Fluid Mechanics

MODULE-4

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Fluid Mechanics

ORIFICES AND MOUTHPIECES

Orifice: An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid flows out is known as orifice. This hole or
opening is called an orifice, so long as the level of the liquid on the upstream side is above the top of
the orifice.
The typical purpose of an orifice is the measurement of discharge. An orifice may be provided in the
vertical side of a vessel or in the base. But the former one is more common.

Types of Orifice
Orifices can be of different types depending upon their size, shape, and nature of discharge. But
the following are important from the subject point of view.

• According to size:

– Small orifice
– Large orifice

According to shape:

– Circular orifice
– Rectangular orifice
– Triangular orifice

According to shape of edge:

– Sharp-edged
– Bell-mouthed

According to nature of discharge:

– Discharging free Orifice

– Fully submerged Orifice
– Partially submerged Orifice

Venacontracta
Consider an orifice is fitted with a tank. The liquid particles, in order to flow out through the
orifice, move towards the orifice from all directions. A few of the particles first move downward, then
take a turn to enter into the orifice and then finally flow through it.
The liquid flowing through the orifice forms a jet of liquid whose area of cross-section is less then
that of the orifice. the area of jet of fluid goes on decreasing and at section C-C, the area is minimum.
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This section is approximately at a distance of half of diameter of the orifice . At this section, the
streamlines are straight and parallel to the each other and perpendicular to the plane of the orifice.
This section is called vena-contracta. Beyond this section, the jet diverges and is attracted in the
downward direction by the gravity.

Venacontracta

Hydraulic Coefficients
The following four coefficients are known as hydraulic coefficients or orifice coefficients.

1. Coefficient of Contraction: The ratio of the area of the jet, at vena-contracta, to the area of the
orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.
area o f the jet at venacontracta
Cc =
area o f the ori f ice
The value of Coefficient of contraction varies slightly with the available head of the liquid, size
and shape of the orifice. The average value of Cc is 0.64

2. Coefficient of Velocity: The ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at Vena-contracta, to the theoret-
ical velocity is known as coefficient of velocity.The theoretical velocity of jet at Vena-contracta
√
is given by the relation, v = 2gh
actual velocity o f the jet at Venacontracta
Cv =
theoretical velocity
The difference between the velocities is due to friction of the orifice. The value of Coefficient
of velocity varies slightly with the different shapes of the edges of the orifice.This value is very
small for sharp-edged orifices. For a sharp edged orifice, the value of Cv increases with the head
of water. theoretical

3. Coefficient of Discharge The ratio of a actual discharge through an orifice to the theoretical
discharge is known as coefficient of discharge. Mathematically coefficient of discharge,
actual discharge actual velocity × actual area
Cd = = = Cv ×Cc
theoretical discharge theoretical velocity × theoretical area
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Thus the value of coefficient of discharge varies with the values of Cc and Cv . An average of
coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 to 0.64.

Discharge through the Orifice

Consider a tank fitted with circular orifice in one of its sides as shown in fig. let H be the head of
the liquid above the liquid above the center of orifice.

Flow through orifice

Consider two points 1 and 2 as shown in the fig. point 1 is inside the tank ans point 2 at vena-
contracta. let the flow be steady and at a constant head H.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

But, z1 =z2 ,
Hence,

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ = +
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Also

p1
=H
ρg
p2
= 0(atmospheric pressure)
ρg

v1 is very small in comparision to v2 as area of the tank is very large compared to area of the jet

v2
∴ H +0 = 0+ 2
2g
p
∴ v2 = 2gH

This is the expression for the theoretical velocity.

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Experimental determination of hydraulic coefficients

Determination of Cd
Water is allowed to flow through a orifice fitted to a tank under a constant head, H as shown in Fig.
The water collected in the measuring tank for a known time, t. the height of water in measuring tank

Value of Cv

is noted down. then actual discharge through orifice,

area o f measuring tank × height o f water in measuring tank

Q=
Time(t)
√
and theoretical discharge = area of the orifice × 2gH

Q
Cd = √
a × 2gH

Determination of Cv
Co-efficient of velocity,
x
Cv = √
4yH
where, x = Horizontal distance traveled by the particle in time ’t’
y= vertical distance between p and C-C (refer fig: Value of Cv )

Determination of Cc

Cd = Cv ×Cc

Mouthpiece

Mouthpiece is a short tube of length not more than two or three times its diameter, provided in a
tank or a vessel containing fluid such that it is an extension of the orifice and through which also the
fluid may discharge. Both orifice and mouthpiece are usually used for measuring the rate of flow.
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Classification of Mouthpiece
1. Based on the position with respect to the tank or vessel to which they are fitted

(a) External mouthpiece

(b) Internal mouthpiece

2. Based on the shape:

(a) Cylindrical mouthpiece

(b) Convergent mouthpiece

(c) Convergent-divergent mouthpiece

3. Based on the nature of discharge at outlet of mouthpiece.

(a) Mouthpieces running full

(b) Mouthpieces running free

Flow through Mouthpiece

Flow through mouthpiece

Consider a tank having as external cylindrical mouthpiece of C/S area a1, attached to one of its
sides as shown in Fig. the jet off liquid enntering the mouthpiece contracts to form a vena-contracta
at a section C-C. Beyond this section, the jet again expands and fill the mouthpiece completely.
Let H=Heigh of liquid above the centre of mouthpiece
vc =Velocity of liquid at C-C section
ac =Area of flow at vena-contracta
v1 =Velocity of liquid at outlet
a1 =Area of mouthpiece at vena-contracta
Cc =Co-efficient of contraction.
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Applying continuity equation at C-C and (1)-(1), we get

ac × vc = a1 × v1
a1 v1 v1
∴ vc = =
a1 ac /a1

But

ac
= Cc = Co − e f f icient o f contraction
a1
ac
taking Cd =0.62, we get a1 = 0.62

v1
∴ vc =
0.62
the jet of liquid from section C-C suddenly enlarges at section (1)-(1). Due to sudden enlargement,
there wiil be loss of head, h∗L which is given as

(vc − v1 )2
h∗L =
2g
But,  
v1
v1 0.62 − v1
v2 h 1 i 0.375v2
vc = = = 1 −1 = 1
0.62 2g 2g 0.62 2g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point A (1)-(1)

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ + zA = + + z1 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g

wherezA =z1 ,vA is negligible,

p1
= atmospheric pressure = 0
ρg
v2 v2
∴ H + 0 = 0 + 1 + 0.375 1
2g 2g
v21
H = 1.375
2g
r
2gH p
v1 = = 0.855 2gH
1.375
√
Theoretical velocity of liquid at outlet is vth = 2gH

Co-effficinet of velocity for mouthpiece

√
Actual velocity 0.855 2gH
Cv = = √ = 0.855
T heoritical velocity 2gH
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Cc for mouthpiece =1 as the area of the area of jet of liquid at out let is equal to area of the mouthpiece.
Thus,

Cd = Cv ×Cc = 1.0 × 0.855 = 0.855

Borda’s mouthpiece

A short cylindrical tube attached to an orifice in such away that the tube projects inwardly to a
tank, is called as Borda’s mouthpiece or Re-entrant mouthpiece or internal mouthpiece.

Borda’s Mouthpiece running free

If the length of the tube is equal to its diameter, the jet of the liquid comes out from mouthpiece
without touching the sides of tube.

Mouthpiece running free

Discharage,
p
Q = 0.5 × a 2gH

where H= height of the fluid above the mouthpiece,

a=area of the mouthpiece

Boarda’s Mouthpiece running full

If the length of the tube is about 3 times its diameter, the jet comes out with its diameter equal to
diameter of the mouthpiece at outlet.
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Mouthpiece running full

Discharage,
p
Q = 0.707 × a 2gH

where H= height of the fluid above the mouthpiece,

a=area of the mouthpiece

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Fluid Mechanics

NOTCHES AND WEIRS

A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel or tank.
It is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir such that the water level is always below
the top edge of the opening.
A weir is a concrete or a masonry structure , placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs .
It is generally in the form of vertical wall, with Bell mouthed edge.

(a)Notch (b)Weir

Note:The sheet of water flowing over a notch or a weir is known as Nappe.

The bottom edge of the opening is known as ‘Sill’ or Crest.

