cite the applications of environmental chemistry;
6. Describe the methods used in environmental chemistry.

40
Lesson 1. Environmental Chemistry

Environmental Chemistry deals with the study of the chemical and biochemical
phenomena that occur in nature. It is an interdisciplinary science that Involves physics, life

science, agriculture, material science, public health, sanitary engineering, and so many more

disciplines related to environment and other areas of science (Chemistry of the Environment,

2019).

Environmental chemistry describes the concentration and effects of naturally occurring

chemicals in uncontaminated environment as well as the effects of human activities upon the

atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It deals with the study of the sources,

reactions, transport, effects, and fate of chemical species in the air, water, and land (Chemistry

of the Environment, 2019).

41
Lesson 2. Environmental Indicators

Definition

Environmental indicators are measures or standards that we use to help us see what is
happening in the environment. These standards are developed to be the basis for comparison.
It usually starts through experiments wherein a criterion is developed and presented to the
government for approval to become a standard. The numerical value or parameters helps
provide insight into the state of the environment and its impact on human beings, ecosystems
and materials, the pressures on the environment, the driving forces and the responses steering
that system (Chemistry of the Environment, 2019).

Environmental indicator provides a practical and economical way to track the state of the
environment (Environmental Performance Index, 2020). It can be developed and used at a wide
variety of geographic scales, from local to regional to national levels. It is developed based on
quantitative measurements or statistics of environmental condition that are tracked over time,
e.g. a town may track air quality along with water quality and count the number of rare
species of birds to estimate the health of the environment in their area (Quizlet.com, 2020).

Examples of Indicators

Below are the environmental indicators or parameters use to determine the nature and
extent of pollution in water (Quizlet.com, 2020):

1. Physical parameters—color, odor, turbidity, density, temperature, and solids

2. Chemical parameters—pH, total dissolved solids (TDS) and their ionic composition,

suspended solids, dissolved oxygen (DO), residual chorine, COD, biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), redox potential, radioactive substances, organic materials, metallic ions

(including heavy metals), oxides, by-products of industries, and so on

3. Biological parameters—different types of microorganisms, bacteria, algae, small animals

such as protozoa and crustaceans. (fondriest.com)

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Physical Parameters (Quizlet.com, 2020)

1. Turbidity - It is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water.

2. Color - This is primarily a concern of water quality for aesthetic reason. Color can

indicate presence of organic substances. It can be used to indicate if the water is safe to

drink. It can also be used as a quantitative assessment of the presence of potentially

hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.

3. Odor and taste - It is indication that water can use for human consumption. Odor and
taste are human perceptions of water quality. Human perception of taste includes sour

(hydrochloric acid), salty (sodium chloride), sweet (sucrose) and bitter (caffeine).
4. Temperature - The temperature of water affects some of the important physical

properties and characteristics of water: thermal capacity, density, specific weight,

viscosity, surface tension, specific conductivity, salinity and solubility of dissolved gases

and etc. Chemical and biological reaction rates increase with increasing temperature.
5. Conductivity – This can indicate how pure the water is. Water with high specific

conductivity is not pure.

Chemical Parameters (Karki, 2018)

The following are some chemical aspects of water quality that help to determine whether
water is polluted or not (Karki, 2018).

1. Chloride ion - Normally all types of water contain chloride ion but its concentration is very
low in natural water system (Alysiragusa, 2020). Chloride ion concentration increases in
case of urine and sewage contaminated water. High concentration of chloride ion give
salty taste and also corrodes pipelines of water. Normally 150mg/ltr of chloride ion is
harmless. Maximum permissible limit of chloride ion in drinking water is 200mg/ ltr.

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2. Ammonia - Water ammonia (NH3) comes from decomposition of organic matter like
protein, amino acids etc. Its concentration also increases during water disinfection
process using chloramine. Water Ammonia is first oxidized into nitrite and then into
nitrate (Karki, 2018).

Therefore, by measuring the concentration of NH 3, nitrite and nitrate, we can

predict the time of contamination of organic matter in water. In recently contamination,
concentration of NH3 is very high than nitrite and nitrate. Concentration of NH3 in ground
water system is usually 3mg/ltr. If its concentration is greater than 50mg/ltr, it gives
characteristic taste and odor (Karki, 2018).

3. Nitrite - It is very unstable intermediate formed during conversion of NH2 into nitrate. In
aerobic condition nitrite is oxidized into nitrate whereas in anaerobic condition, nitrite is
reduced to ammonia. If concentration of nitrite is greater in drinking water, it brings
serious health hazard to the consumers. Disease caused by high concentration of nitrite
in infants is called Blue baby syndrome, which is characterized by blue coloration of skin.
Level of nitrite in drinking water should not exceed 3mg/ltr (Karki, 2018).

**Note; blue baby syndrome: hemoglobin has greater affinity for nitrite than oxygen... In
this situation nitrate is reduced by intestinal bacteria into nitrite causing blue baby
syndrome.

4. Nitrate - It is most stable oxidized form of nitrogen. In water nitrate comes from organic
matter decomposition and from atmospheric nitrogen fixation. Like nitrite Nitrate should
not exceed 3mg/ltr in drinking water. It is because nitrate can be reduced into nitrite in
gut of infants and causes nitrite poisoning. Nitrate is very important in natural water
system like lake and pond because high concentration of nitrate facilitates heavy growth
of aquatic plants causing eutrophication (Karki, 2018).

5. Phosphate - In water phosphate is present in the form of H 2PO4-, polyphosphate and as

organic phosphate (Karki, 2018). Phosphate in water sources comes from agricultural

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 wastes, sewage and from industrial effluent. Karki (2018) described phosphate as not
toxic to human being but it is important chemical in natural water system like pond
because its high concentration facilitates eutrophication.

6. Hardness - Hardness of water is merely due to salt of calcium and magnesium.

Temporary hardness is due to carbonate and bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium
while permanent hardness is due to chloride and sulfate of calcium and magnesium.
Water is classified as the basis of concentration of calcium carbonate (Karki, 2018).

 Soft water:<5omg/ltr
 Moderately hard water: 50-150 mg/ltr
 Hard water: 150-300 mg/ltr

 Very hard water:>300 mg/dl (Karki, 2018)

Hard water is not suitable for industrial use. But hard water is usually beneficial for
drinking purposes. However, hardness caused by MgSO 4 give some serious health

effects. So, concentration of Mg++ should not exceeds 50 mg/lt in drinking water (Karki,

2018).

7. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) - Biological oxygen demand represents amount of

oxygen required by living organism (microorganism) for oxidation of biodegradable

organic matters present in water under aerobic condition. BOD is a direct measurement

of quality of oxygen needed for biodegradation of organic matter and indirect

measurement of quantity of biodegradable organic matter in water. When biodegradable

organic matter is added in water. Microorganism utilizes dissolved oxygen to oxidize

organic matter (Karki, 2018).

If the rate of consumption of oxygen during biodegradation is greater than

solubilization of atmospheric Oxygen into water, level of dissolved oxygen gradually

decreases. If organic matter content is very high, complete loss of dissolved oxygen

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 occurs. This creates anaerobic environment in water. In this case aerobic aquatic
organism cannot survive. Furthermore, if dissolved oxygen is absent then organic matter

starts to decompose anaerobically that creates taste and odor problem. High value of
BOD is an indicator of water pollution (Karki, 2018).

8. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) - COD is amount of oxygen needed for oxidation of

organic matter present in water by strong chemical oxidizing agents such as K2Cr2O7.

COD measurement is particularly valuable to determine amount of organic matter in

water which contains toxic or antimicrobial chemicals. K2Cr2O7 is strong oxidizing

agents and it oxidizes both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matters.
Therefore, the value of COD is always greater than BOD for particular water sample.

COD gives amount of total organic (biodegradable + non-biodegradable) matter present

in water (Karki, 2018).

To determine COD, water sample is mixed with excess of K2Cr2O7 in sulfuric

acid solution. At the same time add AgSO4 (as catalyst) and HgSO4 to eliminate
interference by chloride ion in water. K2Cr2O7 oxidizes organic matter into water, CO2

and NH3. Therefore, level of K2Cr2O7 decreases, then remaining K2Cr2O7 is measured

by titration with ferrous ammonium sulfate (Karki, 2018).

 COD = (V1-V2)*N*8*1000/X

 Where, V1= Initial volume of ferrous ammonium sulfate

 V2= final volume of ferrous ammonium sulfate remaining

 N= normality of ferrous ammonium sulfate

 X= volume of water sample used during titration

9. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - Oxygen is highly soluble and get dissolved in water in the form
of dissolved oxygen (DO). DO is a source of oxygen for aquatic aerobic organism like
fishes, aerobic bacteria etc. therefore, DO is an important characteristics of natural water

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 system that determines its quality. If DO is absent in water, aquatic organism cannot
survive (Karki, 2018).

Total absent of Dissolved oxygen in water creates anaerobic condition which

facilitates anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds. Dissolved oxygen in water is
affected by many factors like temperature, organic matter content etc. Temperature
affects DO by two ways- first, solubility of oxygen in water decreases with increase in
temperature of water. Second, high temperature promotes growth and activity of aquatic
microorganisms so that they consume oxygen faster. If organic content is high,
microorganisms utilizes DO for its oxidation causing depletion of dissolved oxygen level
(Karki, 2018).

10. pH - This measure the alkalinity and acidity of water. Water become alkaline due to
presence of Nh3, OH-, Ca++, Mg++ etc. in alkaline water certain minerals are deficient.
Alkaline pH also decreases efficiency of disinfection process (chlorination). Water
become acidic due to presence of dissolved acids and dissolved carbon-dioxide. Acidic
pH corrodes pipeline. Similarly, certain minerals are more than excess in acidic water.
pH of drinking water should be around 6.5-8.5 (Karki, 2018).

Biological Parameters

Biological indicators are used to determine if water can be utilized for drinking,
swimming, and other forms of human contact (Indicator Organisms, 2014). As the streamflow
increases in response to rainfall, coliform bacteria frequently are deposited into the ground
water system and, subsequently, released into the water as the streamflow recedes. Different
types of microorganisms, algae, small animals such as protozoa and crustaceans, bacteria such
as total coliform bacteria, fecal coliform bacteria, and fecal streptococcus bacteria often are
measured in as indicators (Algae, 2020).

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Lesson 3. Biogeochemical Cycles

The elements and compounds that sustain us are cycled endlessly through living things
and through the environment (Quizlet.com, 2020). The ecosystems have many biogeochemical
cycles operating as a part of the system, for example the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the
nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle and sulfur cycle. All chemical elements occurring in
organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition to being a part of living organisms,
these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic factors of ecosystems such as water
(hydrosphere), land (lithosphere), and/or the air (atmosphere), hence these cycles are important
to living organisms.

