Ultrasonics and NDT

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Ultrasonic Non Destructive Testing
Chapter · February 2009
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Ultrasonic Non Destructive Testing
Mahesh Lohith K.S, VVIET,Mysore
1 Introduction
1.1 Wave Modes
The waves are characterized in a medium by oscillatory patterns that are capa-
ble of maintaining their shape and propagating in a stable manner. Thus the
proagation of waves can occur through different modes in a solid medium. The
different types of wave propagation in a solid medium are
1. Longitudinal
2. Transverse of Shear
3. Surface Waves or Rayleigh Waves
4. Plate Waves (Lamb waves)
The Surface or Rayleigh waves travel on the sufrace of the relatively thick solid
material pertaining to a depth of one wavelength. It combines both longitudinal
and transverse wave motions to create an elliptical wave motion on the surface.
The direction of propagation is perpendicular to the plane of ellipse. Plate waves
are similar to Rayleigh waves but they can only be generated in a material of
thickness of few wavelengths. They are the complex vibrational waves that
propagate parallel to the test sufrace throughout the thickness of the material.
1.2 Non Destructive Testing(NDT)

Inherent flaws in the work piece of a machine such as cracks, pores and microcav-
ities may result is a fatal failure of the machine, thus affecting the production.
Hence it is very important to detect the flaws in the part. Destructive method of
testing may not help for machine parts due to structural damage occuring with
it. Thus, Non Destructive Testing,is a method used to test a part for the flaws
without affecting the physical properties and causing no structural damage to
it. There are many methods of NDT techniques available for testing. Some of
them are
1. Liquid Penetration Test
2. Eddy Current Test
3. Magnetic Particle Test
4. X-ray and Gamma ray Radiography Test
5. Ultrasonic Test
1
Figure 1: Propagation of sound energy
2 Ultrasonic Testing Principle

Ultrasonics are the sound waves whose frequency is greaterthan 20kHz. Due to
the high frequency they have a very good penetrating power. When sound waves
propagate from one medium to another a part of the sound energy is reflected
and the rest is transmitted at the interface seperating the two media [see fig
1]. This property is made use to detect flaws because not only intefaces also
the flaws can reflect the ultrasonic sound energy. The interaction of the sound
energy is stronger for higher frequencies. Hence high frequency ultrasound in
the frequency range 0.5 MHz to 25MHz are found suitable for the testing.The
waves are generated by using either a Piezo-electric energised crystal cut in a
particular fashion to generate the desired wave mode or an Electromagnetic
accoustic transducer. The relation among the intensities of the incident and
n o2
reflected sound energy is given by I2 = I1 ρρ11 −ρ 2
+ρ2
The intensity of the sound wave reflected from the interface generally de-
pends upon the difference in the densities of the pair of media (ρ1 − ρ2 ) for the
given incident wave intensity. Here ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities of the two media
1 and 2 respectively through which the sound wave is propagating. Thus, if the
ultrasonic wave propagates from a medium of higher density into a medium of
lower density then maxium reflection of intensity takes place at the interface
seperating the two media. The flaw in the medium results in the reflection of
sound energy due to the variation of density and hence thier detection is made
passible. reflections are analysed electrically and the reflection is called echo.
3 Velocity of ultrasonics in solids

3.1 Ultrasonic testing setup and method
The ultrasonic testing device consists of a probe using which the pulses of sound
energy can be generated , the part which is to be tested and an oscilloscope to
analyse the echoes electrically. In order to transfer the sound waves effectively
into the part a layer coupling material like gel is used between the probe and
the part.The probe performs both transmission and reception of soundwaves.
2
Figure 2: Ultrasonic testing setup
Its transduction converts electrical pulses into sound pulses and vice versa.
3.2 Pulse-Echo Method of Detection

The longitudinal ultrasonic pulses are generated using the probe. For each
generated pulse the echoes are observed on the oscilloscope as shown in the
figure 2. The first echo corresponds to the reflection from the upper surface of
the part. If there exists a flaw, a second echo is observed with a lower pulse
height due to smaller reflection intensity. A third echo is observed due to the
reflection from th back surface. The intensity of the echo from the back surface
reflection is less due to attenuation of sound energy in the medium. The Analyis
of the echoes using CRO provides the time taken by the sound to travel too and
fro distance from the surface to the flaw. Thus the flaw detection is achieved
and the depth of the flaw can be calculate using the formula S = Ct 2 Here ’S’ is
the depth of the flaw, ’C’ is the velocity of ultrasonics in the medium and ’t’ is
the time elapsed between too and fro journey of ultrasonic energy.
3.3 Determination of velocity of ultrasonics in solids

A standard specimen with accurate demensions(Thickness) can be used to deter-
mine the velocity of ultrasonics in solids. Using the pulse echo method the time
duration for the too and fro journey of the back reflection can be determined.
Thus the Velocity of ultrasonic is determined using the formula C = 2S t
3.4 Determination of Elastic constants

The velocites of longitudinal ultrasonic waves(CL ) and shear ultrasonic waves
(CS ) are determined for the given solid using pulse echo method. The elastic
constants are determined using the following formulae.
3
CS
2
1−2 CL
The Poisson’s Ratio is given by σ = CS
2
2−2 CL
The Young’s Modulus is given by E = 2ρCS2 (1 + σ)

The Rigidity Modulus is given by n = ρCS2
Here ρ is the density of the material
4 Velocity of ultrasonics in liquids

4.1 Determination by forming the Acoustic Grating
The velocity of Ultrasonics in a liquid can be determined by using the method of
diffraction of light by the Aqua-Grating. The given liquid in filled into a small
glass chamber.A quartz crystal is mounted in between two metal plates and is
immersed in the given liquid. These plates are connected to an oscillator which
can generate audio frequencies. The frequency is so adjusted that the crystal
vibrates in resonance with the oscillator.The vibration of crystal produces ultra-
sonics in the medium which undergo reflection from the walls of the container
as shown in the Fig.3.
Figure 3: Acoustic Grating
Due to superposition of forward and reflected waves, longitudinal station-

ary waves are formed. The density is maximum at nodes and minimum at
antinodes. The arrangement is called acoustic grating. The acoustic grating
is mounted on the prism table of a spectrometer. A parallel beam of sodium
light (S) is allowed to incident normally on acoustic grating and the diffracted
light is viewed through the telescope and diffraction pattern consisting of many
principal maxima is observed. The position of principal maxima is given by
d sin θn = nλ
Where λ = wavelength of sodium light,d = Grating Constant,θn = angle of
diffraction for nth order, n = order of spectrum.
It λu be the wavelength of ultrasonic through the medium, then d = λ2u
Thus λ2u sin θn = nλ
2nλ
⇒ λu = sin θn
If the resonant frequency of piezoelectric crystal is ν, the velocity of ultra-
sonic wave is given by
2νnλ
v = νλu or v = sinθ n
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Ultrasonic Non Destructive Testing

Chapter · February 2009

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1.2 Non Destructive Testing(NDT)

2 Ultrasonic Testing Principle

3 Velocity of ultrasonics in solids

3.2 Pulse-Echo Method of Detection

3.3 Determination of velocity of ultrasonics in solids

3.4 Determination of Elastic constants

The Young’s Modulus is given by E = 2ρCS2 (1 + σ)

4 Velocity of ultrasonics in liquids

Figure 3: Acoustic Grating

Due to superposition of forward and reflected waves, longitudinal station-

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