Classification of notches
• According to the shape of opening

– Rectangular notch
– Triangular notch
– Trapezoidal notch
– Stepped notch

• According to the effect of the sides on the nappe:

– Notch with end contraction

– Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch

Discharge over a Rectangular notch

Consider a sharp edge rectangular notch with crest horizontal and normal to direction of flow. Let,
H= Head of water over the crest,
L=length of notch or weir
consider an elementary horizontal strip of water of thickness dh’ and length L at a depth ’h’ from free
surface of water as shown in Fig.
The area of the strip = L×dh
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Rectangular Notch

√
and theoretical velocity of water flowing through strip = 2gh
The discharge dQ, through strip is

p
dQ = Cd × Areao f strip × theoriticalvelocity = Cd × L × dh × 2gh

where Cd =Co-efficient of discharge.

The total discharge , Q, for the whole notch or weir is determined by integrating the above equation
between limits 0 and H.

Z H p p Z H
Q= Cd L 2gh dh = Cd × L × 2g h1/2 dh
0 0
p h h1/2+1 iH
= Cd × L × 2g 1
2 +1
0
p h h3/2 H
i
= Cd × L × 2g 1
0
2
2 p
= Cd L 2g[H]3/2
3

Discharge over a Triangular notch

Discharge over a triangular notch or weir is same. Let H= head of the water above the V-notch
θ =angle of notch
consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness ’dh’ at a depth of ’h’ from free surface as shown in
fig. from the fig we have
AC AC
tan θ /2 = =
OC H − h
∴ AC = (H − h) tan θ /2
Width o f strip =AB = 2AC = 2(H − h) tan θ /2
θ
∴ area o f the strip = 2(H − h) tan × dh
2
√
The theroritical velocity of water through strip = 2gh

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Triangular Notch

∴ Discharge, dQ, through the strip is

dQ = Cd × area o f strip ×Velocity(theoritical)

θ p
= Cd × 2(H − h) tan × dh × 2gh
2

∴ Total discharge, Q is

Z H
θ p
Q= 2Cd (H − h) tan × 2gh × dh
0 2
θ p
ZH
= 2Cd tan × 2g (Hh1/2 − h3/2 )dh
2 0
θ p h Hh3/2 h5/2 iH
= 2Cd tan 2g −
2 3/2 5/2 0
θp h 2 2 i
= 2Cd tan 2g H 5/2 − H 5/2
2 3 5
8 θp
= Cd tan 2g × H 5/2
15 2

Advantages of triangular notch/weir or rectangular notch/weir

• Expression for discharge for a right angled V-notch or weir is very simple.

• In case of triangular notch, only one reading, (H) is required for computation of discharge.

• Ventilation of triangular notch is not necessary.

• For measuring low discharge, a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a rectangular
notch.
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Fluid Mechanics

Discharge over a Trapezoidal notch

Trapezoidal notch is combination of rectangular and triangular notch or weir. thus the total dis-
charge will be equal to the sum of discharge through a rectangular notch and discharge through trian-
gular notch as shown in fig below

Trapezoidal Notch

Let H = head of the water above the V-notch

L = Length of the crest of the notch
Cd1 = co-efficient of discharge for rectangular portion ABCD
Cd2 = co-efficient of discharge for triangular portion [FAD and BCE]
The discharge through rectangular portion ABCD is given by
2 p
Q1 = Cd1 × L 2g × H 3/2
3
The discharge through two triangular notches FCA and BCE is equal to discharge single triangular
notch of angle θ and it is given by equation as
8 θp
Q2 = Cd2 tan 2g × H 5/2
15 2
∴ Discharge through tarpezoidal notch,
2 p 8 θp
Q = Cd1 × L 2g × H 3/2 + Cd2 tan 2g × H 5/2
3 15 2

Cipolletti Notch or Weir

Cipolletti weir is trpezoidal weir, which has sides slopes if 1 horizontal to 4 vertical as shown in
figure. Thus from fig,
θ AB H/2 1
tan = = =
2 BC H 4
θ 1 0
∴ = tan−1 = 14o 2
2 4
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Fluid Mechanics

Cipolletti weir

By giving this slopes to the sides an increase in discharge through the triangular portions ABC and
DEF of the weir is obtained. if this slope is not provided the weir would be a rectangular one, and due
to end contraction, the discharge would decrease. thus in case of Cippolletti weir, the factor of end
contraction is not required which is shown below. the discharge through a rectangular weir with two
end contraction is
2 p
Q= ×Cd × (L − 0.2H) × 2g × H 3/2
3
2 p 2 p
= ×Cd × 2g × H 3/2 − ×Cd × 2g × H 5/2
3 15
2 √
Thus due to end contraction, the discharge decreases by 15 Cd × 2g × H 5/2 . This decrease discharge
can be compensated by giving such slope to the sides that the discharge through two triangular por-
2 √
tions is equal to 15 Cd × 2g × H 5/2 . Let the slope is given by θ /2. the discharge through a V-notch
of angle θ is given by
8 p θ
= ×Cd × 2g × tan H 5/2
15 2
Thus
8 p θ 2 p θ
×Cd × 2g × tan H 5/2 = ×Cd × 2g × tan H 5/2
15 2 15 2
θ 2 15 1
∴ tan = × =
2 15 8 4
or
0
θ /2 = 14o 2

Thus discharge through Cipoletti weir is

2 p
Q= ×Cd × L × 2g × H 3/2
3
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If the velocity of approach is considered,
2 p h 3/2
i
Q= ×Cd × (L) × 2g (H + ha )3/2 − ha
3

Velocity of Approach
It is defined as the velocity with which the flow approaches/reaches the notch/weir before it flows
past it. The velocity of approach for any horizontal element across the notch depends only on its depth
below the free surface.
In most of the cases such as flow over a notch/weir in the side of the reservoir, the velocity of
approach may be neglected. But, for the notch/weir placed at the end of the narrow channel, the
velocity of approach to the weir will be substantial and the head producing the flow will be increased
by the kinetic energy of the approaching liquid.
Thus, if va is the velocity of approach, then the additional head ha due to velocity of approach,
acts on the water flowing over the notch or weir. So, the initial and final height of water over the
notch/weir will be (H + ha ) and ha respectively. It may be determined by finding the discharge over
the notch/weir neglecting the velocity of approach i.e.
Q
va =
A
where ’Q’ is the discharge over the notch/weir and ’A’ is the cross-sectional area of channel on the
upstream side of the weir/notch. Additional head corresponding to the velocity of approach will be,

v2a
Ha =
2g
Example:- The discharge over a rectangular notch/weir of width L,
2 p h 3/2 3/2
i
Q = ×Cd × (L) × 2g (H + ha ) − ha
3

Broad crested weir

A weir having a wide crest is known as broad crested weir. Broad-crested weirs differ from thin-
plate and narrow-crested weirs by the fact that different flow pattern is developed.

Broad crested weir

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Condition for a weir to be broad or narrow.
Let H= height of water, above the crest,
L=length of crest.

• If 2L > H, the weir is called broad crested weir.

• If 2L < H, the weir is called narrow crested weir.

(Refer above fig.)

Let h= head of water at the middle o weir which is constant
v=velocity of flow over the weir applying bernoullies equation to the still water surface on U/S side
and running water at the end of the weir,

v2
0+0+H = 0+ +h
2g
v2
= H −h
2g
p
v = 2g(H − h)

The discharge over weir

Q = Cd × Area o f f low × velocity

p
= Cd × L × h × 2g(H − h)
q
= Cd × L × 2g(Hh2 − h3 )

discharge is maximum if (Hh2 − h3 ) is maximum or

d 2
(Hh2 − h3 ) = 0 or h = H ∴
dh 3

Qmax will be otained by substituting this valve of h in the above discharge equation
r
h  2 2  2 3 i
Qm ax = Cd × L × 2g H × H − H
3 3
r
p 4 3 8 3
= Cd × L × 2g H − H
9 27
= Cd × L × 2g × 0.3849 × H ( 3/2)
p

= 1.705 ×Cd × L × H ( 3/2)

Submerged weir

When the water level on the down stream side of a weir is above the crest of the weir, then weir is
said to be submerged weir. Below fig shows a submerged weir.
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Submerged weir

The total discharge is obtained by dividing the weir into two parts. The portion between U/S and
D/S water surface may be treated as free weir and the portion between D/S water surface and crest of
weir as a drowned weir. Total disharge is given by
2 p p
Q = Cd 1 × L × 2g[H − h]3/2 +Cd 2 × L × h × 2g(H − h)
3