Biogeochemical cycles are natural events that happen in our ecosystem as shown in
figure 1 below. The producers of an ecosystem take up several basic inorganic nutrients from
their non-living environment. These materials get transformed into the bio mass of the
producers. Then they are utilized by the consumer population and are ultimately returned to the
environment with the help of the reducers or decomposers. This cyclic exchange of nutrient
material between the living organisms and their non-living environment is called biogeochemical
cycle. As indicated by the name the nutrients circulate through life {bio) and through earth (geo)
repeatedly (cycle). The biogeochemical (material or nutrient) cycles conserve the limited source
of raw materials in the environment. (cnx.org)

Figure 12. Biogeochemical cycles(cnx.org/)

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 The flow of energy is shown in yellow and red arrows. Yellow indicates usable energy
and red indicates energy lost in the unusable form of heat. Green arrows show the continual
recycling of chemical nutrients. (cnx.org)

Biogeochemical Cycles refers to the movement of elements and compounds cycling

continuously between Earth and its organisms or the ways in which an element or compound
like water, moves between its various living and nonliving forms and locations in the biosphere.
It involves the movement of elements and compounds among four major systems: (1) land and
soil (lithosphere), (2) organisms(biosphere), (3) air (atmosphere) and (4) the ocean
(hydrosphere). It is important in the cycling of important substances like water, carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus to make these materials available to living organisms for their
maintenance and survival, However, excessive amounts of any of these materials in the
environment can also be harmful, contributing to occurrences like acid rain and greenhouse
effect. Likewise, industrial and human interventions may take these materials out of the cycle
and therefore not recycled and become pollutants, hence cannot be used by the organisms.
The following are the common but important biogeochemical cycles. Figures 2 to 5 were taken
from the article shared by Puja Mondal retrieved from www.yourarticlelibrary.com.

Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle

Water Cycle is the most familiar material cycle, where plants play a major role by

transpiration (transport plus evaporation). Water evaporates from the transpiring plants, soil,
organisms, oceans, rivers and lakes into the atmosphere; in this stage, the Sun starts to
evaporate the water in the water bodies, like oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, and rivers. This water

is in the liquid stage in the water bodies, but changes in weather, and heating due to the Sun

converts it into gaseous form or vapors that evaporate. Transpiration, which is water escaping

from plants due to Sun’s heat, also contributes to some extent, to the process of evaporation.
The water in the form of the vapors rising, cools down at a certain height and condenses to form
clouds. The water keeps condensing to form clouds, but when there is too much accumulation

or collection of water in these clouds, the clouds become heavy and the air can no longer hold
this much amount of water, and the water starts to fall back, mostly in the form of rain. This

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water falling down in the form of rain or snow, gets collected in different water bodies. When it
falls on the ground, it gets stored under the ground, and is called ‘ground water’. Water returns

to the earth as rain, snow or fog. Rain, snow or fog finds its way to different bodies of water or
as ground water in the soil Then, again evaporation starts due to the Sun’s heat and the cycle

happens again completing the water cycle as shown in Figure 12

below.(www.sciencestruck.com)

Figure 13. Water Cycle (Puja Mondal, retrieved from www.yourarticlelibrary.com)

Carbon Cycle

Carbon may constitute about 40% of the living organism. It’s the largest constituent in

living organism and the way it moves in the ecosystem involve the participation of the four

components of ecosystem: atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere (solid component of earth) and

hydrosphere (water component – oceans, rivers, lakes, aquifers, etc.). CO2 is primarily coming

50
from atmosphere. The concentration of CO2 is approximately 0.03%. Although it is reported
that the concentration is increasing (www.sciencestruck.com).

CO2 may directly dissolve in hydrosphere. It may be absorbed by plants in the form of
carbonates. The main CO2 is used in photosynthesis. Where the accumulation of organic

matter is the biosphere. From the producers-consumers-decomposers. Upon respiration, CO2

is back to the atmosphere (www.sciencestruck.com).

Most of the carbon dioxide enters the living world through photosynthesis. Begins with

photosynthetic organisms taking up carbon dioxide, also called carbon fixation, where in carbon

is changed from gaseous CO2 to a less-mobile organic molecule. The organic compounds
synthesized are passed from the producers (green plants) to the consumers (herbivores and
carnivores). During respiration, plants and animals release carbon back to the surrounding

medium as carbon-dioxide. The dead bodies of plants and animals as well as the body wastes,
which accumulate carbon compounds, are decomposed by micro-organisms to release carbon

dioxide. Carbon is also recycled during burning of fossil fuels as shown in Figure 13 below
(www.sciencestruck.com).

Figure 14. Carbon Cycle (www.yourarticlelibrary.com and cleanet.org)

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Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is an important element for organism because it is a constituent of CHON

molecules, DNA molecules (material for heredity) and components of enzymes {function in
organism}. The way the element circulates involves the four components of the earth. The
major source of N is the atmosphere. N2 is the 78% of gas composition of earth. With this
amount, it provides a reserve of N supply. N2 in atmosphere, first get into the hydrosphere,
biosphere and lithosphere by natural means (lightning, photochemical discharge).

Nitrogen of the atmosphere is in the elemental form N 2 and cannot be used as such by
plants but bacteria can” fix” nitrogen or combine gaseous N 2 with hydrogen to form
ammonia(NH3) and ammonium(NH4+). Nitrogen has to be “fixed” or combined with other
elements such as hydrogen, carbon or oxygen to become usable for the green plants. Nitrogen
fixing by bacteria is a key part of the cycle. Nitrogen is continuously entering into the air by the
action of denitrifying bacteria and returning to the cycle through the action of lightening and
electrification (www.sciencestruck.com, n.d.).

Figure 15. Nitrogen Cycle (www.yourarticlelibrary.com and mrslburnham.weebly.com)

52
Oxygen Cycle

During the day, plants take energy from the sun, carbon di oxide from the air, and water
from the soil to make their food called glucose. This process is called photosynthesis. Oxygen is
released into the air as a by-product of photosynthesis. During the night, plants take in oxygen
and release carbon di oxide, to maintain their metabolism. The oxygen that is released by plants
is used by humans, animals, and other organisms for respiration, i.e. breathing. We use oxygen
to break down simple sugars and generate energy to sustain ourselves. During respiration,
organisms take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide into the air. This carbon dioxide is again,
taken up by plants, for photosynthesis. Oxygen required for respiration in plants and animals
enters the body directly from the surrounding medium (air or water). Oxygen returns to the
surroundings in the form of Carbon-dioxide or water. It also enters the plant body as carbon
dioxide and water during photosynthesis and is released in the form of molecular oxygen as a
by-product in the same process for use in respiration. Thus, the cycle is completed as shown in
Figure 15 (www.sciencestruck.com, n.d.).

Figure 16. Oxygen Cycle (www.yourarticlelibrary.com and pslides.com)

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Sulphur Cycle

Type 1. Gaseous Sulphur Cycle

Sulphur enters the atmosphere through bacterial emission (H 2S), fossil fuel burning
(SO2), wind-blown sea salts (SO2-4) and volcanic emissions (H2S, SO2, and SO2-4). Most of the
Sulphur in the form of SO2 or H2S is converted to SO3 which dissolves in water droplets to form
sulphuric acid. The Sulphur cycle is overloaded due to burning of fossil fuels. Combustion of
fossil fuels such as coal releases tremendous amount of sulfur-containing gas into the
atmosphere particularly sulfur dioxide (SO2). When SO2 reacts with H20, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is
formed, which brings about acid precipitation also known as acid rain. As a result, SO2 emitted
into the atmosphere constitutes a significant fraction of total global Sulphur transport. Increased
amount of Sulphur that is changed to sulphuric acid in rain water causes adverse ecological
effects. Microorganisms also release sulfates in soil as well as reduced sulfur (H 2S). H2S
contributes to the sulfates in the atmosphere (www.sciencestruck.com, n.d.).

Figure 16.1 Sulfur cycle (kalidas365itsolutions.in)

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Type # 2. Sedimentary Sulphur Cycle:

Sulphur / sulfur tied up in inorganic and organic deposits is released by weathering

and decomposition. Sulfur is found in water, rocks, and soil and with the decay of dead bodies
of organisms and plants, sulfur comes back to the soil. The sulfur cycle integrates soil, air and
water and one part of the sulfur forms sediments. Sulphur is incorporated in plants as-SH
in proteins, passes to heterotrophs through the food chain and is released to the soil through
dead tissues and feces. (qforquestions.com, n.d.)

Figure 16.2. Sulphur cycle (qforquestions.com)

Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus cycle describes the movement of phosphorus through

the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The first step of the phosphorus cycle involves the
extraction of phosphorus from the rocks by weathering. Weathering and erosion release
phosphorus from rocks and fossils through the rain and other sources of erosion which result in
phosphorus being washed into the soil. Phosphorus washed into bodies of water and ultimately
to the oceans becomes insoluble deposits. Once in the soil, plants, fungi, and microorganisms
are able to absorb phosphorus and grow. In addition, phosphorus can also be washed into the

55
local water systems. Plants can also directly absorb phosphorus from the water and grow. In
addition to plants, animals also obtain phosphorus from drinking water and eating plants. When
plants and animals die, decomposition results in the return of phosphorus back to the
environment via the water or soil. The released phosphorus becomes available and
incorporated in nucleic acids which are vital components of living things. Plants and animals in
these environments can then use this phosphorus, and the cycle is repeated. The production
of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions. Therefore, the phosphorus cycle
should be viewed from whole Earth system and then specifically focused on the cycle in
terrestrial and aquatic systems. On the land, phosphorus gradually becomes less available to
plants over thousands of years, since it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of phosphorus
in soils reduces plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth. Soil microorganisms act as both
sinks and sources of available phosphorus in the biogeochemical cycle. Overabundance of
phosphorus can stimulate excessive growth of algae, known as algal bloom and also
photosynthetic bacteria, thus disturbing the equilibrium of the aquatic ecosystem. Humans have
caused major changes to the global phosphorus cycle through shipping of phosphorus minerals,
and use of phosphorus fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is
lost as waste. (biologydictionary.net, n.d.)

Figure 7. Phosphorus Cycle (biologydictionary.net)

Figure 7. Phosphorus Cycle

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Lesson 4. Applications

Environmental chemistry is used by the Environment Agency in England, Natural

Resources Wales, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the Association
of Public Analysts, and other environmental agencies and research bodies around the world to
detect and identify the nature and source of pollutants (Cunningham, 2013). These can include:

 Heavy metal contamination of land by industry. These can then be transported into water

bodies and be taken up by living organisms.

 PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon) in large bodies of water contaminated by oil

spills or leaks. Many of the PAHs are carcinogens and are extremely toxic. They are
regulated by concentration (ppb) using environmental chemistry
and chromatography laboratory testing.

 Nutrients leaching from agricultural land into water courses, which can lead to algal

blooms and eutrophication.

