Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University

Mechanical Design and Production

Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Determination of wear rate for different

metals by using pin-disc machine

Submitted To
Dr. Essam E-Geddawy

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 24, 2020

Objective
Understand tribology science regarding Friction, wear and lubrication and different types of wear.
Calculate wear rate percentage on different specimens under several loads using Pin-disc M / C.

Introduction
Tribology
The study of the interaction of sliding surfaces. It includes three subjects: friction, wear, and
lubrication. There is a difficulty in that friction is generally characterized as a branch of physics or
mechanical engineering; wear is part of the material science of metallurgy, while lubrication is a
branch of chemistry.
On an overall basis, friction uses up, or wastes, a substantial amount of the energy generated by
humankind, while a large amount of productive capacity is devoted to replacing objects made
useless by wear.

1-Friction
Is the resistance to sliding of a solid when a contacting body produces the resistance. It is therefore
a vital factor in the operation of most mechanisms.
The mechanism of friction is the exact process by which energy is lost as two surfaces slip past
each other.
Usage: High friction is needed for the satisfactory functioning of some things like paper clips as
well as in the familiar processes of walking, gripping objects manually, and building piles of sand.
Low friction, however, is desired in objects that are designed to move continuously, like engines
and the internal mechanism of watches. Constant friction is required in brakes and clutches as
otherwise unpleasant jerky movement would be produced.
Parameters affect friction: (1-Speed 2-Material 3-Loads 4-Wetness of surface 5-Temperature
6- Surface Finish).
2-Wear
It’s when solid exert the removal of material from a solid surface because of the mechanical action.
It is such a phenomenon that happen when two solid bodies slide over each other or even touch
each other without measurable material transfer or material loss. Thus, rails become worn because
of the continued rolling of train wheels over them. The systematic study of wear has been severely
hampered by two factors: first, the existence of a number of separate wear processes, second, the
difficulties caused by the small amounts of material involved in wear processes.
Wear types and mechanisms: (1-Adhesive wear 2-Abrasive wear 3-Surface fatigue
4-Fretting wear 5-Erosive wear 6-Corrosion and oxidation wear 7-Impact 8-Cavitation
9-Diffusive wear).

3-Lubrication
The use of lubricants, namely, substances introduced into the interface between sliding surfaces to
diminish friction, the main concern is to reduce the wear that accompanies sliding and, at the same
time, to design lubrication systems that will operate for long periods without inspection or
maintenance. A large number of different lubricants are in use at any one time, (a single major oil
company may market many hundreds of different varieties), and no aspect of tribology receives as
much attention as the development and testing of improved lubricants.

Methods of measuring wear rate:

Wear measurement is carried out to determine the amount of materials removed (or worn away)
after a wear test. The material worn away can be expressed either as weight (mass) loss, volume
loss, or linear dimension change depending on the purpose of the test, the type of wear, the
geometry and size of the test specimens, and sometimes on the availability of a measurement
facility.
Theory:
win −wf
Wear rate% = ∗ 100 Where: 𝑊𝑖𝑛 = initial weight of specimen. 𝑊𝑓 = final weight of specimen.
win

Equipment set up and testing procedure

Equipment:
1-Pin-Disc machine
Specification: (1-Power = 0.25KW 2-Volt = 220V
3-Ampere = 3.8Amp 4- Speed = 1420rpm
5-Cos Φ = 0.61degree 6-Frequency = 50Hz).
2-Sensitive Balance of sensitivity 1/1000 gm.
3-Grinding papers.

Sample characteristics:
Sample one: Material: steel Sample two: Material: brass

testing procedure:
1- Determine the initial weight for steel and brass specimens using the sensitive balance (Win)
2- Put each specimen in the chuck of the Pin-disc M/C and fix it firmly.
3- Operate the machine for each specimen for 5 minutes under different loads of 500, 1000, and
1500 gm.
4- Predetermine the final weight for each specimen at each load after operating the machine for 5
minutes by using the sensitive balance (Wf).
5- Calculate the wear rate percentage for steel and brass for each load.
Observations and Results
Reading Material Mass initial Mass final Load Ln Lubricant Wear rate
NO. (gm) (gm) (gm) (weight) (%)
1 Steel 7.665 7.648 500 6.214 No 0.221
2 Steel 7.502 7.468 1000 6.907 No 0.453
3 Steel 7.209 7.133 1500 7.313 No 1.054
4 Brass 7.807 7.765 500 6.214 No 0.537
5 Brass 7.3 7.236 1000 6.907 No 0.876
6 Brass 6.928 6.837 1500 7.313 No 1.313

