Applied physics

DR. CHETAN KOTABAGE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
KLS GOGTE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
 Syllabus
Unit – I Waves
Wave equation, Principle of superposition, Stationary waves- difference
between stationary and travelling waves.
Optics – interference and diffraction Concepts of interference, techniques for
obtaining interference, interference due to thin film, wedge shaped film,
Newton’s rings, Michelson’s interferometer Diffraction: Types of diffraction,
diffraction due to N slits, resolving power of a grating,
Sound –Introduction to Ultrasonic waves, generation of ultrasonic waves by
Piezoelectric technique, Non destructive testing (NDT) of materials (pulse echo
technique).
Self learning topic: Applications of interference-Antireflection coating(No
derivation), Determination of thickness of transparent sheet and wavelength of
light by Michelson's interferometer
Unit II - Electromagnetism and Photonics
Maxwell’s equations: Fundamentals of vector calculus, Maxwell’s equations in
vacuum, Physical significance of Maxwell’s equations, Velocity of
electromagnetic waves using Maxwell’s equations.
Laser Introduction, interaction between radiation and matter, Einstein’s
coefficients for two level system, conditions for laser action, components of
laser, CO2 laser, semiconductor laser, LIDAR.
Self learning topic: Industrial applications of laser (welding and drilling).
Optical fiber Total internal reflection in fiber, angle of acceptance, fractional
index change, Numerical aperture, types of optical fibers, losses in optical
fibers. Applications- fiber optic communication system.
Unit III - Quantum mechanics
Introduction, de Broglie hypothesis, G.P. Thomson’s experiment, concept and
relation between Phase velocity, Group velocity and particle velocity,
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and its elementary proof. Physical
interpretation of wave function, Development of Schrödinger’s time
dependent wave equation (1D), normalisation condition, eigen values and
eigen functions of a particle in an infinite potential well.
Self learning topic: Elementary operators in quantum mechanics.
Unit IV - Condensed matter Physics
Band theory of solids- energy bands in solids, Energy band formation in
lithium, silicon and diamond, Fermi-Dirac distribution,
Semiconductors- electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level in
intrinsic semiconductor, Hall effect and applications. Self learning topic: Fermi level
in extrinsic semiconductor at 0K and 300K
Superconductivity Introduction, resistivity as a function of temperature, Meissner
effect, Critical magnetic field, Persistent current, Critical current density, London
penetration depth, classification of superconductors, BCS theory (Qualitative),
Josephson junction, SQUID. Self learning topic: High Tc superconductors and
Maglev trains
Unit V -Advanced Physics
Nanomaterials: Introduction, Quantum confinement effect- Density of states, Top
down and Bottom up approaches of synthesis of nanomaterials, High energy ball
milling, Colloidal technique, Characterization techniques- X-ray diffraction (XRD),
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM),
Nuclear Physics Introduction to Nuclear detectors and accelerators, G.M.
Counter, Synchrotron, Nuclear reactors, Nuclear accelerators, working principle of
accelerators, medical application of nuclear physics, radiation in our environment
and its effects.
Text book: M. N. Avadhanulu and P. G. Kshirasagar. A text book of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand and company limited, 9th Revised Edition (2014) onwards.
Sulabha K Kulkarni, Nanotechnology principles and practices, Capital Publishing
Company, second edition (2011) onwards.
Waves
Wave is profile of disturbance that propagates in a medium. It is
characterized by wavelength, frequency, velocity, amplitude, phase and
intensity.
Wavefunction describes the profile. Example- 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
Wave equation describes the motion of a wave in a medium. ( in 1-D)

𝜕2𝑦 1 𝜕2𝑦
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

The principle of superposition of waves 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

Interference – The superposition of 2 or more waves results in interference.
Beats are observed when the two waves that superpose differ little in
wavelength and frequency.
Standing/stationary wave are observed when there is a superposition of two
waves of same amplitude, wavelength and frequency moving in the
opposite direction.
Condition for interference - Consider two waves that have phase
difference of δ. The wavefunction of these waves 𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) and
𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿).
The resultant wave has a wavefunction
𝛿
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + cos 𝛿/2
2