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Flow Over Notches & Weirs
Weir is an obstruction constructed across a river or a channel. The liquid on the rear
side of the weir is called upstream and on the front side along the flow direction is
called downstream. The liquid heads up on the upstream of the weir, gets stored up to
the top of the weir (known as weir crest) and then spills over the crest. The quantity of
liquid flowing above the weir is measured in terms of vertical height above the crest
known as head of liquid which will be proportional to the quantity of liquid flowing
past the weir. This is known as Head-Discharge relationship, specific to that weir.
Classification
a) Based on the length of the weir along the flow
direction, they are classified as:
i.) Sharp crested weir: The crest length along
the flow direction will be very small.
Usually the length will be restricted to 1 to
2mm and they are also termed as thin plate
weirs.
ii.) Broad crested weir: In this case the crest
length along the flow will be larger so that
the critical flow occurs on the crest itself. The thickness of the weir will be
larger relative to other dimensions of the weir. Usually these will be of masonry
or concrete structure.
Broad crested weirs are those that will have longer crest length relative to the thickness
of the weir. The measurement done at the weir crest perpendicular to the flow direction
is known as crest width.
A notch is an opening made in the side wall of a tank such that the liquid surface in the
tank is below the upper edge of the opening. Generally notches are made of metallic
plates and their use is limited to laboratory channels. Notch is a smaller version of
sharp crested weirs.
b) Depending on shape, the weirs can be classified as:
i.) Rectangular weir: The opening for flow will be of rectangular shape
ii.) Triangular weir: The opening for flow will be of triangular shape
iii.) Trapezoidal weir: The opening for flow will be of trapezoidal shape
iv.) Circular weir: The opening for flow will be of circular shape
v.) Parabolic weir: The opening for flow will be of parabolic shape
 vi.) Miscellaneous shapes weir: The opening for flow will be of other than
standard geometric shapes, may be compound shape of more than one
geometric shape or any pre-defined profile shape.
c) Depending on flow
i.) Free flow: In this type of weir, the flow from the weir crest jets on the
downstream side which is termed as nappe and the profile of the nappe
will be well defined with upper and lower nappe. It will be fully aerated
and the flow clearly shoots from the crest and falls on the downstream
side.
ii.) Submerged flow: In this type of weir, the flow does not eject from the
crest but the upstream and downstream flow will be well connected
without a lower nappe. In this case, usually the downstream flow level
will be above the weir crest.
d) Depending on Ventilation

During the flow over the weir crest, the ejecting jet will take the shape based on
the head over the weir crest. As the head is low, the nappe clings to the weir, as
the head increases the nappe slightly leaves the weir wall on the downstream side
and finally as the head further increases, the nappe ejects freely with both upper
and lower nappe clearly visible. In addition, this is due to the vacuum developed
between the lower nappe and the downstream wall of the weir. If the nappe
spreads to the entire width of the channel, then there is no chance for air
entrained below the nappe and hence the bottom portion has to be aerated. The
side walls will be having holes as shown in figure which releases the lower
nappe to be free. This process is known as aeration.
i.) Fully aerated: The flow, when gets ejected from the weir crest, the lower
nappe will have a tendency to slowly take away all the air below the
nappe and cling to the weir. To avoid this and make it a free flow, the
downstream portion of the weir will be aerated so that the vacuum will not
 be created. The additional holes driven by the sides of the channel to
bring-in air is known as fully aerated. It is also Free Nappe
ii.) Depressed: When the discharge reduces, the jet or nappe velocity will not
be enough to take it to free nappe and slightly it clings to the bottom and
hence it is known as depressed nape.
iii.) Clinging or Drowned: In this case the head above the crest will be very
low with low velocity and no aeration and hence the lower nappe clings to
the weir.

Errors in discharge computations

Relative errors: Relative errors are the ratio of the error in measurement or
computations to the original values. Relative error in head measurement is the ratio of
error in head measurement to the corresponding head.
dh
Relative error in Head = ε h =
h
Relative error in discharge computations is the ratio of error discharge computations
due to corresponding error in head measurement to the corresponding discharge for the
measured head.
dQ
Relative error in Discharge = ε Q =
Q

Q = K Hn ( 01)
Differentiating Eq. 01, we have
dQ = K n H ( n −1) ( 02 )
From Eqs. 01 and 02, we get

 dQ  K n H ( n −1) dH  dH 
 Q = n
= n  ( 03)
  KH H 
From Eq. 03, the relative error in discharge computations is equal to n times the relative error in
head measurement. This implies that the relative error committed in head measurements gets
glorified n times during the discharge computations. If the head index n is unity, then the
corresponding relative errors will be equal.
The relative error in discharge for rectangular weirs is 1.5 times the corresponding relative error
in head measurements.
The relative error in discharge for rectangular weirs is 2.5 times the corresponding relative error
in head measurements.
Sensitivity of a Weir
Sensitivity of a weir can be defined as the ratio of the change in head to the corresponding
change in discharge computations. Mathematically it can be expressed as
dH
σ=
dQ
Greater the sensitivity, the computation of smaller change in discharges will be possible. It is
implied that for a smaller variation of discharge, there would be larger variation of head, thereby
making the device more sensitive.

Flow over a Rectangular Notch

ha

L h
H
dh

y Elemental Strip
Z

Figure shows the details of the flow over a rectangular notch.

L = length of the notch
H = head over the notch
Consider a small strip of thickness dh at a depth h below the liquid surface
Discharge through the strip dQ = area x velocity

dq = ( L × dh ) × 2 gh
1
Q H
Integrating the above expression, the total discharge ∫ dQ = L 2 g ∫ h dh 2
0 0

H
2 3 2 3
Q = L 2g h 2  = L 2g H 2
3 0 3

The discharge computed from the theoretical conditions will be for ideal conditions

which does not exist. The flowing liquid will be viscous and will have surface tension.

Further, the flow is considered to be laminar and the stream lines to be parallel, which

is deviating from existing condition. With the above, the actual discharge will be less
than the theoretical discharge and hence the Coefficient of discharge is defined as the

ratio of Actual discharge to the theoretical discharge. Average value of coefficient of

discharge, C d is about 0.62

Qact
Cd =
Qth
3
2
∴ Qact = Cd L 2 gh 2 ( 01)
3
End Contraction
When the flow occurs in a channel, at lower velocities, it will be laminar flow, wherein
the streamlines will be parallel to each other. Whenever the streamlines are disturbed,
there is a head/energy loss. When the weir, which obstructs the flow, extends to the
width of the channel, the streamlines remain parallel and liquid flows over weirs. But
when the crest length of the weir is less than the channel width, then the streamlines
have to converge to flow through the weir above its crest and this is termed as end
contractions. This process will decrease the cross-sectional area of flow above the weir
crest, thereby increasing the velocity to retain the discharge rate.
Mathematically, when L is greater than l, there will be end contractions. With the end
contractions, the effective length of cross-sectional area of flow reduces than the actual
weir crest length l and various investigators have given their own theories to estimate
the effective length.
Francis estimated the effective length of flow over the notch as 90% of the actual
length.
The rectangular weir head-discharge equation can be written as
3
2
∴ Qact = Cd ( l − 0.1) 2 gh 2 ( 02 )
3
Suppressed weir/notch is a weir without end contraction.
Velocity of approach (V a )
Due to end contractions or obstruction to flow of streamlines, there will be slight
increase in velocity at the approach length towards the weir. This increase in velocity,
increases the head above the normal free surface, known as velocity head and the
velocity is known as velocity of approach. By energy equations, the velocity is given by

Va2
Va = 2 gha or ha =
2g
This head will be over and above the static head.
On similar lines, considering a strip of uniform thickness dh at a depth h below the
liquid surface.
Discharge through the strip
dQ = area × velocity

dQ = L × dh × 2 g ( H + ha )

Integrating the above expression, the total discharge is given by

Q H 1

∫ 0
dQ = L 2 g ∫
0
( H + ha ) 2 dh

Q = L 2g
2
3 { 3 3
( H + ha ) 2 − ha2 }
Qact
But, the coefficient of discharge = Cd =
Qth

2 3

{ 3
Qa = Cd 2 g L ( H + ha ) 2 − ha2
3 }
Empirical Formula

Francis Formula ⇒ Q = 1.84 L  ( H + ha ) − ha 2 

3 3
2
i.)
 