1.4

1.2

1
Wear rate %

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 7.4
ln(weight (gm))

brass steel

Results discussion

*We needed to check two factors only during the experiment: Material and load, while the rest
of parameters such as: surface finish, temperature and speed are constant.

1-The loads and material have different effect on the wear rate.

2-The brass material has a wear rate higher than that of steel.

3-The rate of wear is nearly direct proportional to the applied load.

 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Determination of hardness number (Rc) for

different types of antifriction rolling bearings
using hardness tester (REICHERTER)

Submitted To
Dr. Essam E-Geddawy

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 24, 2020

Objective
Determination of hardness number (Rc) for different types of antifriction rolling bearings using
hardness tester (REICHERTER).

Introduction
Bearings
Bearings provide either a sliding or a rolling contact whenever relative motion exists between
parts of a machine. Sliding contact bearings are referred to as plain bearings and rolling contact
bearings are often called antifriction bearings.

Bearings that provide sliding contact fall into three general classes: radial bearings that support
rotating shafts; thrust bearings that support axial loads on rotating shafts; and linear bearings that
guide moving parts in a straight line. Radial bearings are also called sleeve bearings and they can
either be full journal bearing or partial journal bearing. The former has 360° contact with its
mating surface where the latter has less than 180° contact.

summary of the advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings when compared with antifriction
bearings:

Advantage: 1-Quieter in operation. 2-Lower cost. 3-Require less space.

Disadvantage: 1-High friction between mating surfaces result in high power consumption.

2-More susceptible to damage from impurities in lubrication system.

3-Bearing life is not limited by fatigue Have more stringent lubrication requirements.
Antifriction Bearings:

Antifriction bearings minimize friction by removing any possible sliding between bearing
surfaces and replacing all contacts with rolling interfaces. They utilize a separator to space the
hardened rolling elements apart. The Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers Association Standards
(AFBMA) provides standardized dimensions, tolerances and fits of ball and roller bearings.

Antifriction bearings can be categorized to two different configurations: axial ball and roller
bearings. They are more desirable than plain bearing due to their lower friction and for reduced
lubrication requirement. However, the life of antifriction bearing is limited by the fatigue life of
the material they are made of and the type of lubricant being used. The types of antifriction bearing
are group by the shape of the rolling element and they are ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings,
tapered roller bearings, and needle roller bearings. There are variations within each type of
bearings.

Classification of Bearings

1-Depending on the direction of force: 1. Radial bearing 2. Axial bearing

2-Depending on the type of friction:

a-Sliding contact bearing: Sliding contact bearings are also known as sleeve bearings, journal
bearings or plain bearings. In this type of bearing surface of shaft slides over the surface of bush
which results in wear and friction. To reduce the friction rotating surfaces are separated by a film
of lubricating oil. The bush is made of special material like bronze or white metal.

Applications of sliding contact bearings: a-Concrete mixtures, rope conveyors and marine
installations. b-Steam and gas turbines. c-Large size electric motors d-Centrifugal pumps.
e- Crankshaft bearings in petrol and diesel engines.

Types of sliding contact bearings: On the basis of type of lubrication applied in sliding contact
bearings, they can be classified into two types. (1- Hydrodynamic lubrication bearings 2- Hydro-
static lubrication bearings).
b- Rolling contact bearing: Rolling contact bearings are also known as anti-friction bearings or
simply ball bearings. Rolling elements like balls or rollers are introduced between rotating surfaces
to reduce the friction. In this type of bearing sliding contacts are replaced by rolling contacts.
Application of rolling contact bearings: a-Rope shaves, crane hooks and hoisting drums. b-Small
size electric motors. c-Gear boxes. d-Front and rear axles of automobiles. e-Machine tool spindles.