The maximum amplitude of the wave is obtained when cos 𝛿/2 = ±1 ,i.e.,
when the phase difference is 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋
The minimum amplitude of the wave is obtained when cos 𝛿/2 = 0 , i.e.,
when the phase difference is 𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋
For a stable interference monochromatic and coherent sources are
necessary.
Optics – Interference and diffraction
The phenomenon of interference and diffraction can be understood by
considering wave nature of light.
Techniques for obtaining interference-
1. Division of wavefront – In this technique, two coherent sources are
generated by splitting the wavefront of the wave. Example- Young’s
double slit experiment.
2. Division of amplitude – In this technique, two coherent sources are
produced by splitting the energy of wave. Example- Newton’s rings
Important concepts-
Geometric path- It is physical distance ‘d’ covered by light.
Optical path- It is used to compare distance covered by light in different
mediums. Optical path of light is ∆= 𝜇𝑑
If light covers a distance d in a medium of refractive index μ in time t, then
c
d = vt = t . Hence, ∆= 𝑐𝑡 = 𝜇𝑑
μ

The optical path difference between two waves of wavelength λ is

associated with the phase difference as
2𝜋
𝛿= Δ
𝜆
Thin film interference- A thin film of uniform thickness t and refractive
index μ floats on material of refractive index μ’ such that μ>μ’.
Optical path difference between light reflected from the
top and bottom surface of the film is
Δ = 𝜇 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑁𝑇 ---(1)
From Δ𝑁𝑂𝑄′ and Δ𝑄𝑂𝑄′,
𝑡 𝑡
cos 𝑟 = and cos 𝑟 =
𝑁𝑂 𝑂𝑄
2𝑡
Thus, 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂𝑄 = ----(2)
cos 𝑟
𝑁𝑇
In Δ𝑁𝑇𝑄, sin 𝑖 =
𝑁𝑄

Thus, 𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁𝑄′ + 𝑄 ′ 𝑄 sin 𝑖

𝑁𝑄′ 𝑄′ 𝑄
But from Δ𝑁𝑂𝑄′ and Δ𝑄𝑂𝑄′, tan 𝑟 = and tan 𝑟 =
𝑡 𝑡

Hence 𝑁𝑇 = 2𝑡 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑖 ----(3)

Thus, from eq. (1), (2) and (3) ,
2𝜇𝑡
∆= − 2𝑡 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑖 -----(4)
cos 𝑟

From Snell’s law, sin 𝑖 = 𝜇 sin 𝑟

Thus, eq. (4) reduces to
2𝜇𝑡 2𝑡 𝜇sin2 𝑟 2𝜇𝑡 1 − sin2 𝑟
∆= − = = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
Since the light gets reflected from denser medium at the top surface, a
path difference of λ/2 gets introduced. Thus, total path difference is
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 𝜆/2
Thus, for light of wavelength λ, phase difference is
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝛿= Δ= (2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 𝜆/2)
𝜆 𝜆
Thus, for constructive interference as 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 ,
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 2𝑛 − 1 , where 𝑛 = 1,2,3
2
For destructive interference as 𝛿 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 ,
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆, where 𝑛 = 1,2,3
Different colours on oil or soap film are due to constructive interference.
The shape of pattern is due to variation in thickness of the film.
What is a typical thickness of the film?
A film of few microns is required to produce interference pattern. A
typical wavetrain emitted by incoherent light source is of few microns. So
for a film of few microns, light reflected from top and bottom surface of
the film belongs to same wavetrain and hence coherent. If thickness of
film is more, then the reflected light belongs to different wavetrain and is
incoherent.
Applications of thin film – Coating on lenses, mirrors of cameras and
telescope. Coatings on lenses of eye glasses etc.
Problem – A parallel beam of light strikes an oil film (μ=1.4) floating of water.
When viewed at an angle of 300 from the normal, destructive interference for
n=6 is seen. Find the thickness of the film if wavelength of light is 5890 A0.
detectable radiation.
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 1 − sin2 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
From Snell’s law, 𝜇𝑎 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇 sin 𝑟 . As 𝜇𝑎 = 1,
sin2 𝑖
2𝜇𝑡 1 − = 𝑛𝜆
𝜇
𝑛𝜆 6×5890×10−10
Thus, 𝑡 = = = 1.35𝜇𝑚
𝜇2 −sin2 𝑖 1.4 2 −sin2 30