 0.003  3
ii.) Bazin’s formula ⇒ Q =  0.405 +  L 2g H
2

 H 
 0.053 ( H + 0.011)  3
iii.) Rehbock formula ⇒ Q =  0.403 +  L 2 g ( H + 0.0011)
2

 Z 
Considering both velocity of approach and End contraction, we have

Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) ( H + ha ) 2 − ha 2 
2 3 3
Q=
3 
 
8.1 In a rectangular notch of crest length 400mm, the head of water over the crest is
50mm, find the discharge through the weir. Take C d = 0.6.
Sol:L = 0.4m, H = 0.05m, C d = 0.6, Q = ?
Discharge through the rectangular weir is given by
2 3
Q = × Cd 2 g LH 2
3
Substituting the parametric values we get
2 3
Q = × ( 0.6 ) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.4 )( 0.05 ) 2 = 0.00792 m3 /s
3
8.2 The head of water over a rectangular notch is 900mm. The discharge is 300 lps. Find the
length of the notch, when Cd = 0.62.
Sol: L = ?, H = 0.9m, Q = 300 lps, Cd = 0.62
Discharge through the rectangular weir is given by
2 3
Q = × Cd 2 g LH 2
3
Substituting the parametric values we get
2 3
Q = × 0.62 2 × 9.81 ( L )( 0.9 ) 2 ⇒ 0.3
3
L = 0.192 m = 191.91 mm
8.3 A rectangular notch of crest width 0.4m is used to measure the flow of water in a
rectangular channel 0.6m wide and 0.45 deep. If the water level in the channel is 0.225m
above the crest, find the discharge in the channel. For the notch assume Cd = 0.63. Take
velocity of approach into account.
Sol: L = 0.4m, B = 0.6m, D = 0.45m, H = 0.225m, Q = ?, Cd = 0.63
Discharge through the rectangular weir is given by
2 3
Q = × Cd 2 g LH 2
3
Substituting the parametric values we get
2 3
Q = × ( 0.63) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.4 )( 0.225) 2 = 0.07942 m3 /s
3
As a first trial, the total head includes the static head and velocity head. From discharge
continuity equation, flow in the channel is given by
Q = AVa = ( 0.6 × 0.45 ) Va = 0.07942
or Va = 0.294 m/s

Va2 0.294 2
Velocity head = H a = = =4.41× 10−3 m
2g 2g
Total head = H + H a = 0.225 + 4.41× 10−3 = 0.2294 m

Substituting the new head, the discharge will be

2 3
Q = × ( 0.63) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.4 )( 0.2294 ) 2 = 0.08177 m3 /s
3
8.4 A rectangular weir 15m long is divided into 5 bays by four vertical posts each
200mm wide. If the head of water over the weir is 750mm, Calculate the
discharge, given C d =0.63.
Sol: n = number of end contractions = 10,
L = clear length of weir = Total length – number of posts × width of post
 L = 15 – 4 x 0.2 = 14.2m
2 3
Q= Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) H 2
3
2 3
Q= ( 0.63) 2 × 9.81 (14.2 − 0.1× 10 × 0.75 )( 0.75 ) 2 = 16.252 m 3 /s
3
8.5 For flow through rectangular weir, the discharge corresponding to 0.2m head is
0.4m 3 /s. Find the discharge if the head is increased by 50%.
Sol: H 1 =0.20m, Q 1 =0.4m 3 /s, H 2 = 0.3m, Q 2 =?
Discharge through the rectangular weir is given by
2 3 2 3
Q1 = × Cd 2 g LH1 2 and Q2 = × Cd 2 g LH 2 2
3 3
3 3
Q1 H1 2  H1  2
= = 
Q2 H 3 2  H 2 
2

Substituting the parametric values we get

3
0.4  0.2  2
=
Q2  0.3 
Q2 = 0.7348 m3 /s
8.6 Discharge in a rectangular channel of 6m wide is 1.5m 3 /s. If the flow depth on the
upstream of the rectangular sharp crested weir to be installed near the end of the
channel is to be restricted to 1m, calculate the necessary height of the weir.
Assume C d = 0.62.
Sol: B = L = 6m, Q = 1.5m 3 /s, C d = 0.62
H
From Fig., Y = (Z + H) = 1m
Discharge in the channel Y
Velocity ofapproach =
Cross sectional area of flow Z
1.5
Va = = 0.25 m/s
(1× 6 )
Va2 0.252
Head due to velocity of approach = H a = = = 3.1855mm
2 g 2 × 9.81
From Francis Formula without end contractions, the discharge over the rectangular
weir is given by

Q = 1.84 × L ( H + ha ) 2 − ha 2 
3 3

 
Substituting the values,
  3 3

(
1.5 = 1.84 × ( 6 )  H + 3.1855 ×10−3

) 2
(
− 3.1855 ×10−3 ) 2

H = 0.2613m
Z = 1 – 0.2613 = 0.7387m

Flow over a Triangular Weir or V-Notch.

ha
x h
dh
H
y
Nappe
Crest Elementary 2θ
Strip
Weir crest
Z
Channel bed Notch

Figure shows the details of flow over a V–notch.

2 θ = Central angle
H = Head over the notch
Consider an elemental strip of thickness dh at a depth h below the free surface as
shown. Discharge through the strip dq = area x velocity

dq = ( 2 x × dh ) × 2 gh ( 01 )
x
But from the geom etry of the Fig. tan θ = or x = ( H − h ) tan θ
(H − h)
H 1
dQ = ⌠
Q
Substituting and Integrating Eq. 01, the total discharge ∫  2 ( H − h ) tan θ 2 g h 2 dh
0 ⌡0
H 1
 H 1 3

Q = 2 2g ⌠
H
 ( H − h ) tan θ h 2 dh = 2 2 g tan θ  H ∫ h 2 dh − ∫ h 2 dh 
⌡0 
0 0

H
 3 5

 h 2 h 2 
Q = 2 2 g tan θ  H 3 − 5 
 2 2 

 0

Substituting and simplifying, we have

2 5 2 5  8 5
Q = 2 2 g tan θ  H 2 − H 2  = 2 g tan θ H 2
3 5  15
Qact
But, the coefficient of discharge = Cd =
Qth
 8 5
Qa = Cd 2 g tan θ H 2
15
If velocity of approach is to be considered, then the equation can be derived as
8  5 5

Qa = Cd 2 g tan θ ( H + ha ) 2 − ha2 
15  
8.7 A test was conducted in a laboratory and the water passing through a Venturimeter was
made to flow over a 90o V-notch. The throat and inlet diameter of the Venturimeter was
measured as 120mm and 250mm respectively. The pressure head difference between inlet
and throat is 200mm of water when the head over the V-notch is 185.4mm. If Cd for
Venturimeter is 0.97, what is the coefficient of discharge for the V-notch?
Sol: θ = 45o, Q = ?, d = 120mm, D = 250mm, Z = 200mm, h = 0.2m, H = 185.4mm
(Cd)VM = 0.97, (Cd)VN = ?
The discharge equation for flow through Venturimeter is given by
a1a2 2 gh
Q = Cd
a12 − a22

π π
a1 = × 0.252 = 0.04909 m 2 and a2 = × 0.122 = 0.01131 m 2
4 4
Substituting the values, we get

0.04909 × 0.01131 2 × 9.81× 0.2

Q = 0.97 × = 0.02233m3 /s
2 2
0.04909 − 0.01131
For a triangular weir, the head-discharge equation is given by
8 5
Q= Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H 2
15
Substituting the values, we get
8  90  5
0.02233 = × Cd 2 × 9.81 tan   ( 0.1854 ) 2
15  2 
or Cd = 0.639
8.8 To irrigate a given land for the given crop, a discharge of 150 lpm is required to
flow in the channel. Design a triangular weir, if the desired minimum head is
100mm. Assume C d = 0.62.
150
Sol: H = 0.1m, C d = 0.62, Q = 150 lpm = = 2.5 lps = 2.5 × 10 −3 m 3 /s
60
For a triangular weir, the head-discharge equation is given by
8 5
Q= Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H 2
15
Substituting the values, we get
 8 θ  5
2.5 × 10−3 = × ( 0.62 ) 2 × 9.81 tan   ( 0.1) 2
15 2
or θ = 56.717 o
o
Hence, it is suggested that a triangular weir with weir angle of 60 could be used.
8.9 A 60o triangular notch is used for measuring a discharge of 30 lps. An error of 1.5mm was
made while measuring the head over the notch. Calculate the percentage error in estimating
the discharge. Take Cd = 0.62.
dQ
Sol: θ = 30o, Q = 30 lps = 30×10-3m3/s, dH = 1.5mm = 1.5×10-3m, Cd = 0.62, % =?
Q
Let H be the head above the weir crest.
For a triangular weir, the head-discharge equation is given by
8 5
Q= Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H 2
15
Substituting the values, we get