Types of rolling contact bearings: On the basis of load and use requirements, ball bearings can be
classified in following types:-

1. Deep groove ball bearing. 2. Cylindrical roller ball bearing. 3. Angular contact bearings.
4. Self-aligning bearings. 5. Spherical roller bearing. 6. Taper roller bearing. 7. Thrust ball bearing.

Single-Row Ball Bearing, Non-Filling Slot: This type

of ball bearing is also known as the Conrad or Deep-
groove type. It is a symmetrical unit capable of taking
combined radial and thrust loads. This type of bearing
is not self-aligning therefore accurate alignment
between shaft and housing bore is required.

Cylindrical Roller: These bearings have solid or

helically wound hollow cylindrical rollers. The free
ring may have a restraining flange to provide some
restraint to endwise movement in one direction or
maybe without a flange so that the bearing rings may
be displaced axially with respect to each other.
Materials of Roller Bearings: Bearing Materials are Ceramics, Chrome Steels, Stainless Steels,
and Plastics:-

1-Bearings Made of Chrome Steel - SAE 52100.

2-Extra clean 52100 chrome steel bearings.

3-Bearings Made of Stainless Steels.

4-Martensitic Stainless Steel Bearings- AISI 440C.

5-Martensitic Stainless Steel Bearings– ACD34 / KS440 / X65Cr13.

6- Martensitic Stainless Steel Bearings– SV30.

7-AISI316 Austenitic Stainless Steel Bearings.

8-Other 300 Series Stainless Steel Bearings.

9-Medium Carbon Alloy Steel Bearings.

10-Low Carbon Alloy Steel Bearings.

11-Bearings Made of Plastics and Non-Metallic Materials.

12-Bearings Made of Ceramic Materials.

Equipment set up and testing procedure

Equipment:

REICHERTER Hardness Tester

Components: (1. Movable table 2. Hardness scale 3. Pin

spindle 4. Test ball 5. Operating arm 6. Rotating wheel)

Machine Dimensions: height = 64cm Width = 17cm

Length = 30c
testing procedure:
1- Put rolling bearing on the tester table.
2- Fix firmly the rolling bearing between the table and pin spindle by rotating the wheel in clock
wise direction.
3- Move the arm of descending the test ball from the initial state to the middle position.
4- Adjust the pointer of the hardness scale to number 100.
5- Move the arm of the descending test ball to the front, then the pointer will move.
6- Wait about 30 seconds.
7- Move the arm of descending test ball to the middle position, then read the hardness number (Rc).
8- Move the arm of ball tester to the back (initial state).
9- Rotate the wheel anti-clock wise direction to dismantle the rolling bearing from the tester.

Observations and Results

Bearing Hardness = 60 RC

Reverse selection of bearings from knowing its dimension:

1-Needle roller bearing

Height (U) = 17mm Inner Diameter (Fw)= 24mm

So its designation (K 24x30x17)

2-Double row Cylindrical Bearing

Height (B)= 25mm Inner Diameter (d)= 60mm

So its designation (NNCF 4912 CV)

3-Tapered roller bearings

Height (T)= 19.75mm Inner Diameter (d)= 40mm

So its designation (30208)

 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – Fall 2020

Machine Design Laboratory Experiment (2)

Determination of spur gear tooth profile

Submitted To
Dr. Essam E-Geddawy

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

April 20, 2021

Objective
Doing reverse engineering for a existing gear and determining all its parameter (outer diameter,
number of teeth, pitch circle diameter, and module).
Also, to use optical profile projector to draw an exact gear tooth profile.

Introduction
Gears:[1]
Gears are among the most important power transmission elements. A gear is a rotating machine
element having cut teeth which mesh with another toothed part, usually having teeth of similar
size and shape, in order to transmit power. Two or more gears working together are called a
“transmission” (or gear set) and can produce “mechanical advantage” and thus may be considered
a simple machine. The mechanical advantage is a measure of the force or torque amplification that
is obtained using mechanical devices.
When two gears mesh with one gear bigger than the other (the size of the teeth must match thus
the bigger gear has more teeth), a mechanical advantage is obtained where the rotational speeds
and the torques of the two gears will be different.
A transmission (or gear set) can be used to change the speed, torque, direction of rotation, direction
of a power source, or the type of motion.