Problem – Monochromatic light of wavelength 5893A0 is reflecting at a normal

incidence from a soap film of refractive index 1.42. What will be the least
thickness for which the film will appear bright and dark?
For normal incidence r=0. For minimum thickness of the film n=1. Hence
𝜆 0.5893𝜇𝑚
For constructive interference 𝑡 = = = 0.108𝜇𝑚
4𝜇 4×1.42
𝜆 0.5893𝜇𝑚
For destructive interference 𝑡 = = = 0.208𝜇𝑚
2𝜇 2×1.42
Problem- A soap film of refractive index 1.33 is illuminated at 450 by
white light. For the wavelength 5890A0, find the minimum thickness at
which destructive interference is observed.
( A: 0.26 μm)
Wedge shaped film –
A wedge shaped film has top surface at an angle of ɵ with
the bottom surface. The condition for interference is
𝜆
Constructive interference 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝜃) = 2𝑛 − 1
2

Destructive interference 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝜃) = 𝑛𝜆

Fringewidth is the distance between consecutive bright
or dark fringes.
Consider two observable consecutive dark fringes nth and n+1th due to a
film of thickness t1 and t2 respectively.
𝑡2 −𝑡1
Thus, from diagram tan 𝜃 =
𝑤

But since ɵ is small, above expression can be

𝑡2 −𝑡1
𝜃= ---(1)
𝑤

For nth and n+1th dark fringe, the condition for destructive
interference gives 2𝜇𝑡1 cos 𝑟 + 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
and 2𝜇𝑡2 cos 𝑟 + 𝜃 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆
For small angles, 2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 and 2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆
Thus, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝜆/2𝜇 ---(2)
Thus, eq. (1) and (2) gives,
𝜆
𝑤=
2𝜇𝜃
Problem – Monochromatic light of wavelength 550 nm is incident normally
on a wedge shaped film of refractive index 1.5. If the distance between
two consecutive fringes is 0.02 mm, find the angle of the wedge in
degrees.
𝜆
𝑊=
2𝜇𝜃
550 × 10−9 −3 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜃= = 9.17 × 10
2 × 1.5 × 0.02 × 10−3
180 0
= 9.17 × 10−3 × = 0.530
𝜋
Problem: Two plane glass surfaces in contact with along one edge are
separated at the opposite edge by a thin wire. If 20 dark fringes are
observed for light of wavelength 5893 A0, at normal incidence, what is the
length of wire?
𝜆
For wedge shaped film, 𝑊 = . Let l be the length of wire.
2𝜇𝜃
𝜆 10𝜆
From diagram - 𝜃 = 𝑙/20𝑊 Hence, 𝑊 = ⇒𝑙= = 5.893 𝜇𝑚
2𝜇(𝑙/20𝑊) 𝜇
Newton’s rings-
A thin film of air is formed between plano-convex lens and
glass plate. Light from monochromatic source is
directed on the glass plate using a reflecting glass.
Interference pattern of concentric rings, which is
observed through microscope, which is known as
Newton’s rings.

How does thin film interference take place?

Light is reflected from the top and bottom surface
of the thin air film sandwiched between plano-convex lens and
glass plate. Superposition of this light produces interference pattern.
Why do we observe circular rings?
The thickness of the film is uniform at a certain distance from the point of
contact between plano-convex lens and glass plate. The condition of
constructive or destructive interference is satisfied by this film.
The thickness of the film decreases gradually. This is because the angle of
the wedge goes on increasing as we move away from the point of contact
between plano-convex lens and glass plate.
As W ∝ 1/𝜃 , the thickness of the films decreases gradually.
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄, 𝑅 − 𝑡 2 + 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑅2
𝑅2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑅2
As t<<R, above equation can be simplified as
𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡
Hence , 𝐷𝑛2 = 8𝑅𝑡 -----(1)
For a wedge shaped film, condition for constructive interference
gives, 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 𝜃 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2
For small angle approximation, 𝑟 → 0 and 𝜃 → 0.
2𝑛−1 𝜆
Hence, 𝑡 = -----(2)
4𝜇

Thus, from eq. (1) and (2), condition for a bright rings is
2
2 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛 =
𝜇

For a wedge shaped film, condition for destructive interference

gives, 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆.
For small angle approximation, 𝑟 → 0 and 𝜃 → 0.
𝑛𝜆
Hence, 𝑡 = -----(3)
2𝜇