( 0.62 ) 2 × 9.81 tan   H 2

8 60 5
30 × 10−3 =
15  2 
or H = 0.263m
The relative error in discharge for a triangular weir is given by
dQ 5 dH
=
Q 2 H
Substituting the values, we get
dQ 5 1.5 ×10−3
= × ×100 = 1.426%
Q 2 0.263
8.10 Water flows over a rectangular weir 1m wide at a depth of 150mm and afterwards passes
through a triangular right angled weir. Taking Cd for the rectangular and triangular weir
0.62 and 0.59 respectively. Find the depth over the triangular weir.
Sol: L = 1m, Hr = 0.15m, (Cd)r = 0.62, (Cd)r = 0.59, Ht = ?, θ = 45o
As the discharges in both the weirs are same, equating the discharge head equations,
2 3 8  90  5
Q = × ( Cd )r 2 g × L × H r 2 = × ( Cd )t 2 g × tan   × H t 2
3 15  2 
3 4 5
( Cd )r × L × H r 2 = × ( Cd )t × H t 2
5
Substituting, we get
3 4 5
0.62 ×1× ( 0.15 ) 2
= × 0.59 × H t 2
5
H t = 0.3573m
8.11 Discharge varies in a rectangular channel from 0.0057 to 0.142 m3/s. At what height
should a 90o V-notch be placed above the bed of the channel, if the depth should not
exceed 1.2m, in the channel? What will be its depth for minimum discharge?
Sol: θ = 45o, Qmin = 0.0057m3/s, Qmax = 0.142m3/s, z = ?, Y = 1.2m, Hmin = ?
Cd = 0.6 (assume)
For a triangular weir, the head-discharge equation is given by
8 5
Q= Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H 2
15
8 5
Qmin = Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H min2
15
8 5
0.0057 = ( 0.6 ) 2 × 9.81 tan ( 45 ) H min2
15
or H min = 0.11m = 110.09mm

8 5
Qmax = Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H max
2
15
8 5
0.142 = ( 0.6 ) 2 × 9.81 tan ( 45 ) H max
2
15
or H max = 0.3984m = 398.4mm

Depth of the channel = crest height from the bed + maximum head
1200 = z + 398.4
Crest height form the bed of the channel = z = 801.6mm
8.12 A discharge of 100 lps is to be measured by a triangular notch of crest angle 60o. What
would be the head over the crest? If the accuracy of reading the head is 1mm, what error in
discharge can be expected? Take Cd = 0.6.
Sol: θ = 30o, Q = 100 lps = 0.1m3/s, dH = 1.0mm = 1.0×10-3m, dQ = ?, Cd = 0.6
Let H be the head above the weir crest.
For a triangular weir, the head-discharge equation is given by
8 5
Q= Cd 2 g tan (θ ) H 2
15
Substituting the values, we get

( 0.6 ) 2 × 9.81 tan   H 2

8 60 5
0.1 =
15  2 
or H = 0.4313m=431.345mm
The relative error in discharge for a triangular weir is given by
dQ 5 dH
=
Q 2 H
Substituting the values, we get
 dQ 5 1
= ×
100 2 431.345
dQ = 0.5796lps
When the accuracy of reading the head is 1mm, expected error in discharge is 0.5796 lps.
Flow over Trapezoidal Notch or Weir
A trapezoidal weir is a rectangular weir flanked by two triangular weirs on either sides. The two
triangular weirs can be taken to be symmetric halves and hence the discharge through the
trapezoidal weir can be the sum of discharge through rectangular and triangular weirs with a
common head and coefficient of discharge.

1θ
1θ h h h
z θ θ
⇒ z
θ θ
b b

Discharge through   Discharge through   Discharge through 

= +
Trapezoidal weir   Rectangular weir  Triangular weir 

2 2 
3
8 2 
5

Q =  Cd 2 gbH  +  Cd 2 g tan θ H 
3  15 
Cipoletti Notch or Weir
Discharge due to End
It is a contracted Trapezoidal weir with its sloping sides contractions
kept equal to 1H in 4V so that the discharge through the
weir will be equivalent to discharge through the rectangular
portion and the discharge through the triangular portion 4θ
h
will be equal to the reduction of discharge due to end 1
contractions. The weir was devised by Cipoletti and hence
b
the name of the weir.
Discharge through the Cipoletti weir = Discharge through its rectangular portion.
Additional discharge from   Reduction of discharge due
 =  to 2 end contractions of Rect. weir
triangular portion  
8 5
2 3

Cd 2 g tan θ H = Cd 2 g ( 0.2 H ) H
2 2

15 3
 8 2
tan θ = × 0.2
15 3
1
tan θ =   or θ = 14.04o
4
Substituting the values for Cd =0.63, we have
2 2 
3 3

Q =  ( 0.63) 2 × 9.81 b H  = 1.86 b H

2

3 
8.13 A flow from a channel is controlled by a trapezoidal notch so that the full supply discharge
of 2 m3/s flows over the notch at a head of 1.2m measured over the crest. At half this head
a discharge of 0.6m3/s passes over the notch. Assuming Cd = 0.62, calculate the base width
and side slope of notch.
Sol: Q100 = 2m3/s, H100 = 1.2m, Q50 = 0.6m3/s, H50 = 0.6m, Cd = 0.62, b = ? and z = ?
From the head-discharge equation for flow through trapezoidal weir, we have
2 3 8 5
Q = × Cd 2 gbH 2 + × Cd 2 g × tan θ × H 2
3 15
But tanθ = z , Hence 1θ
2 3  4  z θ
Q = × Cd 2 g × H 2
b + 5 × z × H 
3 b
Substituting the values for 100% and 50% head-discharge values, we have
2 3  4 
2 = × 0.62 2 × 9.81 × (1.2 ) 2 b + × z × 1.2 
3  5 
2 3  4 
0.6 = × 0.62 2 × 9.81 × ( 0.6 ) 2 b + × z × 0.6 
3  5 
2 = 2.4067 [b + 0.96 z ] ( 01)
0.6 = 0.8509 [b + 0.48 z ] ( 02 )
Solving the above simultaneous equations, we have
z = 0.2622 or θ = 14.69o, b = 0.5793
8.14 A Cipolletti weir of 400mm bottom width is installed in a channel 750mm wide & 450mm
deep. If the head over the weir crest is 250mm, find the discharge over the weir.
a) Neglecting vel. of approach
b) Taking vel. of approach.
Sol: B = 0.75m, D = 0.45m, b = 0.4m, H = 0.25m, Q = ?
a) Neglecting velocity of approach
Discharge through Cipoletti notch is given by
3 3
2
Q = 1.86 b H = 1.86 ( 0.4 )( 0.25 ) = 0.093 m3 /s
2

b) Considering velocity of approach

 From discharge continuity equation, the velocity of approach is given by
Q 0.093
Va = = = 0.2756 m/s
A ( 0.75 × 0.45 )
Va2 0.2756
Approach velocity head = ha = = = 0.0039m
2g 2g
Discharge through Cipoletti notch is given by
 3 
3
2
Q = 1.86 b ( H + ha ) − ha2 
 
 2 
3 3
2
Q = 1.86 ( 0.4 ) ( 0.25 + 0.0039 ) − ( 0.0039 )  = 0.095 m3 /s=94.989 lps
 
Submerged Weir
Submerged weirs are those when water level on the downstream sides is above the crest
level of the weir as shown in figure.
H 1 and H 2 are the corresponding heads over the weir on the upstream and downstream
sides. In case of submerged weir, the discharge equation will be derived considering the
flow over the weir as a combination of a free weir and a submerged orifice.
In other words, the flow Q 1 between H 1 and H 2 is considered as a free weir and Q 2
between H 2 and the weir crest as a submerged orifice.