Types of Gears:
1-Spur gears: Spur gears are straight-toothed gears having radial teeth used to
transmit power and motion between parallel axes. These gears are widely used
for speed increase or reduction, high torque, resolution for positioning systems.
These gears can either be mounted on a hub or a shaft.
Use of Spur Gears:
These gears find wide application in a number of fields including: Spur gear
a- Automobiles b- Textiles c- Industrial engineering

2-Helical gears: Helical gear is a popular type of gear having its

teeth cut at an angle, thus allowing for more gradual and smoother
meshing between gear wheels. The helical gears are a refinement
over spur gears.
Use of Helical Gears: Helical gear
These gears are used in areas requiring high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise
prevention is important like: a- Automobiles b- Textile c- Aerospace d- Conveyors
3-Bevel gears: Bevel gears are mechanical devices used for transmitting
mechanical power and motion. These gears are widely used for transmitting
power and motion between nonparallel axes and are designed to transmit
motion between intersecting axes, generally at right angles. The teeth on bevel
gear can be straight, spiral or hypoid. The gears are suitable when the direction
of a shaft's rotation needs to be changed.
Use of Bevel Gears:
These gears find wide application in a number of fields including:
a- Automotive industry b-Textile industry c- Industrial engineering products Bevel gear

4-Worm gears: Transmit rotation between perpendicular shafts (not

intersecting, there is an offset between them). The worm resembles a screw
which can be right-handed or left-handed. Worm gear sets are usually used
when high reduction in speed is desired (speed ratios of 3 or higher). It
transmits rotation from the worm to the worm gear, but not the opposite.
Use of Worm Gears:
These gears find application in: a- Electric motors b- Automotive components

Worm gear
5-Rack Gears: A rack is generally used for converting rotational
motion into linear motion. It is a flat bar onto which the teeth of a
pinion gear are engaged. It is a kind of gear whose axis is at infinity.
These gears are designed to accommodate a wide variety of
applications.
Use of Rack Gears:
The gear is commonly used in steering mechanism of cars. Other
important applications of rack gears include:
a- Construction equipment b- Machine tools c- Conveyors
d- Material handling e- Roller feeds Rack and pinion

6-Internal Gears: An internal gear is a hollow gear with teeth cut on its
internal surface. The teeth in such a gear project inwards instead of
outwards from the rim.
Use of Internal Gears: a-Light duty applications b-Rollers c-Indexing

Internal Gear
 Terminologies[2]
Since spur gears are the simplest type, it will be used for
illustration and to define the primary parameters of gears
and their relations.
Pitch circle: the theoretical circle upon which all gear
calculations are based and its diameter is called the (pitch
diameter).

 Pitch circles of mating gears are tangent to each other.

 The “centers distance” between two mating gears is the sum of the
pitch radiuses of the two gears.
 The smaller of two mating gears is called the “pinion” and the
larger is called the gear.

Addendum and Dedendum circles: the circles defining the top and bottom faces of the teeth.
Addendum “𝑎”: the radial distance from the pitch circle to the top surface of the teeth.
Dedendum “𝑏”: the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom surface of the teeth.

Clearance “𝑐”: the distance between the tooth top surface and the bottom
surface of a mating gear.
Circular pitch “𝑝”: the distance measured on the pitch circle from a
point on one tooth to the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. The
circular pitch is equal to the sum of "tooth thickness" and "width of
space". The width of space is slightly larger than the tooth thickness such
that mating teeth can engage easily without obstruction.
Module “𝑚”: is the ratio of pitch diameter to the number of teeth of a gear.
Theory: as for
2 Dp
Do = Dp (1 + ) m= Do: Outer gear Diameter
Z Z
Dp: Pitch circle Diameter
Z: Number of gear teeth
m: Module of gear

Equipment set up and testing procedure

Equipment:
1-Vernier caliber used to measure all dimensions of gear
2- Optical profile projector (model PH – 3515F)