Thus, from eq. (1) and (3), condition for a dark rings is
2
4𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛 =
𝜇
Problem – In Newton’s rings experiment, light of wavelength λ1=6000 A0
and λ2=4800 A0 is used. The radius of curvature of plano-convex lens is
0.96m. If nth dark ring of λ1 coincides with n+1th dark ring of λ2 , find n and
diameter of nth ring.
2
As 𝐷𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛+1 and 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝜆1 𝑅 , 𝐷𝑛+1 = 4 𝑛 + 1 𝜆2 𝑅 , these equations yield
𝜆1 1
𝑛𝜆1 = 𝑛 + 1 𝜆2 ⇒ =1+
𝜆2 𝑛
Thus
1 𝜆1 1 𝜆1 −𝜆2
= −1⇒ =
𝑛 𝜆2 𝑛 𝜆2

Thus,
𝜆2 4800
𝑛= = =4
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 1200
The diameter of the nth ring is
𝐷𝑛 = 4𝑛𝜆1 𝑅 = 4 × 4 × 6000 × 10−10 × 0.96 = 3.03 × 10−3 𝑚 = 3.03 𝑚𝑚
Problem- In Newton’s ring experiment, light of wavelength 5896A0 is used.
For a liquid medium, radius of 7th bright ring is 0.15 cm. If radius of plano-
convex lens is 1m, calculate speed of light in the liquid.
For a bright ring,

𝐷𝑛2 = 2 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆𝑅/𝜇
Thus,
2 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆𝑅
𝜇=
𝐷𝑛2
𝑐
But 𝜇 =
𝑣

Hence,
𝑐 𝑐𝐷𝑛2 3 × 108 × 2 × 0.15 × 10−2 2 8 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣= = = = 1.76 × 10
𝜇 2 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆𝑅 2 14 − 1 × 5896 × 10−10 × 1
Application of Newton’s rings –
1. Determination of wavelength
Diameter of pth dark ring 𝐷𝑝2 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅 and mth dark ring 𝐷𝑚
2 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅

Thus, 𝐷𝑝2 − 𝐷𝑚
2 = 4(𝑝 − 𝑚)𝜆𝑅 gives

𝐷𝑝2 −𝐷𝑚
2
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝜆= =
4 𝑝−𝑚 𝑅 4𝑅

Problem- In Newton’s rings experiment diameter of 15th dark ring

is 0.59 cm and of 5th dark ring is 0.336 cm. Find wavelength of
light if the radius of plano-convex lens is 1m.
P= 15, m=5. Thus,

𝐷𝑝2 − 𝐷𝑚
2
0.59 × 10−2 2 − 0.336 × 10−2 2
𝜆= = = 5.88 × 10−7 𝑚 = 0.588 𝜇𝑚
4 𝑝−𝑚 𝑅 4 × 10 × 1
Determination of refractive index of liquid.
If a liquid of refractive index μ is filled within the space between plano-
convex lens and glass plate, then for dark rings,
2 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅 2 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝜇𝑝 and 𝐷𝜇𝑚
𝜇 𝜇
2 − 𝐷2 = 4 𝑝−𝑚 𝜆𝑅
Thus, 𝐷𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑚 ---(1)
𝜇
But for measurements of diameters of pth and mth ring with air as a medium,
then 𝐷𝑝2 − 𝐷𝑚
2 = 4(𝑝 − 𝑚)𝜆𝑅 ----(2)

Thus, from eq. 1 and 2,

𝐷𝑝2 −𝐷𝑚
2
𝜇= 2 −𝐷2
𝐷𝜇𝑝 𝜇𝑚

Applications- 1. Anti reflection coating – It is used to reduce the amount of

reflected light from a lens of a camera, telescope. The reflected light from
the top and bottom of the coated film should undergo destructive
interference. The minimum thickness of coated film should be 𝑡𝑚 = 𝜆/4𝜇.
The amplitude of reflected light should also be same for complete
destructive interference. This is achieved when 𝜇 = 𝜇′.
2. Testing of optical flatness of surface- The optical flatness of surface
can be done using wedge shaped film. Due to irregularities, the fringe
pattern in not uniform. The surface is polished until it becomes optically
flat. The uniform fringe pattern indicates optically flat surface.