Q1
H1
Q2 H2

Weir

3
2
For a free weir Q1 = Cd 1 L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ) 2 ( 01)
3
For a submerged orifice Q2 = Cd 2 LH 2 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ) ( 02 )
∴ Q = Q1 + Q2 ( 03)
Generally Cd1 = 0.58 and Cd 2 = 0.80 are considered for the weir and the orifice.

Va2
As in the earlier cases, the head due to velocity of approach, ha = , velocity head can
2g
also be considered.
3 3
2
In such a case Q1 = Cd 1 L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 + ha ) 2 − ha2 ( 04 )
3
and Q 2 = C d 2 L H 2 2 g ( H 1 − H 2 + h a ) ( 05 )
In all the above equation L = length of the notch or weir.
8.14 A rectangular channel 6m wide is provided with a submerged weir 0.8m high
spanning the entire width. If the corresponding depths of water in the channel on
the upstream and downstream are 1.6m and 1.05m, estimate the discharge over the
weir. Assume common C d = 0.615 for the weir.

H1=0.4m
H2=0.25m

1.6m
0.8m 1.05m

Sol: L = 6m, C d = 0.615

Q submerged weir = Q weir + Q submerged orifice
3
2 2
Q = Cd 1 L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ) + Cd 2 LH 2 2 g ( H1 − H 2 )
3
3
2 2
= × 0.615 × 6 × 2 × 9.81 ( 0.4 − 0.25 ) + 0.615 × 6 × 0.25 × 2 × 9.81( 0.4 − 0.25 ) = 2.2156 m3 /s
3

8.15 For a 3.5m crest length of a drowned weir, the corresponding water surfaces of
upstream and downstream are 175mm and 100m above the crest. The respective
coefficients of discharge for the free and drowned conditions are 0.59 and 0.79.
Consider velocity of approach.
Sol: H 1 = 175mm = 0.175m, H 2 = 100mm = 0.1m, L = 3.5m, C d 1 = 0.59, C d 2 = 0.79
Discharge through the weir is given by
3
2 2
Q = Cd 1 L 2 g ( H1 − H 2 ) + Cd 2 LH 2 2 g ( H1 − H 2 )
3
3
2 2
Q = ( 0.59 )( 3.5 ) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.175 − 0.1) + ( 0.79 )( 3.5 )( 0.1) 2 × 9.81( 0.175 − 0.1) = 0.4607m 3 /s
3
Q
V elocity ofapproach = V a =
C ross-sectional area of flow of the w eir
0.4067
Va = = 0.752 m/s
( × 0.175)
3.5

Va2 0.7522
Approach velocity head = ha = = = 0.00288 m
2 g 2 × 9.81
3
2 2
Q = ( 0.59 )( 3.5 ) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.175 − 0.1 + 0.00288 )
3
+ ( 0.79 )( 3.5 )( 0.1) 2 × 9.81( 0.175 − 0.1 + 0.00288 ) = 0.4743m 3 /s
OGEE WEIR
Crest of ogee weir

upper nappe
H

Top surface of the Ogee weir

coinciding with the lower nappe

Concrete or masonry
The coefficient of discharge is a measure of efficiency of the weir to have larger
discharging capacity. Coefficient of discharge depends on several factors including the
disturbance to the stream line flow. Increase in coefficient of discharge increases the
discharging capacity of the weir.
In case of large broad crested weirs, in particular masonry or concrete weir, the free
nappe ejecting out of the weir crest will be very large and quantity of discharge will
also be very high. To manage this discharge, and to avoid ventilation problems, the
downstream profile of the weir is made to conform to the shape of the lower nappe
which are known as Ogee weir.
The cross section of an ogee weir is as shown in the figure. The coordinates of the
spillway profile can be worked out for the head H causing flow, using the equation.
x1.85 = 2 H 0.85 y
The u/s face of the spillway is generally kept vertical.
The discharge equation for an ogee weir will be same as that of the rectangular weir
3
2
given by Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
8.16 Compute the rate of flow over an Ogee weir of length 7.5m for head causing flow
over the weir crest of 2.45m and consider C d = 0.615.
Sol: L = 7.5m, H = 2.45m, C d = 0.61, Q = ?
Discharge over an ogee weir is given by the equation
3
2
Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
Substituting the values,
3
2
Q = × 0.615 × 2 × 9.81 × 7.5 × (2.45) 2 = 52.233m 3 /s
3
Broad Crested Weir
A weir is said to broad crested when its thickness (along the flow) b is greater than half
the maximum head acting on it.
i.e, b > 12 H

Flow H
h V

weir

b
Channel bed

Let L = length of the weir

H = Head of water u/s of the weir w.r.t. the crest
h = Depth of water over the weir crest
V = Velocity of flow over the weir
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections and at the crest of the weir as
datum & neglecting losses (h L ), the total head at both the sections are same.
 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 + + Z1 =  + + Z2 
 γ 2g   γ 2g 

The pressure at both the points are atmospheric and zero. The velocity at section is

zero as the relative flow area is extremely large.

V2
0+0+ H = 0+ +h
2g

∴V = 2 g ( H − h ) ( 01)
From discharge continuity equation, the discharge over the weir is given by
Q = cross sectional area of flow over the weir × velocity of flow over the weir.
i.e. i.e. Q = (h × L) 2 g ( H − h )

Introducing the coefficient of discharge, the actual discharge over the weir is

Qa = Cd L h 2 g ( H − h ) ( 02 )
From Eq. 02, we see that Q a is a function of h for a given value of H.
From maxima and minima, the discharge over the weir is maximum when
∂Q
=0
dh
Differentiating Eq. 02, and equating to zero, we get
∂  1

h ( H − h ) 2  = 0
∂h  

 1 −
1
 1

 
h × ( H − h ) 2 ( −1) + ( H − h ) 2 × 1 = 0
 
 2  
h
= ( H − h ) or h = 2 ( H − h )
2 ( H − h)
2
h= H
3
Substituting the value of h in Eq. 02 and simplifying.

2  2 
Qa = Cd L   H 2 g  H − H 
3  3 
2 3
Qa = Cd L 2 g H 2
3 3
8.17 A broad crested weir 500mm height of water above its crest. Find the maximum discharge.
Take Cd = 0.60, neglect velocity of approach. If the velocity of approach is to be taken into
consideration, find the maximum discharge when the channel has a cross sectional area of
50m2 on the upstream side.
Sol: H = 0.5m, A = 50m 2 , Cd = 0.60
Neglecting velocity of approach
50
A = L × H or L = = 100m
0.5
2 3
Qa = ( 0.6 )(100 ) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.5 ) 2 = 36.1663 m3 /s
3 3
Considering velocity of approach, from discharge continuity equation, the approach
velocity is given by
Qa 36.1663
Va = = = 0.7233m/s
A 50
V 2 0.7233
ha = a = = 0.0369 m
2 g 2 × 9.81
2 3
Qa = ( 0.6 )(100 ) 2 × 9.81 ( 0.5 + 0.0369 ) 2 = 40.243 m3 /s
3 3
8.18 Find the length of the broad crested weir required to discharge 50,000 m 3 /day
from a reservoir such that the water level will not rise above +123.0, if the weir
crest is at +122.25. Consider coefficient of discharge as C d = 0.645.
 Sol: H max = +123.0 – 122.25 = 0.75m, C d = 0.645, L = ?
50000
Q = 50,000m 3 /day = Q = = 0.5787 m3 /s
24 × 60 × 60
3
2
( Qa )max = Cd L 2 g H 2
max
3 3