Testing procedure:
a- Reverse for actual gear
1-Measure outer gear Diameter (Do) and number of teeth (Z).
2-Then you calculate Pitch circle diameter (Dp).
optical profile projector visual
3-Then we can get the module calculated. illustration and dimensions
4- Then we choose a standard module.
5- Therefore we get actual DP.
6- draw the gear with all detailed parameters you got using and CAD software
b- gear tooth profile
1- you set the gear probably on the optical profile projector until you see
clearly the tooth you want to know its dimension.
2- you set the marker on the left corner of the tooth base then you make the
zero refence then you move in the x-direction until you reach the right corner.
3- you move up 1mm in the Y-direction then set the marker on the left tooth
profile and repeat step(2).
4- repeat step (2&3) until you sweep the entire tooth profile.
5- you use the coordinates you got in tooth profile drawing using excel.

optical profile projector

(model PH – 3515F)
Observations and Results
a- Reverse for actual gear

Outer Gear Diameter (Do) 85mm

Face Width (F) 17.8mm
Number of teeth (Z) 31
Inner Diameter (Di) 75mm
Dp Calculated 79.85mm
Module (m) 2.57mm
Standard Module (m st.) 2.5mm
Dp Actual 77.5mm

Gear front view Gear back view

 b- gear tooth profile
Tooth height Tooth width (mm) Left tooth profile Right tooth profile
coordinate (mm) coordinates (mm) coordinates (mm)
6.69 1.577 -0.788 0.788
6 2.437 -1.218 1.218
5 3.538 -1.769 1.769
4 4.393 -2.196 2.196
3 5.122 -2.561 2.561
2 5.608 -2.804 2.804
1 6.095 -3.047 3.047
0 6.496 -3.248 3.248

Gear Tooth Profile Magnifaction 10X

8

6
Tooth height (mm)

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Tooth width (mm)

Results discussion

We can create a spur gear knowing its material and dimensions. Determination of pitch diameter
and module is essentially for part creation. We can know the exact tooth profile by measuring
points on an optical projector which magnifies the tooth 10 times.

References

[1] L. Kohara Gear Industry Co., “KHK Gears | Types of Gears.”

https://khkgears.net/new/gear_knowledge/introduction_to_gears/types_of_gears.html
(accessed Apr. 19, 2021).
[2] mech4study, “Gear Terminology: Basic Definition Used in Gear.”
https://www.mech4study.com/2016/05/gear-terminology-basic-defination-used-in-
gear.html (accessed Apr. 19, 2021).
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – Fall 2020

Machine Design Laboratory Experiment (1)

Helical Spring Test

Submitted To
Dr. Essam E-Geddawy

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

April 20, 2021

Objective

Calculate the theoretical stiffness for spring using its dimensions and material rigidity then
determine the experimental stiffness using experiment apparatus, comparing the two values and
seeing the possible reasons for the value error.

Introduction
Definition of spring:
A spring is an elastic object used to
store mechanical energy. Springs are
elastic bodies (generally metal) that
can be twisted, pulled, or stretched
by some force. They can return to
their original shape when the force is
released. A spring is a flexible
element used to exert a force or a
torque and, at the same time, to store
energy. The force can be a linear
push or pull, or it can be radial.

Types of springs: [1]

1-Helical compression spring:
are helically coiled wires designed to provide an opposing force when compressed. Under
increasing load, the space between coils closes until the spring's compressed length is reached,
when the coils touch. Key specifications include the spring rate, helix type, spring ends type, wire
diameter, material, the various diameters, and free length.

2-Extension spring:
are helically coiled wires designed to provide an opposing force when stretched. Key specifications
include the spring rate, helix type, spring ends type, wire diameter, material, and free and
maximum extended lengths.

3-Torsion spring:
are helical or flat spiral coils or strips used to apply or resist torque loads. Key specifications
include the spring rate, spring ends type, wire diameter, material, and the torque rating at a known
position.
4-Leaf spring:
leaf springs are a basic form of suspension made up of layers of steel of varying sizes sandwiched
one upon the other. Most leaf spring setups are formed into an elliptical shape through the use of
spring steel which has properties that allow it to flex as pressure is added at either end, but then
returning to its original position through a damping process. The steel is generally cut into
rectangular sections and then once held together by metal clips at either end and a large bolt
through the center of the leaves.