3. Testing of lens surface – In similar way Newton’s rings can be used to

test surface of a lens. The concentric uniform pattern indicates perfect
surface.
Michelson interferometer –
The interferometer has 1. monochromatic source (S)
2. Silver coated beam splitter (G1) 3. Mirrors (M1, M2)
4. Compensator (G2) 5. Screen
The beam splitter is at angle of 450 with the incoming ray
from the source. Ray 1gets reflected from mirror M1
( which can be moved) and retraces its path to reach
the screen. It passes through G1 three times. Ray 2 gets
reflected from mirror M2 ( which is fixed) and retraces its
path to reach the screen.
The compensator is placed in the path of ray 2 to make
the optical paths of both rays ( 1 and 2) identical. The
compensator has same thickness as beam splitter.
The superposition of ray 1 and 2 produces concentric bright and dark rings on the
screen.
Working of Michelson interferometer -
The mirror M1 and image of mirror M2 are separated by distance d. The light from
the source S gets reflected from these mirrors.
The light reflected from mirror M1 can be imagined as
coming from source S1 while light reflected from image of
mirror M2 can be imagined as coming from source S2. Since
light moves twice the distance d between M1’ and M2’ to get
reflected from M1, the sources are separated by a distance of
2d. Thus, optical path difference is 2d. For constructive
interference this must be equal to 𝑛𝜆 and for destructive
interference it must be equal to 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2.
A bright ring is observed when
2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2
A dark ring is observed when
2𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Applications- 1. Determination of wavelength – The movement of mirror M1
causes either collapse or emergence of fringes. The wavelength of
monochromatic source can be found using this property.
Let Xi be the initial position of the mirror. A vertical line can be marked on a
circular fringe on the screen. The mirror is moved through a distance to final
position Xf. During this movement if N fringes cross the line, then
𝑁𝜆 = 2|𝑋𝑓 − 𝑋𝑖 |
Hence
2 𝑋𝑓 −𝑋𝑖
𝜆= gives the wavelength.
𝑁
2. Find the thickness or refractive index of a plate –
If a plate of refractive index μ is introduced in the path of ray 1, then the fringe
pattern on the screen changes by N rings on the screen. The change in optical
path of ray 1 is Δ = 2𝜇𝑡 − 2𝑡.
But this change is equal to 𝑁𝜆. Thus,
𝑁𝜆 = 2𝑡(𝜇 − 1)
Thus, measurement of t can be done if μ is known or vice-versa.
3. Calculation of difference in wavelength – If the light source used in the
interferometer has two closely spaced wavelengths such that 𝜆1 > 𝜆2 , then
for a specific ‘x’, nth dark ring of 𝜆1 will coincide with nth dark ring of 𝜆2 . This is
called as position of maximum distinctness where the sharpness of the
pattern is maximum.
As the mirror M1 is moved, the fringes move on the screen. Since 𝜆1 > 𝜆2 , the
fringes for λ2 will move at a faster rate on the screen than fringes for λ1.
For next position of maximum distinctness, nth dark ring of 𝜆1 will coincide
with n+1th dark ring of 𝜆2 . If the mirror has been moved through a distance d,
then
2𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆1 ----(1) and 2𝑑 = 𝑛 + 1 𝜆2 -----(2)
𝜆2 λ2
Hence 𝑛𝜆1 = 𝑛 + 1 𝜆2 ⟹ 𝑛 = = ---(3)
𝜆1 −𝜆2 Δ𝜆
From equation, 1 and 3,
𝜆1 𝜆2
2𝑑 =
Δ𝜆
Since the wavelengths are close,
𝜆2𝑎𝑣𝑔
Δ𝜆 =
2𝑑
Problem : A mirror in Michelson interferometer is moved through 0.05 mm
and 200 fringes cross the field of view. Calculate the wavelength of light
used.
|𝑋𝑓 − 𝑋𝑖 | = 0.05 × 10−3 m and N=200. Thus,
2 𝑋𝑓 − 𝑋𝑖 2 × 0.05 × 10−3
𝜆= = = 0.5𝜇𝑚
𝑁 200