 
 3 3 × 0.5797 
∴L =  3 
= 0.812m
 2 × 0.645 × 2 × 9.81 × (0.75) 2 
 
8.19 A channel of bed width 9m and depth 5m is carrying 60m 3 /s discharge of water. A
broad crested weir is provided to control the overflow mechanism. The weir crest
is 1.8m below the upstream water surface. Find the length of the weir if
coefficient of discharge, C d = 0.87.
Sol: H = 1.8m, B = 9m, D = 5m, Q = 60m 3 /s, C d = 0.87, L = ?
The discharge equation for flow over broad crested weir with approach velocity
head is given by
3
2 2
Qa = Cd L 2 g ( H + ha )
3 3
2
V2 Q 1
where ha is the approach velocity head = a =   ×
2g  A  2g
2
 60  1
ha =   × = 0.0906m
 9 × 5  2 × 9.81
Substituting in discharge equation, we get
3
2 2
60 = × 0.87 × L × 2 × 9.81 (1.8 + 0.0906 )
3 3
L = 15.56m
Proportional Weirs
Weirs or notches are devices provided across natural or artificial channel sections, with which
fluid flowing across them can be controlled or measured with the prefixed degree of accuracy.
Depending on the shape of the weir profile, the discharge-head relationship can be derived based
on the fundamental discharge-continuity relationship. It has been observed that the general head-
discharge equation for flow through any weir of given geometric shape can be represented as
Qα H n = K H n ( 01)
Where Q is the discharge through the weir, H is the head above the weir crest, K is the
proportionality constant and n is the head index, both depending on the weir profile. For
example, the value of n in case of rectangular weir is 1.5 and that of triangular weir is 2.5. As
can be seen, the value of n depends on the weir profile which can be derived. The reverse
procedure of finding the weir profile to get a specific predefined head-discharge relationship is
known as Design of Proportional weirs. However, this procedure involves solution of certain
complex integral equations. Proportional weirs, as rightly named are those weirs with a designed
profile, which produce a predefined head-discharge relationship.
Differentiating Eq. 01, we have
dQ = K n H ( n −1) ( 02 )
From Eqs. 01 and 02, we get

 dQ  K n H ( n −1) dH  dH 
 Q = = n ( 03)
 H 
n
  KH
From Eq. 03, the relative error in discharge computations is equal to n times the relative error in
head measurement. This implies that the relative error committed in head measurements gets
glorified n times during the discharge computations. If the head index n is unity, then the
corresponding relative errors will be equal. Further, linear weirs are used as control outlets for
float regulated dosing devices in chemical engineering, as a simple flow recorder in hydraulics
and irrigation and as outlet for grit chambers in environmental engineering to maintain constant
average velocity in sedimentation tanks irrespective of discharge fluctuations. This prompted
researchers to find a profile which can produce this discharge-head relationship.
Stout (1897, 1914) invented the first linear proportional weir in 1896 and showed that the weir
− 12
defined by the profile y α x where y and x are horizontal and vertical co-ordinates, gave a
linear head-discharge relationship. This weir although exact suffers from the practical difficulty
in having an infinite crest width (y → ∞, as x → 0), which is physically unrealizable.
Cowgill (1944) and Banks (1954) showed that a weir defined by the profile y ∝ xn, where y and x
3
are horizontal and vertical co-ordinates, gives a discharge proportional to Q α H 2 , H being the
depth of flow measured above the crest.
He obtained a general weir profile equation in the following form:

2 K Γ ( n + 1) y
( n− 32 )
x( y) = 1 ( 04 )
π 2 Γ ( n − 12 )
Where Q is the discharge passing through the designated weir, K is a dimensionless
proportionality constant, H is the head measured over the weir crest, n is the head index, x(y) is
the half width of the symmetrical weir about vertical y axis at any height y from the origin
(centre of crest) and Γ is the standard Gamma function. It can be observed from Eq. 04 that,

when n < 3 , the crest width of the weir x(y) will be inversely proportional to y wherein y is zero
2
and hence the crest width is infinity which is unrealisable. Obviously, it is implied that the
practical feasibility of linear head-discharge relationship is unrealisable. The weir profile at the
weir crest became asymptotic tending to infinity at the crest.
This Stouts model was modified by Sutro (1908) by providing practical but arbitrary explanation
for the finite width by providing compensatory rectangular base or the choice of datum from
which the head has to be reckoned with.
The discharge equation for flow through a Sutro weir, a linear proportional weir was given by
n
Q = K (h + λa)

Where h is the head measured from the top of the rectangular weir, a is the depth of the

rectangular base weir and λ called as datum constant for Sutro weir was found to be ⅔, K as

dimensionless proportionality constant. However, Sutro has not provided any information about

the arbitrary choice of the datum constant as ⅔.

Further, in all the proportional weirs, the compound weir is divided into proportional weir and
compensatory weir parts. The compensatory part is to only compensate for the lost area due to
curtailment of asymptotic profile near the crest and the discharge-head relationship for flow
through these base weirs will not be valid. But above the base weir, in the complementary part of
the weir, the designed head-discharge relationship will be valid.
 Linear Proportional Sutro Weir
Keshava Murthy (1968) for the first time, through his slope-discharge-continuity theorem, linked
the profile with the discharge and showed that every realizable weir will have a definite datum
from which the head has to be reckoned with. Further, he proved that for weirs of known
geometric shapes, the datum coincided with the crest, whereas for proportional weirs with head
index n < 1.5, there exists a predefined datum from which the head has to be reckoned. This also
provided an explanation to the Sutro weir and the choice of datum.
Based on this theorem, there was flood of research work on sharp crested proportional weirs for
various head-discharge relationships, designed by Keshava Murthy with specific benefits. The
Quadratic weirs with discharge proportional to the quadratic power of head were helpful in flow
measurements in bypasses. Logarithmic weirs with discharge proportional to logarithm of head
were highly sensitive and were useful in sensitive flow measurements. Exponential weirs, with
discharge proportional to exponential of head, were useful in flow measurements during flooding
are large discharges. Later, the research was extended to design self-basing weirs wherein the
compensatory base weir was avoided and the same profile of the complementary weir profile
was continued. The proportionality of the head-discharge relation was valid be
A new type of Geometrically simple weirs were also investigated which was casually mentioned
by Troskolonsky in his book on Hydrometry. The basic concept of these weirs is that, with a
known geometric shape, the geometric parameters of the weir would be designed to suit a known
head-discharge relationship to valid in-between a range of head within a pre-fixed percentage
error. Venkataramana and Subramanya worked on quadrant plate weirs to obtain a linear head-
discharge relationship for a known range of head. However, it was purely empirical and could
not give a rational explanation of the choice. Optimisation procedures were developed by
Keshava Murthy, Giridhar, Shesha Prakash and Rangaraj to obtain the head-discharge
relationship nearly valid in a computed range of head within pre-fixed percentage error and
finding the geometric properties of the weir. Inverted V-Notch (Keshava Murthy and Giridhar)
was most popular and easiest to use in any circumstances to obtain a near linear head-discharge
relationship.
Shesha Prakash and Shivapur have worked extensively on inclined weirs with the additional
advantage of its usage in discharging larger quantity of water with the regular geometric shaped
weirs. The only difference is that the weirs are fixed inclined to the bed, which increases its
discharging capacity, thereby reducing afflux (heading up of water on upstream side), which
promotes the use of weirs in a predesigned channels.

Chapter end summary

Weirs and notches are devices used across the natural or artificial channel to measure and/or
control flow over the weirs.
Sharp crested weirs or thin plate weirs are those where the thickness of the weir along the flow
directions will be relatively very small compared to lateral dimensions.
Broad crested weirs are those where the thickness of the weir along the flow directions is more
than the 50% of head over the weir crest.
Ogee weir is the weir built such that the downstream surface of the weir coincides with the lower
nappe of the free flowing weir.
Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual discharge to the corresponding theoretical
discharge.
Based on shapes of the opening of the weirs, weirs are mainly classified as rectangular,
triangular and trapezoidal weirs.
End contractions are the reduction of cross-sectional area of flow due to the reduced length of
weir opening relative to that of channel. The streamlines bend to emerge out of the weir and
hence the effective length of the weir crest gets reduced.
Velocity of approach is the increased velocity of the flow due to obstruction of the weir or
constriction of flow cross-section due to the weir. This heads up the water on the upstream of the
weir thereby causing water surface to rise. This velocity head adds to the static head, which
causes additional discharge.
Cipoletti weir is a trapezoidal weir with side slopes provided as 1H to 4V. This discharge
through the triangular portion will compensate for the discharge due to end contractions.
Relative error in Head is the ratio of error committed in head measurement to the corresponding
head measured.
Relative error in discharge is the ratio of error committed in computation due to error committed
in head measurement to the corresponding discharge for the measured head.
Relative error in discharge for a sharp crested weir will be equal to n (head index) times the
relative error in head.
Proportional weirs are those with specially designed profiles to deliver the discharge through the
weir with the desired/defined head-discharge relationship.
Sutro weir is a linear proportional weir which delivers discharge with a linear head-discharge
relationship.
Equations used in the chapter
3
2
Rectangular weir discharge = Qact = Cd 2 g L h 2
3
5
2
Triangular weir discharge = Qact = Cd 2 g tan θ h 2
3
3
2
Trapeaoidal weir discharge = Qact = Cd 2 gh 2 [ L + tan θ h]
3
3
2
Cipoletti weir discharge = Qact = Cd 2 g L h 2
3