5-Conical spring:
Conical springs are also known as tapered springs or cone springs. One of the advantages about
tapered springs is that they provide stability to those sprigs that have a large slenderness ratio. The
slenderness ratio defines whether a spring will bend or buckle during compression/deflection. A
high slenderness ratio means that the compression spring’s free length is more than 4 times larger
in comparison to the outer diameter. In other words, it has a 4 to 1 ratio. Its length is too long in
proportion with its outer diameter and this, by laws of physics, will cause the spring to deform
when it travels down to a desired solid height.

6-Disc spring:
resemble a slightly tapered disc. They are used in conjunction with fasteners like bolts for pre-
tensioning purposes. Typically, a bolt is inserted in a Disc spring, and then attached to a substrate.

Function of springs
a- Absorption of impact loads and vibrations.
b- Forces measurements.
c- Force exerting.
d- Energy storage.
e- Motion control.

Springs applications
a- Watches. e- Clock.
b- Pens. f- Vehicle suspension.
c- Automotive. g- trampolines.
d- Mattresses.

Spring materials
Springs are usually made of the following materials:
1-Hard Drawn Wire ASTM A227 Medium carbon steel used in commercial products like toys,
pens, indoor use.
2-Music Wire ASTM A228 High Carbon Steel used in exercise equipment, lawn and garden, tools
3-Stainless Steel 302 ASTM A313 Stainless steel used in marine products, medical devices,
outdoor use.
4-Stainless Steel 316 ASTM A316 Stainless steel used in medical products, earrings,non magnetic
applications.
5-Stainless Steel 17-7PH ASTM A313 High tensile strength stainless steel corrosion resistant and
used in high temperature environments.
6-Phosphor Bronze Grade A B159 Non ferrous alloy wire. Good corrosion resistance and electrical
conductivity.
7-Chrome Silicon ASTM A401 High Strength Alloy steel wire used for shock loads and slightly
elevated temperatures.

Manufacturing methods[2]
Manufacturing method of a coiling a spring
This process is done using a Spring Coiler or CNC spring coiler which
is a mechanical spring making machine. The spring technician performs
what is known in the industry as a "set-up" on the machine to prepare
the spring machine for creating a specific type of spring. This type of
spring machine is used to make compression springs, extensions
spring and torsion springs. This process involves feeding the wire into
a set of rollers that pulls the spring wire into the wire guides then comes
into contact with a coiling point or points which coils the wire
backwards forming it into a coil or a pigtail, thus the term "coiling the
spring" was born.
Springs being made on a Coiler

Manufacturing method of a spring former

This process is done using a spring former or CNC spring former machine which
is also a mechanized spring making machine. This type of machine is used to
make tension springs, torsion springs, double torsion springs and wire forms.
Spring manufacturers can use it to make compression springs but is not efficient
for that. The difference from a spring former machine versus a spring coiler is
that the spring former has 6 to 8 tooling slides on the face of the machine enabling
it to perform various bends, loops hooks, radius and various wire shapes on the
ends of the springs or on the wire form itself.

Torsion springs made on a CNC Spring Former

Manufacturing method of a cnc wire bender
This process uses a CNC wire bender which is computer
numerically controlled mechanical wire bending machine. The
Wire bender is used to manufacture wire forms. This machine feeds
the wire into a set of rollers that pulls the wire into the wire guides
then pushes it into a movable tooling head.

Wire Forms being manufactured on a CNC Wire Bender

Theory: as for
G∗𝑑𝑤 4
K th = K th : theoretical stiffness of spring
8∗𝐷𝑚 3 ∗na
G: Spring material modulus of
rigidity = 80Gpa
𝑑𝑤 : Spring Wire Diameter
Dm: Mean coil Diameter of spring
𝑛𝑎 : Number of effective coil

Equipment set up and testing procedure

Equipment:
1-Vernier caliber used to measure all dimensions of spring
2- Compression Load Machine

Testing procedure:
a- theoretical stiffness
1-Measure all the spring dimensions
2-Compensate in previous formula and get (K th )