 Urban runoff of pollutants washing off impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots,

and rooftops) during rain storms. Typical pollutants include gasoline, motor oil and
other hydrocarbon compounds, metals, nutrients and sediment (soil).
 Organometallic compounds

Environmental chemistry can also be applied in the following (fred.csir.co.za):

 Risk/Hazard- and Environmental Impact Assessments: The process of risk assessment

is commonly used in many countries to base environmental policy decisions on

 Environmental Management: environmental Chemistry contributes to this aspect through

the development of new chemical products as well as through the assessment of the life

cycle of a chemical. This may be used to establish appropriate handling and storage

procedures for chemicals, as well as pro-actively identifying new chemicals which may
give rise to adverse environmental effects

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 Groundwater Protection: the issues (or questions to be answered) in protecting a
groundwater source from, say, pollution by waste site leachate or polluted soils

 Surface Water Quality Protection: key questions in surface water quality relate to where
the pollutant will end up and what will its effects on the aquatic ecosystem be. The

chemical behavior of the pollutant will determine its fate in a system.

 Soil Protection: Methods for the assessment of soil quality and the impact by

substances using various chemical and Eco toxicological indicators of soil pollution

 Cleaner Production and Waste Management: Environmental Chemistry contributes to

the area of waste site management and remediation in terms of pollution identification
through the analysis of environmental samples, the design of pollution abatement
systems and remediation strategies through the detailed understanding of pollutant

behavior in the environment and in quantifying hazards and risks associated to the
pollutant(s) of concern.

 Policy: The link between chemical behavior and chemical effects is used to decide on
allowable levels of a pollutant in the environment (i.e. in the field of environmental quality
criteria). This approach to environmental criteria is gaining momentum in the US and
Europe.

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Lesson 5. Methods

Quantitative chemical

Quantitative chemical analysis is a key part of environmental chemistry, since it provides

the data that frame most environmental studies. Other parameters often measured in
environmental chemistry are radiochemical. These are pollutants which emit radioactive
materials, such as alpha and beta particles, posing danger to human health and the
environment. Particle counters and Scintillation counters are most commonly used for these
measurements. Bioassays and immunoassays are utilized for toxicity evaluations of chemical
effects on various organisms. Polymerase Chain Reaction PCR is able to identify species of
bacteria and other organisms through specific DNA and RNA gene isolation and amplification
and is showing promise as a valuable technique for identifying environmental microbial
contamination (Cunningham, 2013).

Common analytical techniques

Common analytical techniques used for quantitative determinations in environmental

chemistry include classical wet chemistry, such
as gravimetric, titrimetric and electrochemical methods. More sophisticated approaches are
used in the determination of trace metals and organic compounds. Metals are commonly
measured by atomic spectroscopy and mass spectrometry: Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission (ICP-AES)
or Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometric (ICP-MS) techniques. Organic compounds,
including PAHs, are commonly measured also using mass spectrometric methods, such as Gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and Liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry (LC/MS). Tandem Mass spectrometry MS/MS and High Resolution/Accurate Mass
spectrometry HR/AM offer sub part per trillion detection. Non-MS Methods using GCs and LCs
having universal or specific detectors are still staples in the arsenal of available analytical tools
(Cunningham, 2013).

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 ASSESSMENT TASK

A. Answer briefly and concisely on the lined space of the module. [20]
1) What is the importance of environmental chemistry?

2) Among the six biogeochemical cycles discussed in this module, which one, for you is the
most important? Justify your answer.

3) What factors can disturb or disrupt the biogeochemical cycles?

4) What can you do to maintain the balance of the different cycles?

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B. Discuss the physical and chemical parameters in determining the water quality [10]

C. Research on the blue baby syndrome and write your research on a separate short bond
paper. [10]

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SUMMARY

Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical

phenomena that occur in natural places. Without this, it would be impossible to accurately study
the effects humans have on the environment and what is happening to a chemical species in
the environment. These phenomena could be assessed using the environmental indicators or
parameter that measure what we want to know in the condition of the environment or that we
want to track that help us understand where we are, where we are going, and how far we are
from meeting our goal in tracking the changes in the environment.

The common and important biogeochemical cycles are water, carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles. The world’s living environment is maintained
through the systems of movement of matter and energy. Moreover, the geologic processes like
weathering of rocks, erosion, water drainage, etc. all play a role in this recycling of materials
known as biogeochemical cycles and interactions among organisms.

Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute, has said: — Environmentally, the world is in
an overshoot mode. If we use environmental indicators to evaluate our situation, then the global
decline of the economy’s natural support systems - the environmental decline that will lead to
economic decline and social collapse- is well underway.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nf8cuvl62Vc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGrXtSLAazY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C_qbmUAw-5c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eD1fBmsvH1s

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Alysiragusa. (2020). Quizlet.com. Retrieved from Chapter 24: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base
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Environmental Chemistry SECOND EDITION. Blackwell Science
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https://biologydictionary.net/phosphoruscycle/
https://cnx.org/contents/24nI-KJ8@24.18:D-ygu4Ty@13/Biogeochemical-Cycles
https://sciencestruck.com/water-cycle-for-kids
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explained-with-diagram/28229
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C_qbmUAw-5c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eD1fBmsvH1s

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGrXtSLAazY
Karki, G. (2018, July 22). Online Biology Notes. Retrieved from Online Biology Notes:
https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/chemical-parameters-of-water-quality-chemical-
characteristics-of-
water/#:~:text=In%20water%20Ammonia%20%28NH3%29%20is%20first%20oxidized%2
0into,NH3%20is%20very%20high%20than%20nitrite%20and%20nitrate.
Lumen Microbiology. (2020). (O. Microbiology, Producer, & OpenStax Microbiology) Retrieved
from Lumen Microbiology: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/algae/
Quizlet.com. (2020). (Quizlet, Inc.) Retrieved from ENVIRONMENTAL WATER POLLUTION:
https://quizlet.com/270590864/environmental-water-pollution-flash-cards/
Quizlet.com. (2020). Quizlet.com. Retrieved from Quizlet.com:
https://quizlet.com/314334781/envi-1020-chapter-2-flash-cards/
Retrieved from:
Santiago, Florencia I., Dorado, S.L., Contreras, L. E., Aquino, M. S.G.Retondo,E.F.,Lamorena,
M.B.(1996).Environmental Science, Rex Book Store Inc.
ScienceDirect. (2014). (A. H. H.B.D. Halkman, Producer, & ScienceDirect, Encyclopedia of
Food Microbiology (Second Edition)) Retrieved from ScienceDirect:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/indicator-organism
Water Quality Association. (2020). (Water Quality Association) Retrieved from Ammonia in
Drinking Water: https://www.wqa.org/Learn-About-Water/Common-
Contaminants/Ammonia

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 MODULE 4
ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

Energy is a vital factor in human survival, and it comes in many forms. Most of the
energy found in our planet are coming from the sun (DNR Louisiana, n.d.). The energy from the
sun makes photosynthesis in plants possible and in the process they provide us the food we eat
which allows us to perform our day-to-day functions.

Energy can be generally classified into two: renewable and non-renewable (Aust, 2014).
Non-renewable energy are those sources that cannot be replaced or replenished, at least in our
lifetimes. Examples of these are oil, gas, and coal. Most automobiles, aircrafts, and trains use
these non-renewable resources by burning fossil fuels to create energy. Renewable energy, on
the other hand, is derived from sources like the sun, wind and hydro that can easily be
replenished. Wind energy is made when the wind moves the blades on a wind turbine and
converts this energy into electrical energy.

During the primitive era when electricity was absent, man depended on fire for his
energy needs. Fire was the external energy source and was to cook food, light their caves, and
illuminate their paths. Back then there was very minimal energy consumption, and people only
consumed about 2,000 kilocalories of energy per year. As the world progressed and became
highly industrialized, the consumption of energy by an individual skyrocketed to more than
230,000 kilocalories annually (Cook, 1971). The fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas have
been powering the world and providing us with so many benefits. However, the utilization of
these energy sources has also caused massive environmental issues and problems.

In this module, we will discuss the different sources of energy sources and their
alternatives, technologies that harness of different sources energy, the environmental impacts of
energy use. The subtopics covered in impacts of energy use include emissions of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in developed and developing countries, the impacts of large scale exploitation of
solar, wind, hydro and nuclear energy sources, issues related to renewable energy projects,

57
electricity, air pollution and sustainability, green jobs and other matters in the context of energy
and the environment.

The fundamental knowledge you will gain from these lessons will enhance your
appreciation for these energy resources and instill love for the ecological balance and a
pollution-free environment.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. List down the different sources of energy and their alternatives;

2. Describe the principles behind each energy source;
3. Understand the different environmental impacts and issues of energy use;
4. Describe the current and emerging trends in transportation technologies and
infrastructure;
5. Describe the energy use pattern and emission of CO2 in India and the world;
6. Enumerate the impacts of large-scale exploitation of solar, wind, hydro and nuclear
energy sources
7. Describe electricity generation and its contribution to air pollution; and,
8. Be familiar with the so-called green jobs and the concept of sustainability.

58
Lesson 1. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy

What makes us humans distinct from other species is our conscious use and
manipulation of external energy sources like fire. A lot has happened since the first humans
discovered fire. The invention of steam engine by James Watt more than 200 years ago paved
the way for industrialization and totally transformed our world. The industrial age is powered by
the so-called fossil fuels namely, coal, oil, and natural gas. These major sources of energy are
organic, or carbon-based, compounds which are derived from the decomposed bodies of
organisms (e.g. plants, algae) that are buried in rock layers for hundreds of millions of years
(Miller et al., 2007).

Even though fossil fuels are constantly formed through the natural processes, they are
still classified as non-renewable because their formation takes millions of years (Miller et al.,
2007).

1. Coal

Coal is burned to generate steam and heat and is also used to generate electricity. It is
the most abundant and widely used fossil fuel, but the problem is that it is non-renewable. While
it is cheaper than oil and natural gas, it contributes to the problem of air pollution which are
harmful to humans and the environment. In contrast, natural gas has relatively less
contaminants and thus considered as an ideal fuel (Kopp, 2020).

The plant material from which coal is derived is composed of a complex mixture
of organic compounds, including cellulose, lignin, fats, waxes, and tannins. As peat formation
and coalification proceed, these compounds, which have open structures, are broken down, and
new compounds—primarily aromatic (benzene like) and hydro aromatic—are produced. In
vitrine, these compounds are connected by cross-linking oxygen, sulfur, and molecules such as
methylene. During coalification, volatile phases rich in hydrogen and oxygen (e.g., water, CO2,
and methane) are produced and escape from the mass; hence, the coal becomes progressively
richer in carbon. The classification of coal by rank is based on these changes—i.e., as
coalification proceeds, the amount of volatile matter gradually decreases and the amount of
fixed carbon increases. As volatiles are expelled, more carbon-to-carbon linkages occur in the

59
remaining coal until, having reached the anthracite rank, it takes on many of the characteristics
of the end product of the metamorphism of carbonaceous material—namely, graphite. Coals
pass through several structural states as the bonds between the aromatic nuclei increase
(Kopp, 2020).