Problem – When a thin film of glass (μ=1.5) is inserted in a path of one of the
beams of Michelson interferometer, 30 fringes cross the field of view. If
thickness of film is 0.018 mm calculate wavelength of light.
𝜇 = 1.5, 𝑁 = 30, 𝑡 = 0.018 × 10−3 𝑚
As
2𝑡 𝜇 − 1 = 𝑁𝜆
2𝑡 𝜇−1 2×0.018×10−3 × 1.5−1
then 𝜆 = = = 0.6𝜇𝑚
𝑁 30
Diffraction - The deviation of a light beam from its linear path occurs when
the beam comes across an obstacle, which could be opaque or
transparent. Due to such obstacle, the energy distribution of the deviated
light gets modified. This effect is called as diffraction.
Types of diffraction-
Fresnel diffraction Fraunhoffer diffraction

Source and screen are at a finite Source and screen are at infinite
distance from slit distance from slit
Cylindrical or spherical wavefront Plane wavefront
Mathematically complex Mathematically simple
Diffraction due to single slit- A single slit of width b can be split into n number of
small slits of equal widths. These coherent sources has φ as the phase difference
between the waves emitted by neighbouring slits. Due to same width of each slit
the magnitude of electric field vector, E, is same. At a point on the screen, electric
field vectors due to these slits add up to resultant electric field vector, ER . The
magnitude of resultant electric field vector governs the intensity of light observed
at a point
For large number of slits, n, addition of vectors, which is an equi-angle
polygon, forms a circle of radius r.
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄, 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑄𝑅 = 𝐸 , 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑅 = 𝑟 and ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄 = ∠𝑄𝑂𝑃 = 𝜙
A perpendicular is drawn from O to PQ. From geometry of diagram,
𝐸/2
sin 𝜙/2 =
𝑟
𝐸/2
𝑟= −−− −(1)
𝜙
sin
2
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑇, 𝑃𝑇 = 𝐸𝑅 , 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑇 = 𝑟 and ∠𝑃𝑂𝑇 = 𝑛𝜙
From geometry of diagram,
𝐸𝑅 /2
sin 𝑛𝜙/2 =
𝑟
𝐸𝑅 /2
𝑟= −−− −(2)
𝑛𝜙
sin
2
𝑛𝜙
sin 2
From eq. (1) and (2), 𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸 𝜙 Since φ is small, sin 𝜙/2 = 𝜙/2.
sin 2
𝑛𝜙
sin 2 𝐼0 sin2 𝛼
𝐸𝑅 = 𝑛𝐸 ⟹ 𝐸𝑅2 = 𝑛𝐸 2 sin2 𝛼 /𝛼 2 ⟹𝐼=
𝑛𝜑/2 𝛼2
Diffraction due to N slits- Let N slits of width b be separated be a distance a.
These coherent sources has δ as the phase difference between the waves
emitted by neighbouring slits. Due to same width of each slit the magnitude of
electric field vector, E’, is same. At a point on the screen, electric field vectors
due to these slits add up to resultant electric field vector, E’R . The magnitude of
resultant electric field vector governs the intensity of light observed at a point
For large number of slits, N, addition of vectors, which is an equi-angle
polygon, forms a circle of radius r’.
In ∆𝑂′𝑃′𝑄′, 𝑃′𝑄′ = 𝑄′𝑅′ = 𝐸′ , 𝑂′𝑃′ = 𝑂′𝑄′ = 𝑂′𝑅′ = 𝑟′ and ∠𝑃′𝑂′𝑄′ = ∠𝑄′𝑂′𝑃′ = 𝛿
A perpendicular is drawn from O’ to P’Q’. From geometry of diagram,
𝐸′/2
sin 𝛿/2 =
𝑟′
𝐸′/2
𝑟′ = −−− −(1)
𝛿
sin
2
In ∆𝑂′𝑃′𝑇′, 𝑃′𝑇′ = 𝐸𝑅 ′ , 𝑂′𝑃′ = 𝑂′𝑇′ = 𝑟′ and ∠𝑃′𝑂′𝑇′ = 𝑁𝛿
From geometry of diagram,
𝐸𝑅 ′/2
sin 𝑁𝛿/2 =
𝑟′
𝐸𝑅 ′/2
𝑟′ = −−− −(2)
𝑁𝛿
sin
2
𝑁𝛿
sin 2
From eq. (1) and (2), 𝐸𝑅 ′ = 𝐸′ 𝛿
sin
2
2 sin2 𝑁𝛽
𝐸𝑅′2 = 𝐸 ′ sin2 𝑁𝛽 / sin2 𝛽 ⟹ 𝐼′ = 𝐼 2 ⟹
sin 𝛽
𝐼 sin2 𝛼 sin2 𝑁𝛽
0
𝐼′ =
𝛼2 sin2 𝛽
The optical path difference between rays emerging from neighbouring slits is
∆= 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃
2𝜋
As phase difference 𝛿 = Δ
𝜆
2𝜋
𝛿= 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝜆
𝜋
As 𝛽 = 𝛿/2, β= 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝜆

For 𝛽 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … which implies

sin 𝑁𝛽
lim = ±𝑁
𝛽→𝑛𝜋 sin 𝛽

𝐼0 sin2 𝛼 2
Hence, the maximum intensity is 𝐼′ = 𝑁 .
𝛼2

Thus, constructive interference is observed when

𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑚𝜋
For minimum intensity sin 𝑁𝛽 = 0. Hence destructive interference occurs at 𝛽 =
𝑁
Thus, destructive interference is observed when N 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 , 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑁
Resolving power of grating –Consider a source emitting light of
wavelength λ and λ+dλ. The nth orders of λ and λ+dλ are observed at
angle ɵ and ɵ +dɵ respectively.
In case of diffraction grating resolving power refers to ability of grating to
separate two closely space wavelengths. According to Rayleigh criterion,
the maximum and minimum of λ and λ+dλ coincide, then the wavelength
are just resolved. The cases of unresolved and completely resolved are as
below.
If the wavelengths are just resolved, then nN+1th minimum of λ coincides with
nth maximum of λ+dλ. Hence from condition of destructive interference for λ,
𝑁 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃 = (𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆---(1)
and constructive interference for λ+dλ,
𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆)---(2)
From eq. (1) and (2),
𝑁 𝑛 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 = (𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆
𝑁𝑛𝜆 + 𝑁𝑛𝑑𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁𝜆 + 𝜆
Thus,
𝜆
= 𝑁𝑛
𝑑𝜆
which is resolving power of the grating.
Problem: A light of wavelength 550 nm falls normally on a grating having grating
constant 2.2 μm. Determine angular position of 2nd and 3rd order.
a+b=2.2 × 10−6 𝑚, λ=550 × 10−9 m.
𝑛𝜆
Since 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆, 𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
𝑎+𝑏

For n=2,
2 × 550 × 10−9
𝜃 = sin−1 −6
= sin−1 0.5 = 300
2.2 × 10
For n=3,
3 × 550 × 10−9
𝜃 = sin−1 = sin−1 0.75 = 48.60
2.2 × 10−6
Problem : For a diffraction grating, 2nd order is observed at 300 at 500 nm. Find number
of lines per cm on the grating.
𝑛𝜆 2 × 500 × 10−9 −6 𝑚 = 2 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚
𝑎+𝑏 = = = 2 × 10
sin 𝜃 sin 300
1 1
Hence no. of lines per cm = = = 5000 lines per cm
𝑎+𝑏 2×10−4
Ultrasonic- Sound that has frequency more than 20kHz.
Ultrasonic waves can be generated using inverse piezoelectric effect.
In piezoelectric effect, when force is applied on along the two faces of
piezoelectric crystal, equal and opposite charges appear on the other two
faces of the crystal.

In inverse piezoelectric effect, if voltage is applied along two faces of the

crystal then then dimension of the crystal changes along other two faces
of the crystal.
If polarity of voltage is varied with a known frequency, then the other two
faces vibrate with the same frequency generating longitudinal waves in
the surrounding medium. For frequency greater than 20KHz, ultrasonic
waves are generated in the surrounding medium.
In the ultrasonic wave generator circuit, capacitor C3 provides positive feedback to
amplifier circuit. The npn transistor operates only when the voltage reaches 0.7 V.
The tuning circuit controls the frequency of oscillation. The amplifier circuit controls the
applied voltage. This in turn controls the intensity of ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves
upto frequency 800 MHz can be generated using this circuit.
Applications of ultrasonic waves- Non destructive testing (NDT) is a technique
for detecting defects in a material without affecting its future utility.
Normal beam pulse echo testing – A probe, which acts as transmitter and
receiver is used in this technique. The ultrasonic waves are incident normally
on the surface of the specimen. The ultrasonic pules is reflected from the rear
surface is recorded in CRO. If a defect comes across the path of the waves,
then a pulse of lower amplitude is recorded at an earlier instant than the
reflected pulse from the rear surface. This gives location of the defect as well.