Compression Load Machine

b- experimental stiffness
1-using the compression load machine apply varies loads (100,200,300,400,500 Newton) and
see the corresponding deflection value for each load.
2-draw the data and do linear regression for the points to get the slope which resemble the
stiffness value (K exp ).
Observations and Results
a- theoretical stiffness

Type: Ground and squared N=𝑛𝑎 +2

Free length (Lf) 54.3 mm
Shear modulus of springs material (G) 80 Gpa
Outer diameter (Do) 27 mm
Inner diameter (Di) 19 mm
Wire diameter (dw) 4 mm
Mean diameter (Dm) = (Do+Di)/2 23 mm
Number of turns (N) 9

G∗dw 4 80∗103 ∗44

.K th = = = 30 N/mm
8∗Dm 3 ∗na 8∗233 ∗7

Spring visual illustration

b- experimental stiffness

𝐹 𝑁
.𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝 = = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ( )
δ 𝑚𝑚
Force F (N) Deflection δ (mm)
0 0
100 3.35
200 6.75
300 10.05
400 13.38
500 16.41

Spring Stiffness Graph

600
F 500 y = 30.31x - 2.2795
. Slope = = K exp = 30.31 N/mm
δ 400
Force (N)

300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
-100
Deflection (mm)
Results discussion
kth −kexp 30−30.31 Small error then accepted
.Error = | kth
| ∗ 100% = |
30
| ∗ 100% = 1.03%

The small error value between the theoretical and the experimental values of the stiffness (K) of
the spring is due to:
1- Using a Shear Modulus (G) different with the G of the tested spring material.
2-Having residual stresses induced inside the spring due to heat treatments and operation
conditions.
3-Possible errors from the testing machine.
4-Possible human error on taking corresponding readings.

summing up springs have many types according to their usage. Ends condition have many types
which results in different equations to get total number of coils (N). Data showed that stiffness
of any spring can be calculated theoretically and experimentally. Errors are accepted since they
are in the suitable range.
References

[1] thomasnet, “Types of Springs.” https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/machinery-tools-

supplies/types-of-springs/ (accessed Apr. 19, 2021).
[2] acxesspring, “Springs Manufacturing .” https://www.acxesspring.com/springs-
manufacturing.html (accessed Apr. 19, 2021).
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Determination of the effective stress-

effective strain curve under uniaxial and
biaxial stress systems

Submitted To
Dr. Laila Salah

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 17, 2020

Objective
Determination of the effective stress- effective strain curve under uniaxial and biaxial stress
systems.

Introduction
The behavior of any material under any loading that has the same chemical composition and go
through same heat treatments is fixed and can be determined through two constants (K) and (n),
where K is the strength coefficient and n is the strain hardening exponent.
Those constants can be determined by applying varies stress and read the corresponding strain
but in plastic region.
Two test will be performed on the same material and compare the result gotten for the constants.
First test is simple tension test to preform uniaxial stress on the material, second test is bulge test
to preform biaxial stress on the material.

Theory:
The general equation relating the effective stress and effective strain σ𝑒 = Kε𝑒 𝑛
Taking ln for both sides ln(σ𝑒 ) = ln(𝑘) + 𝑛𝑙𝑛(ε𝑒 )
As σ𝑒 : effective stress ε𝑒 : effective strain K: the strength coefficient n: strain hardening
exponent.

For the tension test:

𝐹 𝐿
. σ𝑒 = ε𝑒 = ln( ) As F:apllied force L𝑜 : initial length
A𝑜 L𝑜

L: instantaneous length A𝑜 : initial area

For the bulge test:

𝑃ρ ℎ 𝐻2 𝐴2 +𝐻 2
. σ𝑒 = ε𝑒 = ln ( ) = −2ln(1 + 2) ρ=
2h h𝑜 𝐴 2H

As p: applied pressure MPa ρ: instantaneous radius h: instantaneous thickness

h𝑜 :initial thickness A: die aperture diameter H: bulge height
Equipment set up and testing procedure
Equipment:
1-Tensile testing machine with its control unit.
2-bulge testing machine.
3-dial indicator.