Many of the properties of coal are strongly rank-dependent, although other factors such
as maceral composition and the presence of mineral matter also influence its properties.
Several techniques have been developed for studying the physical and chemical properties of
coal, including density measurements, X-ray diffraction, scanning and transmission electron
microscopy, infrared spectrophotometry, mass spectroscopy, gas chromatography, thermal
analysis, and electrical, optical, and magnetic measurements (Kopp, 2020).

2. Natural gas

Natural gas (mostly methane) is the world's second-largest commercial fuel, making up
about one-quarter of global energy consumption. Gas burns more cleanly than either coal or oil,
and it generally produces only half as much CO, as an equivalent amount of coal (Cunningham,
2013).

3. Coalbed methane

Coalbed methane, coalbed gas, coal seam gas, or coal-mine methane is a form
of natural gas extracted from coal beds. In recent decades it has become an important source of
energy in United States, Canada, Australia, and other countries. The term refers
to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called 'sweet gas' because of its lack
of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground
coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk. Coalbed methane is distinct from a
typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir, as the methane is stored within the coal
by a process called adsorption. The methane is in a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores
within the coal (called the matrix). The open fractures in the coal (called the cleats) can also
contain free gas or can be saturated with water (Accuvio, 2017).

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 4. Shale oil

Another type of oil is the so-called Shale oil which is an unconventional oil produced
from oil shale rock fragments by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. These
processes convert the organic matter within the rock (kerogen) into synthetic oil and gas. The
resulting oil can be used immediately as a fuel or upgraded to
meet refinery feedstock specifications by adding hydrogen and removing impurities such
as sulfur and nitrogen. The refined products can be used for the same purposes as those
derived from crude oil (Accuvio, 2017).

The term "shale oil" is also used for crude oil produced from shales of other very low
permeability formations. However, to reduce the risk of confusion of shale oil produced from oil
shale with crude oil in oil-bearing shales, the term "tight oil" is preferred for the
latter. The International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" and World
Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil" for crude
oil in oil-bearing shales (Accuvio, 2017).

5. Gas hydrates

On the other hand, gas hydrates are crystalline solids in which gas molecules are
encased in cages of water molecules. The solid is like ice except that it burns! The gas
molecules, called a guest, stabilize the solid structure in these hydrates. There are several
gases that have molecular sizes appropriate to being guests in hydrate structures including
CO2, hydrogen sulfide, and some low-carbon-number hydrocarbons (West Oregon University,
n.d.).

6. Calorific value

Furthermore, calorific value represents the amount of heat or energy in each volume of
gas. It is a measurement of energy or heat released (kJ or kcal) when 1 kg of coal is completely
combusted in the presence of air or oxygen. An average calorific value is calculated monthly by

61
the transporter and allows for any periodic or regional variations in the quality of natural gas
(Accuvio, 2017).

7. Gross calorific value

Gross calorific value (GCV) is the amount of heat released by the complete combustion
of a unit of natural gas. It is also known as Higher Heating Value (HCV). Net Calorific Value
(NCV) also known as lower heating value (LHV) or lower calorific value (LCV) is determined by
the subtracting the heat of vaporization of the water vapor from the higher heating value. This
treats any H20 formed as a vapor. Natural gas prices are decided based on GCV and
NCV (Accuvio, 2017).

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Lesson 2. Renewable Energy and Alternative Energy Sources

Our known viable reserves of fossil fuels are now being rapidly depleted at a rate faster
than they are generated (Miller et al., 2007). While this is already a good reason for us to
explore other energy sources, there are other compelling reasons to do so. It has been shown in
several studies that the unprecedented amounts of atmospheric carbon are a result of our fossil
fuel consumption since the industrial revolution began. There is now a scientific consensus that
the massive amounts of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHG) are a leading cause of human-
induced global warming or what we now know as climate change (Cunningham, 2013).

It should be noted that as early as the 1896, a Swedish scientist named Svante
Arrhenius already warned us that the use of fossil fuels could contribute to global warming
(Graham, 2000). However, even for the last few decades, the same issue is still in the ‘hot
plate’. In the recent decades, our increased awareness and understanding of the real causes of
climate change has to environmental movements that forced us to re-examine our energy use
and gave rise to the advancement of alternative energy sources. These alternative sources offer
a lot of advantages when compared to fossil fuels, such as lower GHG emissions, lower fuel
prices, and reduced pollution. Alternative energy includes all those things that do not consume
fossil fuel, are widely available, environment friendly and cause little or almost no pollution
(Cunningham, 2013).

Alternative sources of energy are the renewable sources of energy like solar energy,
wind energy, hydrogen gas, biomass energy, tidal energy, geothermal, compressed natural gas,
biofuels, wave energy, hydroelectric energy, and nuclear power. Nowadays, different countries
are running several projects on alternative sources to reduce our dependence on traditional
fossil fuels (Cunningham, 2013).

1. Solar Energy
Most people think of the use of solar power as an example of alternative energy source.
Today, solar power is used for large-scale energy production and power generation for single

63
homes and with the massive advancement of technology, many countries have introduced
initiatives to promote the growth of solar power. The costs of installation of this renewable
energy source are offset by the money saved in energy bills from traditional suppliers. However,
solar cells are subject to deterioration over large periods of time and the weather conditions
affect its effectiveness (Cunningham, 2013).

The sun is the energy source used to detect reflective energy of ground surfaces in the
visible and near infrared regions. Sunlight will be absorbed and scattered by ozone, dust,
aerosols, etc., during the transmission from outer space to the earth’s surface. The sun is
considered as a black body with a temperature of 5,900 degrees Kelvin. The sun constant that
is obtained by integrating the spectral irradiance for all wavelength regions is normally taken as
1.37 watts per square meter (W/m2). The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun
deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to
approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun
(that is, on or near Earth). The effect of sunlight on the surface of Earth is reduced by
the Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear
conditions when the Sun is near the zenith or the point in the sky or celestial sphere directly
above an observer (Cunningham, 2013).

Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50%
infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere filters out over 70% of
solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's
dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere (Cunningham,
2013).

The solar spectral irradiance at the earth's surface is influenced by the atmospheric
conditions and the zenith angle of the sun. Beside the direct sunlight falling on a surface, there
is another light source called sky radiation, diffuse radiation, or skylight, which is produced by
the scattering of the sunlight by atmospheric molecules and aerosols. The skylight is about 10
percent of the direct sunlight when the sky is clear and the sun's elevation angle is about 50
degree. The skylight has a peak in its spectral characteristic curve at a wavelength of 0.45 m
(Lee, n.d.).

64
 Solar is the first energy source in the world. It was in use much earlier before humans
even learn how to light a fire. Many living things are dependent on solar energy from plants,
aquatic life, and the animals. The solar is mostly used in generating light and heat. The solar
energy coming down to the planet is affected by the orbital path of the sun and its variations
within the galaxy. In addition, it is affected by activity taking place in space and on the sun. It
was this energy that is believed to have been responsible for the breaking of ice during the ice
age, which creates the separation of lands and sea (Cunningham, 2013).

Solar energy is one the alternative energy source that is used most widely across the
globe. About 70% of the sunlight gets reflected into the space and we have only 30% of sunlight
to meet up our energy demands. While solar energy is used for producing solar energy, it is also
used for drying clothes, used by plants during the process of photosynthesis and used by
human beings during winter seasons to make their body temperature warm. Solar energy can
be extracted either by Solar Thermal or using Photovoltaic (PV) Cells. PV cells capture solar
energy and convert it directly to electrical current by separating electrons from their parent
atoms and accelerating them across a one-way electrostatic barrier formed by the junction
between two different types of semiconductor material (Cunningham, 2013).

There are two kinds of solar energy the active solar energy and the passive solar
energy. Passive solar energy basically uses duration, position, and sun’s ray’s intensity to its
advantage in heating an area. It also uses it to induce airflow from an area to the next. Active
solar energy uses electrical technology and mechanical technology like collection panels in
capturing, converting, and storing of energy for future use (Donev et al., 2015)..

Solar energy does not create any pollution and is widely used by many countries; hence
it is a viable source of producing alternative energy. It is renewable source of power since sun
will continue to produce sunlight all the years. Solar panels, which are required to harness this
energy can be used for long time and require little or no maintenance. Solar energy proves to be
ineffective in colder regions which do not receive good sunlight. It cannot be used during night
and not all the light from sun can be trapped by solar panels (Donev et al., 2015)..

On the other hand, a solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size
that looks like a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind of a

65
flat plate collector that absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers of the
pond. These ponds can be natural or man-made, but the solar ponds that are in operation today
are artificial. The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function effectively as a
solar energy collector is a salt-concentration gradient of the water. This gradient results in water
that is heavily salinated collecting at the bottom of the pond, with concentration decreasing
towards the surface resulting in cool, fresh water on top of the pond. This collection of salty
water at the bottom of the lake is known as the "storage zone", while the freshwater top layer is
known as the "surface zone". The overall pond is several meters deep, with the "storage zone"
being one or two meters thick (Donev et al., 2015).

2. Wind Energy

Humans have been utilizing the power of the wind for centuries. Compared to fossil
fuels, wind does not cause air pollution and have created jobs over the last few decades. Wind
energy is used in sailing ships making it possible for our early explorers to navigate the world. A
single windmill can power the crop irrigation, and the family energy needs, water pumping and
electric lights. However, in the present time there are several windmills that are used to
generate required energy mostly for industrial uses. Many of the wind turbines can capture
much power all at once before feeding it to the power grid. This is commonly known as wind
farms and has been in use for many years all round the world Advancement in technologies has
brought down the cost of setting up wind power plant.

3. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is another alternative source where ‘Geo’ means Earth and ‘thermal’
means energy. Geothermal energy means energy drawn or harnessed from beneath the earth.
It is completely clean and renewable. Geothermal energy has been in used since last several
years. The earth contains a molten rock called magma. Heat is continuously produced from
there. The temperature increases about 3 degrees Celsius, for every 100 meters you go below
ground. Below, 10,000 meters the temperature is so high, that it can be used to boil water.
Water makes its way deep inside the earth and hot rock boils that water. The boiling water then

66
produces steam which is captured by geothermal heat pumps. The steam turns the turbines
which in turn activates generators (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

Geothermal energy can be found anywhere on the earth. Most countries tap this energy
to generate electricity, using thermal mass flowmeters, and power millions of homes. The areas
which have high underground temperatures are the ones which are the ones which are prone to
earthquakes and volcanoes. Geothermal energy is totally renewable as earth will continue to
produce heat if we are all are here. If these resources are tapped and are utilized effectively,
they can provide solution to the world’s power problems (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

Geothermal energy produces no pollution, reduces our alliance on fossil fuels. It also
results in significant cost savings as no fuel is required to harness energy from beneath the
earth. These advantages make geothermal energy as one the best alternative energy source.
But geothermal has its downsides too. It is suitable to region and cannot be harnessed
everywhere. The earth may release some harmful gases while releasing the heat which may
prove adverse from mankind. Also, the areas where this energy is harnessed are prone to
earthquakes and volcanoes. Apart from that, setting up of geothermal power stations requires
huge installation cost (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

4. Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric power is another alternative energy source. Solar energy is produced by

sun and wind energy is produced by moving of winds. The heat caused by sun drives the wind.
The movement of winds is then captured by wind turbines. Both wind and sun cause water to
evaporate. The water vapor then turns into rain or snow and flows down to sea or oceans
through rivers or streams. The energy of the moving water can then be captured and called
as hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power stations capture the kinetic energy of moving water
and give mechanical energy to turbines. The moving turbines then convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy through generators. Dams around the world have been built to generate
hydroelectric power, for flood control measure and irrigation techniques. Hydropower is the
largest producer of alternative energy in the world (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

67
 There are different types of hydropower plants. The selection of hydropower plant
depends on many volume and flow of water. Hydropower is renewable, constant, predictable,
and controllable source of energy. They emit no greenhouse gases and are environment
friendly. On the negative side, they may cause adverse effect on aquatic life, reduce flow of
water which may affect agriculture, require huge costs to build and may cause havoc if they get
breakdown (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

5. Tidal Energy

The earth promises many power sources like the ocean energy which have long been
used in heating homes and lighting as well. Even in the last century these forms of energy were
in use. Due to massive size of oceans, this energy can be used on much wider scale than other
alternative sources of energy. The waves produced by the ocean and tides that hit the seashore
has enormous potential in them. If they are harnessed with full capacity, they can go a long way
in reducing world’s energy problems. There are 3 ways i.e. tidal energy, Wave energy and
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) via which ocean energy can be harnessed
(Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

Tidal power basically involves using kinetic energy from the incoming and outgoing tides.
The difference in high tides and low tides are also important in this respect. There is a lot of
energy that can be harnessed from waves for use. It is another form of hydropower. The rise
and fall of ocean tides are captured by tidal energy generators which turn turbines. The
movement of turbines is responsible for producing electricity. In short, tidal energy generator
captures the kinetic motion of the tides and converts them into electrical energy. The main
advantage of tidal energy is that it is completely renewable and are much more predictable than
wave energy (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.)

6. Bioenergy

Bioenergy is renewable energy made available from materials derived from biological
sources. Biomass is any organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical

68
energy. As a fuel it may include wood, wood waste, straw, and other crop
residues, manure, sugarcane, and many other by-products from a variety of agricultural
processes. By 2010, there was 35 GW (47,000,000 hp) of globally installed bioenergy capacity
for electricity generation, of which 7 GW (9,400,000 hp) was in the United States. It is
synonymous to biofuel, a fuel derived from biological sources that includes biomass. Bioenergy
is the energy extracted from the biomass, as the biomass is the fuel and the bioenergy is the
energy contained in the fuel (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

Biomass energy comes in several forms. Burning wood has been used since ancient
times, to create heat, but with advance technologies it has also included waste, such as that in
landfills, and alcohol products used for similar purposes. It is the process by which an
alternative energy is generated through conversion of biological materials and wastes into forms
that can be used as energy sources for heating, power generation and transportation. Those
carbon-based substances or materials converted over a long period of time to fossil fuels are
not regarded as biomass. However, in their original state they are regarded as biomass. This is
because of the separation of the carbon they previously contained from the carbon cycle, hence
affecting CO2 levels in air (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

Wood remains the most common source to produce biomass energy. Apart from wood,
the other products that are used to create biomass energy include crops, plants, landfills,
municipal and industrial waste, trees, and agricultural waste. Biomass is renewable source of
energy as we would be able to produce it if crops, plants, and waste exist. It does not create any
greenhouse gases and is can be easily extracted through the process of combustion. Another
advantage of biomass is that it helps to reduce landfills. Biomass is comparatively ineffective as
compared to fossil fuels. They release methane gases which can be harmful to the environment
(Conserve Energy Future, n.d.)

However, there are some issues that you need to consider if you want to install this
system at home. Maintenance can be a factor and you may need to acquire permission from a
local authority to install one (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

69
 7. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear power is one of the most abundant forms of alternative energy that gives a
number of direct benefits in terms of emissions and efficiency, while boosting the economy by
creating jobs in the process of the construction of the plant and its operation. However, the
drawback is that when something goes wrong with its operation, a catastrophe could likely
happen just like in Chernobyl and Fukushima (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

The nuclear power industry has been campaigning for greater acceptance, arguing that
reactors do not release greenhouse gases that cause global warming. That's true during
ordinary operation of the reactor, but the mining, processing, and shipping of nuclear fuel,
together with decommissioning of old reactors and perpetual storage of wastes, result in up to
25 times more carbon emissions than an equal amount of wind energy (Conserve Energy
Future, n.d.).

70
Lesson 3. Nuclear Energy: A Closer Look

How do nuclear reactors work? The most used fuel in nuclear power plants is U235, a
naturally occurring radioactive isotope of uranium. Uranium ore must be purified to a
concentration of about 3 percent U235, enough to sustain a chain reaction in most reactors. The
uranium is then formed into cylindrical pellets slightly thicker than a pencil and about 1.5 cm
long. Although small, these pellets pack an amazing amount of energy. Each 8.5 g pellet is
equivalent to a ton of coal or 4 bbl of crude oil. The pellets are stacked in hollow metal rods
approximately 4 meters long. About 100 of these rods are bundled together to make a fuel
assembly. Thousands of fuel assemblies containing about 100 tons of uranium are bundled in a
heavy steel vessel called the reactor core. Radioactive uranium atoms are unstable-that is,
when struck by a high-energy subatomic particle called a neutron, they undergo nuclear fission
(splitting), releasing energy and more neutrons. When uranium is packed tightly in the reactor
core, the neutrons released by one atom will trigger the fission of another uranium atom and the
release of still more neutrons. Thus, a self-sustaining chain reaction is set in motion, and vast
amounts of energy are released. The chain reaction is moderated (slowed) in 2 power plant by a
neutron-absorbing cooling solution that circulates between the fuel rods. In addition, control rods
of neutron-absorbing material, such as cadmium or boron, are inserted into spaces between fuel
assemblies to shut down the fission reaction or are withdrawn to allow it to proceed. Water or
some coolant is circulated between the fuel rods to remove excess heat. Water circulates
through the core, absorbing heat as it cools the fuel rods. This primary cooling water is heated
to 317°C and reaches a pressure of 2,235 psi. It then is pumped to a steam generator, where it
heats a secondary water-cooling loop. Steam from the secondary loop drives a high- speed
turbine generator that produces electricity. Both the reactor vessel and the steam generator are
contained in a thick-walled, concrete-and-steel containment building that prevents radiation from
escaping and is designed to withstand high pressures and temperatures in case of accidents.
Overlapping layers of safety mechanisms are designed to prevent accidents, but these fail-safe
controls make reactors both expensive and complex (Planas, 2015).

We lack safe storage for radioactive waste. One of the most difficult problems
associated with nuclear power 1s the disposal of wastes produced during mining, fuel
production, and reactor operation. This material is carried by the wind or washes into streams,
contaminating areas far from its original source (Planas, 2015).

71
 Nuclear fuel is the material used for the generation of nuclear energy. It is a material that
can be fissured or fused depending on whether its use is nuclear fission (the division of a larger
atom into two or smaller atomic particles) or nuclear fusion(combination of two or more atoms to
create one large atom) We refer to nuclear fuel both to the material (e.g. uranium, plutonium)
and to the whole made with said nuclear material (fuel rods, nuclear material compositions and
the moderator or any other combination (Planas, 2015)..

During the operation of the reactor, the nuclear fuel atoms are progressively separated
by the process of nuclear chain fission: the material is gradually transformed into other elements
and/or isotopes, thus releasing thermal energy. This heat energy is used by a thermal machine
suitable to mechanically drive a steam turbine coupled to an alternator, and thus
produce electricity. The mass of nuclear fuel present in the reactor reaches the so-called critical
mass, that is, the amount needed to initiate a chain reaction that is stably self-sufficient (Planas,
2015)..

Nuclear fuel is usually placed in rods in the reactor. This is to facilitate their transport,
both to alternate the fuel with moderation and the control rods and to facilitate their extraction at
the end of the cycle. The fissionable material must be placed with a geometric arrangement that
maximizes the efficiency of the chain effect, taking into account the need to leave enough space
to insert the moderator. During the design phase of a nuclear reactor, it is also necessary to
leave room for the control rods and diagnostic devices. Unlike traditional fuel (fossil fuels such
as coal, oil, natural gas or wood), the fuel consumption in a nuclear reactor is very slow and,
once charged, it usually lasts for years depending on the type of reactor and its use. On the
other hand, refueling operations are considerably more complex (Planas, 2015).

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Lesson 4. Biofuels, Carbon Capture and Reuse, Waste to Energy
Technologies

Biofuel is a type of renewable energy source derived from microbial, plant, or animal
materials. Examples of biofuels include ethanol (often made from corn in the United States and
sugarcane in Brazil), biodiesel (from vegetable oils and liquid animal fats), green diesel (derived
from algae and other plant sources) and biogas (methane derived from animal manure and
other digested organic material). They are most useful in liquid or gaseous form because they
are easier to transport, deliver and burn cleanly (Chen, 2020).

Many in the energy industry view biofuel as vitally important to future energy production
because of its clean and renewable properties. Importantly, many of the world's major oil
companies are now investing millions of dollars in advanced biofuel research. America's largest
oil company, ExxonMobil, says they are funding a broad portfolio of biofuels research programs
including ongoing efforts on algae as well as programs on converting alternative, non-food-
based biomass feedstocks, i.e., cellulosic biomass, to advanced biofuels. They warn, however,
that fundamental technology improvements and scientific breakthroughs are still necessary in
both biomass optimization and the processing of biomass into viable fuels (Chen, 2020).

However, there are limitations of biofuel. Individuals concerned about energy security
and CO2 emissions see biofuels as a viable alternative to fossil fuels. However, biofuels also
have shortcomings. For example, it takes more ethanol than gasoline to produce the same
amount of energy, and critics contend that ethanol use is extremely wasteful because the
production of ethanol creates a net energy loss while also increasing food prices. Biofuels have
also become a point of contention for conservation groups that argue bio-crops would go to
better use as a source of food rather than fuel. Specific concerns center around the use of large
amounts of arable land that are required to produce bio-crops, leading to problems such as soil
erosion, deforestation, fertilizer run-off and salinity (Chen, 2020)..

To help mitigate the problem of large arable land use, companies like ExxonMobil are
turning to water-based solutions in the form of algae production. Exxon claims that algae can be
cultivated on land unsuitable for other purposes with water that cannot be used for food
production. In addition to using non-arable land and not requiring the use of fresh water, algae

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could potentially yield greater volumes of biofuels per acre than other sources. The other
advantage to using algae over other bio-sources is that the algae can be used to manufacture
biofuels similar in composition to today’s transportation fuels. This would go a long way to
replacing the conventional fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel used today (Chen, 2020).