Francis Formula ⇒ Q = 1.84 L  ( H + ha ) − ha 2 

3 3
i.) 2
 
 0.003  3
ii.) Bazin’s formula ⇒ Q =  0.405 +  L 2g H
2

 H 

 0.053 ( H + 0.011)  3
iii.) Rehbock formula ⇒ Q =  0.403 +  L 2 g ( H + 0.0011)
2

 Z 
Considering both velocity of approach and End contraction, we have

Cd 2 g ( L − 0.1nH ) ( H + ha ) 2 − ha 2 
2 3 3
Q=
3  
3
2
Ogee weir discharge = Q = Cd 2 g LH 2
3
2 3
Broad crested weir discharge = Qa = Cd L 2 g H 2
3 3
Effective crest length due to end contraction = l (1 – 0.1 n ), n is number of end
contractions.
Chapter End questions:
1 Derive the discharge-head equations for a rectangular weir
2 Derive the discharge-head equations for a triangular weir
3 Derive the discharge-head equations for a trapezoidal weir
4 What are the advantages of triangular notch over a rectangular notch?
5 A suppressed rectangular weir is constructed across a channel of 0.77m width with a head of
0.39m and the crest 0.6m above the bed of the channel. Estimate the discharge over it.
Consider the velocity of approach and assume Cd = 0.623
6 Derive an expression for the discharge over a triangular notch in terms of the head of water
over the crest of the notch.
7 What is meant by end contraction? Explain briefly.
8 What is Cipoletti notch? Derive an expression for the discharge over Cipoletti notch in the
3
form, Q = 1.84 H 2
with usual notations.
9 Explain the terms veena contracta, end contractions, clinging nappe and velocity of
approach.
10 Distinguish between:
i) Notch and weir
ii) Broad crested and submerged weirs
iii) Free and clinging nappe
11 How are weirs classified?
12 What is ventilation? Why is it necessary? How is it provided?
13 Write a note on Ventilation of weirs.
14 Explain Cipoletti notch. What is the advantage of Cipoletti notch over trapezoidal notch?
Derive the equation of discharge over Cipoletti notch.
15 Find the discharge over 10m long rectangular weir under a head of 2m, if the channel
approaching the weir is 20m wide and 2.5m wide. Consider the velocity of approach.
Assume Cd = 0.6. Neglect end contraction. Take one trial.
16 Water flows through a right-angled triangular weir first and then over a rectangular weir of
1m crest length. The Cd values for triangular and rectangular weirs are 0.6 and 0.7
respectively. If the depth of water over the triangular weir is 350mm, find the head over the
rectangular weir.
17 With the help of neat sketches, explain i) Broad crested weir and ii) Ogee weir.
18 A rectangular sharp crested weir is required to discharge 2.645 m3/s of water under a head of
1.2m. If the coefficient of discharge is 0.6 and the velocity of approach near the weir is 1m/s.
Find the length of the weir. (L = 107.6mm)
19 A triangular notch discharges 0.0110m3/s under a head of 0.2m. Find the angle of the notch,
if Cd = 0.626. (2θ = 22.6o)
20 A right angled triangular notch discharges 0.143 m3/s. Find the head over the notch if Cd =
0.6. (H = 399.5mm)
21 Calculate the top width and depth of a triangular notch capable of discharging 700lps. The
weir discharges 5.7 lps when the head over the crest is 75mm. Take Cd = 0.62.
(T = 2.594m, D = 0.514m)
22 Calculate the value of V−notch angel to discharge 400lps under a head of 0.6m, assuming
Cd=0.60.
23 During a test in a laboratory the water passing through a Venturimeter is made to flow over a
90° notch. Diameter at inlet is 250mm and that at the throat is 100mm. The pressure
difference is 0.34m when the head over the V-notch is steady at 182mm. If Cd for the
Venturimeter is 0.97, what is the coefficient of discharge of the V−Notch?
24 A 90o V−notch is provided in a rectangular channel 1.5m wide in order to measure the
channel discharge the channel is designed to carry a maximum discharge of 0.4m3/s. With a
depth not exceeding 1.8m. Find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of the
channel.
25 A sharp crested rectangular weir 1.5m long and 900mm high is installed in a rectangular
channel 1.5m wide. If the head on the weir is 300mm, find the discharge
a) Neglecting velocity of approach
b) Considering velocity of approach
26 A rectangular channel is 4.5m wide. Water flows at a depth of 1.2m at a velocity of 0.9m/s.
A sharp crested weir is constructed across the channel and the depth in the channel rises up to
1.75m. What should be the height of the weir?
o
27 Two 90 V–notches & one Cipolletti weir are to be used side by side to measure a discharge
of 0.85m3/s through a channel. If the head should not exceed 300mm, what should be the
dimensions of the weirs?
28 Find the discharge through a trapezoidal notch which is 1.2m wide at the top and 0.5m at the
bottom and is 400mm in height. The head of water on the notch is 300mm. Cd for the
rectangular portion is 0.62 while for triangular portion is 0.60.
29 A discharge of 1500m3/s is to pass over a rectangular weir. The weir is divided into a
number of openings each of span 7.5m. If the velocity of approach is 3m/s, find the number
of openings needed in order the head of water over the crest is not to exceed 1.8m.
30 A rectangular channel 1.5m wide has a discharge of 200lps, which is measured by a right
angled V – notch. Find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of the channel if the
maximum depth of water is not to exceed 1m. Take Cd=0.62.
31 During an experiment in a laboratory 0.9 litres of water is flowing per second over a V-notch
when the head is 50mm and 5 lps, when the head is 100mm. Determine the values of k & n
in the equation Q=KHn.
32 A triangular weir has one side sloping at 45o and the other side Z(H):1V. Calculate the values
of Z which gives a discharge of 0.12m3/s under a head of 0.3m. Cd = 0.6

33 Water flows through a 90o V-notch with a free surface of water at a height of 100mm from
the crest. The corresponding flow rate is 1000lpm. If the height above the crest is increased
by 50%, what would be the new flow rate?
34 A rectangular channel 6m wide carries a flow of 1.5m3/s. A rectangular sharp crested weir is
to be installed near the end of the channel to create a depth of 1m. Upstream of the weir,
calculate the necessary weir height. Assume Cd=0.62.
35 A suppressed weir having a crest length of 4m, discharges under a head of 400mm. The
height of the weir crest above the channel bed is 1m. Find the rate of discharge.
36 A rectangular sharp crested weir is required to discharge 645 m3/s of water under a head of
1.2m. If the coefficient of discharge is 0.6 and the velocity of approach near the weir is 1
m/s, find the length of the weir required.
37 A discharge of 1800m3/s is to pass over a rectangular weir which is divided into a number of
spans of 10m each. If the velocity of approach is 4m/s, find the number of opening required
such that the head over the crest does not exceed 2m.
38 A waste weir has to pass a flood discharge of 3m3/s. find the length of the broad crested weir
to suit the discharge such that the depth of water over the weir crest will not be more than
420mm. Take Cd = 0.97.

39 A 3m wide rectangular irrigation canal carries water with a discharge of 6m3/s. what height
of rectangular weir installed across the canal will raise the water surface to a level of 2m
above the floor?
40 A rectangular weir 0.75m high & 1.5m long is to be used for discharging water from a tank
under a head of 0.5m. Estimate the discharge a) when it is used as suppressed weir. b) when
it is used as a contracted weir. Take Cd = 0.61.
41 A trapezoidal sharp crested weir has a base width of 1.2m & side slopes of 1.5H to 1V.
Calculate the discharge over the weir for a head of 350mm. Take Cd=0.62.

42 Calculate the bottom width and side slopes of a trapezoidal notch to discharge 4m3/s at a
head of 1.5m and 1.2m3/s at a head of 0.75. Assume Cd=0.63.
43 A Cipolletti weir of crest length 0.6m discharges water under of 0.36m. Find the discharge
over the weir if the channel is 0.8m wide & 0.5m deep. Take Cd = 0.6
44 Determine the discharge over a broad crested weir 26m long, the upstream level of water is
measured as 0.5m above the crest level. The height of the weir is 0.6m and the width of the
approach channel is 36m. Take Cd = 0.9. (14.379m3/s)