Meanwhile, carbon capture and reuse (CCR, also sometimes seen as carbon capture
and utilization or CCU) is the collection of CO2 (CO2) from a high-output source point or the
environment and reuse of the carbon that is captured in that process.
CO2 is the largest contributor to the greenhouse effect, by virtue of its prevalence in the
environment as well as its interaction with methane. Since the industrial age began in the
1750s, CO2 concentration has increased by 40 percent. Carbon capture is under consideration
as a means of reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and
mitigating global warming (Rouse, 2016).

CO2 may be captured at the source of a high-output CO2 sourced such as smokestacks
in various industries and carbon-based power plants. CO2 can also be removed from air
anywhere in the environment with direct air capture technologies. Most often, these methods
rely on carbon capture and storage, which involves long-term storage (sequestration) of CO2 in
its gaseous form or as carbon itself, after separating out the CO2’s oxygen (Rouse, 2016).

However, the carbon collected can also be used to create carbon nanotubes or a low-
carbon alternative crude that can be refined for fuel. Methods exist to create both methanol and
hydrocarbon fuels. CO2 can also be used in oil extraction, where it is pumped into an
underground deposit to pressurize it. Leakage is a concern in most methods of storage and
sequestering; in some reuses such as agricultural applications, CO2 is eventually released into
the environment. Opponents of carbon capture, whether for storage or reuse, worry that use of
the technology might legitimize continued reliance on fossil fuels and result in further damage to
the environment (Rouse, 2016).

Lastly, Waste-to-energy (WTE) or energy-from-waste is the process of generating

energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste, or the
processing of waste into a fuel source. WTE is a form of energy recovery. Most WTE processes

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generate electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel
commodity, such as methane, methanol, and ethanol or synthetic fuels (Rouse, 2016).

Waste to energy technology includes fermentation, which can take biomass and
create ethanol, using waste cellulosic or organic material. In the fermentation process, the sugar
in the waste is converted to CO2 and alcohol, in the same general process that is used to make
wine. Normally fermentation occurs with no air present. Esterification can also be done using
waste to energy technologies, and the result of this process is biodiesel.

The cost effectiveness of esterification will depend on the feedstock being used, and all
the other relevant factors such as transportation distance, amount of oil present in the
feedstock, and others. Gasification and pyrolysis by now can reach gross thermal conversion
efficiencies (fuel to gas) up to 75%, however a complete combustion is superior in terms of fuel
conversion efficiency. Some pyrolysis processes need an outside heat source which may be
supplied by the gasification process, making the combined process self-sustaining (Rouse,
2016).

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Lesson 5. Environmental Impacts of Energy Use

The exact type and intensity of environmental impacts varies depending on the specific
technology used, the geographic location, and a few other factors. By understanding the current
and potential environmental issues associated with each renewable energy source, we can take
steps to effectively avoid or minimize these impacts as they become a larger portion of our
electric supply (Sahu, 2008).

1. Energy Consumption and Economic Development

Energy has been universally recognized as one of the most important inputs for
economic growth and human development. There is a strong two-way relationship between
economic development and energy consumption. On one hand, growth of an economy, with its
global competitiveness, hinges on the availability of cost-effective and environmentally benign
energy sources, and on the other hand, the level of economic development has been observed
to be dependent on the energy demand (EIA, 2006). Energy intensity is an indicator to shows
how efficiently energy is used in the economy. The energy intensity of India is over twice then
that of the matured economies, which are represented by the OECD (Organization of Economic
Co-operation and Development) member countries. India’s energy intensity is also much higher
than the emerging economies. However, since 1999, India’s energy intensity has been
decreasing and is expected to continue to decrease (India Energy Portal, n.d.). The relationship
between use of energy and economic growth has been a subject of greater inquiry as energy is
one of the important driving forces of economic growth in all economies (Pokharel, 2006). The
increasing world demand for oil, leads to frequent escalation in the world oil prices. Like
shortage of oil, there is also shortage of electricity and other forms of energies viz. natural gas.
The shortage can significantly affect the consumption and production in the economy. One or
the other forms of energy becomes vital to all the sectors of the economy viz. agriculture,
industry, and services. This energy dependence being common to every sector of the economy
justifies the association between 3 energy utilization and the overall economic growth rate in an
economy (Sahu, 2008).

India is the second largest commercial energy consumer in Non-OECD East Asia,
comprising 19 percent of the region’s total primary energy consumption. Economic growth in

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India has largely been associated with increased energy consumption. While 60% of total
energy needs in India are met by commercial energy sources, remaining 40% are comprised of
non-conventional fuels. Over past few years, climate change has become one of the main
concerns driving energy policy. More than 150 countries, including India, have committed
themselves under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to formulate
and implement mitigation and adaptation measures to climate change. India accounts for over
3.5% of world carbon emissions. Since energy use is a major source of emissions, it is
necessary to focus on the management of energy demand and supply to abatement. While
energy demand grows significantly with economic growth, this coupling varies over time,
depending on various other things. Technological progress, energy efficiency programs and
structural changes contribute towards the variation in energy demand. Understanding the
various components of energy demand is therefore important and necessary to deal with future
emissions (Gupta and Roy, n.d.).

Energy use can be viewed as a function of total GDP, structure of the economy and
technology. Aggregate energy intensity is taken as an energy performance indicator in energy
demand analysis. Structural effect shows that part of change in energy use which is attributable
to change in activity composition of an economy. Intensity effect tells us that keeping GDP effect
and structural effect unchanged, what has been the change in energy use solely due to
conservation measures In last decade, India experienced a structural change that has worsened
the overall energy intensity index as it is greater than one except in two intermediate years of
1992-’94. Beyond 1993-94 the structural effect shows a rising trend in energy intensity. Intensity
effect showing the conservation effort had a fluctuating trend, though this effect alone could
outweigh the structural effect and overall energy intensity index shows falling trend after 1995-
96 (Gupta and Roy, n.d.).

The sectoral output growth in India is the main contributing factor to rising energy
intensity, one might think that policies should be designed to curb this growth. However, this
would mean imposition of real cost on the economy. Hence, policy alternatives should see how
to offset this increasing output effect by negative intensity and structural effects. Declining
structural effect can be achieved by a greater shift towards non-energy intensive industries,
expansion of service sector etc. Negative trend in intensity effects can be intensified by inter-

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fuel substitution, introducing efficient technology to improve energy productivity. Other country
studies reveal one thing in common that in most of the OECD countries energy intensity
declined and improved energy efficiency played a substantial role in it. Intensity effect is smaller
for India than for other countries. Energy demand can be restricted directly through economic
instruments like prices, taxes or rationing etc. But they have their adverse welfare impact also
unless supplemented by indirect policies in the form of introduction of more efficient
technologies. Conservation in industry sector has been successful in putting a break to rising
overall intensity trend. Energy efficiency improvement through R&D, labels and standards,
technology transfer may be a better policy tool to strengthen conservation effect to offset rising
energy intensity due to structural change and activity growth (Gupta and Roy, n.d.).

Economic growth and structural change are the big drivers in growth in energy intensity
in India. The structural component is driven mainly by incomes and by forces not directly related
to energy or energy policies. Since it is difficult to restrict energy demand rising from increased
output or activity directly, stress needs to be on conservation measures at the early stage of
development. Sectoral policies on housing, commercial buildings, industry, and transport must
integrate energy efficiency at local, regional, and national levels. India now has become one of
the major developing countries in the world. The industrialization processes in the country has
supported the economy to grow rapidly. As indicated earlier, energy consumption is an
important factor for the growth of any economy, hence it is important to study the energy use
pattern in India, investigate the nature and trend of the energy consumption (Gupta and Roy,
n.d.).

2. Impacts of Energy Exploitation to Wildlife

Let us now look at the impacts of large-scale exploitation of solar, wind, hydro and
nuclear energy sources to the physical and biological aspects of the environment. Bats and
birds are killed every year by wind turbines (Bryce, 2016; Preston, 2018; Thaxter et al., 2017).
Solar panels can take up large chunks of desert previously used by a host of wildlife from
pronghorns and tortoises to coyotes and rattlesnakes. Without efficiency and reasonable limits
to energy use, solar and wind power only benefit the environment so much. There is still an

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initial input of resources to create wind turbines and solar panels as well. Solar panels require
plastic and metal to produce, and National Geographic reports that production also requires
sodium hydroxide and hydrofluoric acid. Wind turbines also require enormous amounts of
concrete and both solar and wind utilize large amounts of land dedicated to the production of
electricity. The International Union of Concerned Scientists website adds: “Harnessing power
from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable ways to generate electricity as it
produces no toxic pollution or global warming emissions. Wind is also abundant, inexhaustible,
and affordable, which makes it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels. Despite its
vast potential, there are a variety of environmental impacts associated with wind power
generation that should be recognized and mitigated.”

Other problems include wildlife death. Birds and bats are killed by wind turbines, but
studies have found that the impact does not hurt species overall, being relatively low impact.
The placement of wind turbines in areas less frequented by birds and bats can also limit the
impact on flying animals. The fact of the matter is, we are looking at the further impact of wind
on an already severely impacted avian (and bat) population (Bryce, 2016; Preston, 2018;
Thaxter et al., 2017).

3. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Production

Estimates of CO2 emissions associated with wind energy are between 0.02 pounds and
0.04 pounds per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced. Electricity from the relatively clean natural
gas produces an estimated 0.6 and 2 pounds of CO2 per kilowatt-hour of electricity. A big part
of the carbon in wind farm production comes from concrete. According to Green Spec, concrete
production is the third greatest producer of anthropomorphic greenhouse gases. If wind can
use less concrete, the impact would be substantial (Bryce, 2016; Preston, 2018; Thaxter et al.,
2017).

Looking only to carbon emissions is looking at only one part of a greater problem
though. Green Spec barely even mentions that concrete could have other impacts on the
environment beyond greenhouse gases. Limestone mining to create concrete is also
problematic. Seattle Pi, an education website, cites problems of ground and surface water

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pollution from limestone mining. Concrete also changes how water flows over the earth, how
heat is absorbed and released (Bryce, 2016; Preston, 2018; Thaxter et al., 2017)..

4. The Problem with Wind Energy

Despite the vast potential of wind energy, there are a variety of environmental impacts
associated with wind power generation that should be recognized and mitigated. They include
land use issues and challenges to wildlife and habitat. Birds and bats are killed when they
collide with the wind turbines (Bryce, 2016; Preston, 2018; Thaxter et al., 2017).

Offshore wind turbines are also changing marine ecosystems. MIT Technology
Review reports that offshore wind energy production in Europe is creating colonies of marine
species where previously there were none. The offshore turbines are huge but mostly their
concrete and steel structures sit underwater. Mussels attach to the turbine footings, creating the
basis of an increasingly complex ecosystem surrounding wind turbines. Who knows if this could
change the shape of our ocean in the long term if at sea wind farms continue to grow? (Bryce,
2016; Preston, 2018; Thaxter et al., 2017).

We also cannot determine exactly how covering a landscape with wind turbines will
impact our world long term if done on a global scale in areas that were previously empty.

5. The Problem with Solar Energy

Solar energy has its own issues. An article in Forbes asks, ‘If Solar Panels Are So
Clean, Why Do They Produce So Much Toxic Waste?” (Shellenberger, 2018). The piece sums
up some problems with solar energy concisely in three statements by a senior Chinese solar
official: Disposal or recycling of solar panels, in themselves expensive and resource intensive to
produce, is a problem we have not yet come to terms with and it is important for something
billed as environmentally friendly. It’s projected that solar panel waste could reach 78 million
metric tons by 2050, without a way to recycle that waste, it means that much more trash in a

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landfill and there are some nasty toxins such as cadmium in solar panels that could cause
problems we can’t simply bury (UCSUSA, 2013a).

The environmental impacts associated with solar power can include land use and habitat
loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing, though the types of
impacts vary greatly depending on the scale of the system and the technology used—
photovoltaic solar cells or concentrating solar thermal plants. Geothermal plants also differ in
terms of the technology they use to convert the resource to electricity (direct steam, flash, or
binary) and the type of cooling technology they use (water-cooled and air-cooled).
Environmental impacts differ depending on the conversion and cooling technology used
(Fitzner, 2018).

6. The Problem with Hydropower

Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it

destroys forest, wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. In many instances, such as
the Three Gorges Dam in China, entire communities have also had to be relocated to make way
for reservoirs Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of
hydroelectric power plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a facility’s
operation can also be significant. Such emissions vary greatly depending on the size of the
reservoir and the nature of the land that was flooded by the reservoir (UCSUSA, 2013b).

7. The Risks Associated with Nuclear Power

The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle,
operation, and the effects of nuclear accidents. The greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear
fission power are much smaller than those associated with coal, oil and gas, and the routine
health risks are much smaller than those associated with coal. However, there is a "catastrophic
risk" potential if containment fails, which in nuclear reactors can be brought about by overheated
fuels melting and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment. This

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potential risk could wipe out the benefits. The most long-lived radioactive wastes, including
spent nuclear fuel, must be contained and isolated from the environment for a long period of
time. On the other side, spent nuclear fuel could be reused, yielding even more energy, and
reducing the amount of waste to be contained. The public has been made sensitive to these
risks and there has been considerable public opposition to nuclear power (Wikipedia
contributors, [2020, August 18]).

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Lesson 6. Current Transportation Technologies and Infrastructure and
Emerging Trends (The Maritime Executive, 2015)

Just like energy is essential for the survival of mankind, transportation is vital for the
economic well-being and growth of a country. The Energy Information Administration has
released data showing that the transportation of people and goods accounts for about 25
percent of all energy consumption in the world and that passenger transportation, light-duty
vehicles, accounts for most transportation energy consumption. Light-duty vehicles alone
consume more than all freight modes of transportation, such as heavy trucks, marine and rail
(The Maritime Executive, 2015).

1. Current Transportation Technologies and Infrastructure

Modern transportation is currently experiencing major changes thanks to transformative

transportation technologies. Although we’ve become accustomed to long international flights,
jam-packed public transportation and diesel trucks that only get 20 mpg, the future of
transportation promises to change all of that and much more — and it’s closer than many
people realize. Let us look at 6 transportation technologies sure to impact the trucking and
transportation industries forever(The Maritime Executive, 2015).

a) Self-Driving Automobiles

Self-driving automobiles are already here. They are still undergoing the earliest stages of
development and testing, but they are already present on our nation’s roadways. Unfortunately,
Uber recently suspended their tests after one of their vehicles struck and killed a pedestrian in
Tempe, Arizona in March 2018. While this represents a significant setback in the progress of
fully autonomous vehicles, developers remain optimistic about the future of this transportation
technology (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

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 b) Smart Cars

Many consumers already own smart vehicles. The exact definition of a smart car varies
between manufacturers, dealers, and individuals, but it generally describes a compact, fuel-
efficient vehicle that utilizes new and innovative technology to make life easier for the driver and
passengers. In some cases, manufacturers are transitioning to electric or hybrid cars. This new
generation of smart vehicles still has some challenges to overcome — such as the distance
they’re able to travel between charges, the number of passengers they can hold and even the
amount of trunk space — but they’re already common our nation’s streets and highways (The
Maritime Executive, 2015).

c) Next-Gen GPS Devices

GPS units are nothing new — they have been around for decades. The biggest
difference when comparing modern GPS devices to earlier models is the amount of functionality
seen in the newer hardware. In the past, GPS devices were very limited. They could calculate
total mileage and provide an estimated time of arrival to a final location — but that was about it.

Today’s GPS units are much more versatile. Not only do they fulfill the basic functionality
of planning a trip, but they can adjust for extreme weather, traffic conditions or even your
preferred route (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

d) High-Speed Rail Networks

High-speed rail networks are generating tremendous interest all around the globe.
The Shinkansen bullet train was officially unveiled in Japan in 1964, and countries have been
hoping to introduce their networks ever since. Although there has been little progress, some
nations are still pursuing these plans. Officials in the United States are currently considering no
less than ten high-speed rail networks in the country alone (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

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 e) The Hyperloop

Originally conceived by Elon Musk, hyperloop is an underground rail that shows speeds up
to 240 mph in early tests. Developers hope to achieve three times that speed with the finished

version (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

f) Gyroscopic Vehicles

Although flying cars might be too complicated for mainstream use any time soon,
hovering vehicles — which are propelled with the assistance of monorails and balanced through
the innovative use of next-gen gyroscopes — could solve public transportation issues across
the globe. While these vehicles look like they are something out of a sci-fi comic book or
television show, they could become a reality sooner than expected. Sometimes referred to as
gyrocars, their size makes them more akin to modern busses or trains. Early conceptualizations
show a vehicle that can move along on city streets and even raise its body via built-in stilts to
navigate through traffic congestion without stopping (Robinson, n.d.).

2. Emerging Transportation Technologies (The Maritime Executive, 2015)

Here are 10 innovations that will revolutionize transportation in the near future.

a) Self-driving drone taxis

Autonomous drone taxis that drive themselves are currently being tested before being
released on the market. The drones, which look much like a regular helicopter, have 18
propellers. They can carry two passengers and are expected to be in service 2 years ago.

b) Maglev trains

Maglev (short for “magnetic levitation”) trains hover about 4 inches above their tracks
and are propelled by electrically charged magnets. Riders claim the trains are exceptionally

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comfortable and stable. Maglev trains have been recorded to travel at a rate of 375 miles per
hour. Maglev trains are already in operation in China and Germany and are expected to become
a common mode of transportation throughout the world by 2030 (The Maritime Executive,
2015).

c) Hyperloop transportation systems

This transportation concept, conceived by Elon Musk, founder of Tesla Motors and
SpaceX, is currently being designed and developed. Hyperloop’s are essentially transportation
tubes that run pods of passengers or freight through a pressurized track at high speeds.
Hyperloop’s run at an average of 600 mph; their top speed is 760 mph. There are several
companies currently working to advance the technology. One company hopes to launch its first
passenger service in 2021 (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

d) Satellite-based air traffic control systems

Air traffic control systems in operation today are ground-based, using technology that
that dates to the 1960’s. Satellite-based control systems allow air traffic controllers to be more
efficient. The U.S. is currently working on NextGen, a satellite-based air traffic control system
that is being implemented in stages through 2025. GPS technology will be used to increase
accuracy and shorten routes. NextGen is expected to save time and fuel, reduce air traffic
delays, increase flight capacity, and permit air traffic controllers to monitor aircraft with improved
safety margins. Once NextGen is rolled out across America’s airports, airplanes will be able to
fly closer together, making it easier to take direct routes and avoid delays caused by “stacking”
planes waiting for take-off. NextGen will reduce aircraft gridlock, both in the sky and in airports
(The Maritime Executive, 2015).

e) Self-driving electric buses

Automated city buses and shuttles will be in operation in the near future. Autonomous
vehicles use cameras, radars, and GPS systems to recognize and communicate with traffic
lights and have impressive safety records. These buses of the future will reduce the impact on
the environment because they are electric. Self-driving buses are already in operation in China

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and Germany and are being tested in the U.S. Autonomous buses have a back-up mode where
a human can take control of the vehicle if needed (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

f) Elevated buses

While self-driving electric buses are making strides worldwide, China is working on a bus
system that will reduce traffic congestion. The elevated bus is a vehicle that “straddles” traffic. It
runs on a special track that allows regular vehicles to drive underneath. The Transit Elevated
Bus (TEB) system is currently being designed in China and is expected to reduce traffic
congestion by 30 percent (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

g) Flying hotel pods

A fleet of drones that are portable hotels are being designed by a company in Canada.
The hospitality concept, Driftscape, is a mobile, self-sustaining hotel that uses drone
technology. Driftscape allows guests to travel while sleeping, roam or touch down in diverse
locations. It is made up of several modular units that include food and beverage elements.
Driftscape offers 360-degree views of the outside world and is particularly suited to have
minimal impact on the environment, allowing the guest to travel to locations that are sensitive
while preserving the integrity and authenticity of the location (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

h) Smart roads

Roads are the foundation of the future of transportation, providing society with smart
mobility. A typical smart road will be more animated, able to communicate with vehicles and
people using sensors, data capture abilities and the ability to be responsive to changes in the
environment. Roads will literally talk to traffic signs, bicycles, and vehicles. Roads will virtually
be alive (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

Smart roads will be able to store solar energy and transfer that energy into electricity for
vehicles and the infrastructure. They will glow in the dark using photo-luminescent powder that
charges during the day. Smart roads will use motion-sensor lights to light up only the sections of

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road that are being used, providing night visibility while going dim when not in use (The Maritime
Executive, 2015).

Smart roads of the future will be able to melt snow and ice using electricity or hot water,
reducing traffic accidents that cause injury and death. In addition, federal, state and local
governments spend billions of dollars on the operation, maintenance and repair of highways and
drivers lose billions of dollars annually due to corrosion-related repair costs and depreciation
linked to chemicals used to treat roadways during the winter (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

i) Ground level pedestrian lights

There has been a rise in the number of accidents involving foot traffic since the use of
smartphones has increased. An innovation in transportation technology is a system that can be
installed at pedestrian traffic lights that would light up the pavement in red or green to signal
when it is safe or not safe for pedestrians to cross the street safely (The Maritime Executive,
2015).

j) Bicycle share programs (The Maritime Executive, 2015)

Bicycle share programs allow riders to pay a small fee to ride a bike from one point to
another, leaving the bike at the ride share station. This is a helpful program in urban areas
where traffic can make it easier – and faster – to ride a bike than drive a car. Bicycles are good
for the environment as they do not emit harmful emissions; bikes are an eco-friendly mode of
transportation as well as giving riders the opportunity to get healthy exercise. Bicycle share
programs are already in operation in several major metropolitan areas and are expected to be
become more common in the future (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

These ten innovations are in addition to electric vehicles and driverless cars, both of
which are growing in popularity and pervasiveness. Electric cars are an excellent solution to the
issue of the damage to the environment that current fuel sources create. Autonomous vehicles
are reported to be safer and increase efficiency (The Maritime Executive, 2015).

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 The future will bring dramatic technological improvements to the transportation sector,
many of which are in unchartered terrain. The government may need to get involved and
cooperate more closely with private investors, innovators, and other stakeholders as an agent of
public interest. Transportation has a rich history of both technical and policy innovation, a history
that is likely to persist. Transportation is in an upheaval as it struggles to continue to support the
prosperity and quality of life of our nation and others on the planet (Marsh & McLennan Agency,
2018).

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Lesson 7. Electricity Generation & Air Pollution

Electricity is an invisible and naturally occurring force that can be seen in such natural
phenomena as lightning and the shock you sometimes get when you touch metal. But the
environmental impacts of electricity generation are significant because our modern society as a
whole uses large amounts of electrical power. This power is normally generated at power plants
that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power. Nearly all parts of the electricity
system can affect the environment, and the size of these impacts will depend on how and where
the electricity is generated and delivered. In general, the environmental effects can include:
Emissions of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants, especially when a fuel is burned (US
EPA, n.d.).

All forms of electricity generation have an environmental impact on our air, water, and
land, but it varies. Of the total energy consumed in the United States, about 40% is used to
generate electricity, making electricity use an important part of each person’s environmental
footprint. Producing and using electricity more efficiently reduces both the amount of fuel
needed to generate electricity and the amount of greenhouse gases and other air pollution
emitted as a result. Electricity from renewable resources such as solar, geothermal, and wind
generally does not contribute to climate change or local air pollution since no fuels are
combusted (US EPA, n.d.)

The cultivation of electricity for human use offers numerous conveniences, but it can
also harm the environment and increase health risks to people. Let us review the varying
impacts enumerated below (Thompson, n.d.).

1. Power companies use a variety of processes to create electricity, and not all

processes affect the environment in the same way. For example, coal is a much

more environmentally problematic source of energy than solar power, which has
minimal environmental effects. Other forms of electricity generation include natural

gas, hydroelectric power plants, nuclear energy, and oil (Thompson, n.d.).

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2. Most mechanisms for generating electricity release CO2 and other greenhouse
gases – gases that absorb and emit radiation – into Earth's atmosphere. While small

quantities of CO2 exist naturally (Thompson, n.d.).

3. Atmosphere, the generation of electricity has greatly increased the presence of

greenhouse gases in the planet's atmosphere. The overwhelming majority of
scientists believe that this contributes to an unnatural degree of global warming that
has the potential to affect the global climate, destroy animal populations and change
local ecosystems (Thompson, n.d.).

4. Almost all forms of electricity generate waste. For example, natural gas releases
CO2 and nitrogen oxide. Earth's atmosphere traps these gases, leading to air
pollution and smog. Weather patterns and geological variations can affect the

prevalence of smog in an area. For example, a valley trapped between hills with little

wind might trap a pocket of smog. When smog containing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide is released into the atmosphere, it can contaminate precipitation and rain back

down as acid rain (Thompson, n.d.).

5. Almost all forms of electricity generation produce some waste, but energy sources
such as nuclear energy produce dangerous solid wastes. Some sources of
radioactive waste remain radioactive for thousands of years, which means the waste

can cause cancer and genetic mutations in humans and animals. Radioactive waste

may alter the soil's chemical composition, making it unsafe for local wildlife and
potentially killing off plant species. Burning coal produces a type of solid waste called

ash, which is frequently deposited in landfills, contributing to landfill overfill. The

Environmental Protection Agency says it is possible to recycle this material into

cement and other useful products, and some coal manufacturers recycle their waste.

6. Both the generation and delivery of electricity can harm local wildlife. Birds may fly
into power lines, resulting in electrocution. Wind farms endanger flying animals such

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 as bats and birds. No power generation system can be perfect, and power plant
accidents can also injure animals. For example, a 2009 study found that the

Chernobyl nuclear disaster resulted in lower animal populations even 20 years after
the disaster (Thompson, n.d.).

All the above discussions about electricity generation and air pollution were taken from
Thompson (n.d.).

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Lesson 8. Urban and Indoor Air Pollution (World Health Organization, n.d.)

Urban outdoor air pollution refers to the air pollution experienced by populations living in
and around urban areas, i.e. cities. Indoor air pollution refers to the pollutants found in indoors.
The main cause of indoor air pollution is inefficient fuel combustion from rudimentary
technologies used for cooking, heating, and lighting. Most air pollution is man-made and derives
from poor combustion of fossil or biomass fuels, e.g. exhaust fumes from cars, furnaces, or
wood stoves (World Health Organization, n.d.)

Indoor air pollution refers to the pollutants found in indoors. The main cause of indoor air
pollution is inefficient fuel combustion from rudimentary technologies used for cooking, heating,
and lighting. There are also natural indoor air pollutants, like radon, and chemical pollutants
from building materials and cleaning products that also impact the health (World Health
Organization, n.d.)

Urban outdoor air pollution can be an important contributor to the indoor air quality,
especially in highly ventilated homes, or in homes near pollution sources. Similarly, indoor air
pollution sources may also be important causes of urban outdoor air pollution, especially in
cities where many homes use biomass fuels or coal for heating and cooking (World Health
Organization, n.d.)

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Lesson 9. Sustainability and Energy Usage of Food Production

The interactions among water, energy and food are numerous and substantial. Water is
used for extraction, mining, processing, refining, and residue disposal of fossil fuels, as well as
for growing feedstock for biofuels and for generating electricity. Water intensity varies in the
energy sector, with oil and gas production requiring much less water than oil from tar
sands or biofuels. Choosing biofuels for energy production should require a careful balancing of
priorities, since water that has been used to grow feedstock for biofuels could also have been
used to grow food.

Many forms of energy production through fossil fuels are highly polluting in addition to
being water intensive, especially extraction from tar sands and shale and extraction
through hydraulic fracturing. Further, return flows from power plants to rivers are warmer than
the water that was taken in and/or are highly polluted and can consequently compromise other
downstream usage, including ecosystems. Conversely, energy is needed for extracting,
transporting, distributing, and treating water. Energy intensity for accessing a cubic meter of
water varies: logically, accessing local surface water requires far less energy than
pumping groundwater, reclaiming wastewater or desalinating seawater. Irrigation is more
energy intensive than rain-fed agriculture, and drip irrigation is more intensive yet since the
water must be pressurized.

Food production is by far the largest consumer of global fresh water supplies.
Globally, agriculture is responsible for an average of 70% of fresh water consumption by
humans; in some countries that figure jumps to 80% to 90%. Agriculture is therefore also
responsible for much of fresh water over-exploitation. Food production further impacts the water
sector through land degradation, changes in runoff, disruption of groundwater discharge, water
quality and availability of water and land for other purposes such as natural habitat. The
increased yields that have resulted from mechanization and other modern measures have come
at a high energy price, as the full food and supply chain claims approximately 30% of total
global energy demand. Energy fuels land preparation, fertilizer production, irrigation and the
sowing, harvesting and transportation of crops. The links between food and energy have

94
become quite apparent in recent years as increases in the price of oil lead very quickly to
increases in the price of food.

The energy sector can have other negative impacts on the food sector when mining for fossil
fuels and deforestation for biofuels reduce land for agriculture, ecosystems and other uses
(Wikipedia contributors, [2020, August 2]).

SUPPLEMENTAL VIDEOS (LESSONS ON ENERGY):

ASAPScience. (2014, October 7). Amazing Energy Facts to Blow Your Mind [Video]. YouTube.
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnNixMosUIo.

International Labor Organization. (2018, August 1). Green jobs, the key to sustainable
development [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NrNQzCjI8A4.

Lanto, D. B. (2019, May 19). ENERGY ENVIRONMENT NEXUS: Examining the Context of
Renewable Energy in the Philippines. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOm_LnCles.

LifeSquared. (2012, September 18). The Story of Energy - Where Does Our Power Come
From? [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Z6P-
PoZVKQ.

Miniman3910. (2008, October 14). Alternative Energy Sources. Retrieved from

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=q_fvbO2VXjc&feature=emb_logo.

Student Energy. (2015, May 17). Renewable Energy 101. [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T4xKThjcKaE.

World Energy Council. (2014, July 2). World Energy in 4 minutes. [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90J0Gl-5ggs.

95
 ASSESSMENT TASK

A. In what ways does energy affect you on a personal level? Write 5 importance of energy
in your life as a student [5 points]. [Use a separate sheet for your answers]

B. Of all the sources of energy discussed in this module, which one would you like to be
developed in your locality? Why? [5 points] [Use a separate sheet for your answers]

C. In your own capacity as a student, how do you think you can help in conserving energy
and at the same time, minimizing pollution in your area? [5 points] [Use a separate sheet
for your answers]

96
 D. Read up on the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear disasters. Provide a summary of the
two incidents using your own words. Use a separate sheet of paper [10 points]
[Use a separate sheet for your answers]

SUMMARY

Nature has the resources and opportunities to give people comfortable lives without
damaging the environment even in this industrialized age. Energy is an essential component in
the survival of all organisms including human beings, hence maintaining the balance of nature is
very important. We need to give back what we take from environment under same conditions so
that nature will renew itself and compensate its lacking component.in the ecological cycle.

The use of renewable energy is an option that increases variety in energy resources and
could minimize domestic and foreign dependency on fossil fuels. Moreover, degradation of the
environment could be at the minimal level. Furthermore, the ecological balance of the world will
be destroyed if consumption of fossil fuels in energy production and other applications continues
in its today’s speed. While restricting the use of fossil fuel energy resources, the clean energy
technologies that pollute the environment less or have no polluting effect must be considered
and developed. The energy production systems of whatever type is, have an effect on
environment hence, energy sources like the solar, wind, hydroelectric energy and other
alternative renewable sources that do not have any negative effect on environment could be

97
used economically in production of electric energy in long-term. The potentials of these
alternative sources must be reconsidered in a realistic manner using the new technologies.
Otherwise, the degeneration of ecological balance and arising of some disasters to be
experienced by people could not be prevented. On the other hand, giving up on the issue of
energy consumption as it causes environmental pollution is just like abandoning the benefits of
economic development. The important thing is to find optimum solution by considering the
positive and negative sides of resources, just like how India develops their economy while the
demand for energy resources increases. In this respect, research and development studies
about the environment, selection of technologies and energy planning should be dealt with
determination and commitment

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