Sample characteristics:
Sample one: tension sample with standard dimension ratios
Material: pure Aluminum length: 86mm width: 12.3mm thickness: 1mm

Sample two: circular plate has holes on all its perimeter as fixation of the machine
Material: pure Aluminum

testing procedure:
experiment one (tension test):
1-fixture the specimen in the jaws of the machine and sure it safely fixed.
2-put the dimension of the specimen in the control unit and start deploying the force until the
specimen fail.
3-get the data from control unit as the stress and strain at each applied force.
4-analyze the data starting from the yield point to the fracture point to get the two constants.

experiment two (bulge test):

1-fix the specimen on the machine using the bolts and be sure the pre-tightening force is equal on
all bolts.
2-start applying the pressure of the fluid gradually using the pump.
3-for each reading of pressure take the displacement of the top point of the bulge using the dial
indicator.
4-anlyaz this data to get the two constants.
 Observations and Results
Bulge test
For Al specimen h𝑜 :initial thickness=1mm A: die aperture diameter=67.5mm
P (kp/cm3) P (MPa) H(mm) Radius ρ (mm) Strain ε𝑒 h(mm) σ𝑒 (Mpa) ln(σ𝑒 ) ln(ε𝑒 ) H/A
1.25 0.125 2.31 987.3563 -0.00234 0.997662 61.8544 4.124783 -6.0572 0.034222
2.5 0.25 2.68 851.3866 -0.00315 0.996855 106.7591 4.670575 -5.76026 0.039704
3.75 0.375 3.23 706.9169 -0.00457 0.995436 133.1546 4.891511 -5.38729 0.047852
5 0.5 3.89 587.5812 -0.00663 0.993391 147.8727 4.996352 -5.01595 0.05763
6 0.6 4.89 468.3192 -0.01047 0.989586 141.9743 4.955646 -4.55934 0.072444
7 0.7 5.78 397.0293 -0.01461 0.985495 141.0056 4.948799 -4.22596 0.08563
8 0.8 6.7 343.3687 -0.01961 0.980583 140.0672 4.942122 -3.9318 0.099259
9 0.9 7.35 313.624 -0.02357 0.976702 144.4973 4.973261 -3.74761 0.108889
10 1 8.05 287.0219 -0.02825 0.97215 147.6222 4.994656 -3.56683 0.119259
11 1.1 8.73 265.3186 -0.03318 0.967367 150.8479 5.016272 -3.40588 0.129333
12 1.2 9.55 243.3221 -0.03964 0.961137 151.8965 5.023199 -3.22795 0.141481
13 1.3 10.4 224.2505 -0.04692 0.954161 152.7654 5.028904 -3.05925 0.154074
14 1.4 11.39 205.706 -0.05615 0.945396 152.3109 5.025924 -2.87971 0.168741
15 1.5 12.22 192.5359 -0.0645 0.937538 154.0224 5.037098 -2.74113 0.181037

P vs H/A stress vs strain

0.2 180
0.18 160
0.16 140
0.14 120
σ𝑒(Mpa)

0.12
P (MPa)

100
0.1
80
0.08
60
0.06
0.04 40
0.02 20
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
H/A ε𝑒

ln(stress) vs ln(strain)
y = 0.1646x + 5.5787
Ln(k)=5.5787
5
K=264.73 MPa
4.8
n=.1646
ln(stress)

4.6

4.4
σ𝑒 = 264.73ε𝑒 .1646
4.2

4
-6.1 -5.6 -5.1 -4.6 -4.1 -3.6 -3.1 -2.6
ln(strain)
 For copper specimen h𝑜 :initial thickness=1.22mm A: die aperture diameter=75mm
P (MPa) H(mm) Radius ρ (mm) Strain ε𝑒 h(mm) σ𝑒 (Mpa) ln(σ𝑒 ) ln(ε𝑒 ) H/A
1.15 10.52 272.6079 -0.03897 1.173374 133.5887 4.894766 -3.24503 0.140267
1.5 13.2 219.6682 -0.06101 1.147791 143.5376 4.966597 -2.79669 0.176
2 15.72 186.7722 -0.08599 1.119477 166.8388 5.117028 -2.45354 0.2096
2.5 17.67 168.0031 -0.10804 1.095058 191.7741 5.256318 -2.22522 0.2356
3 19.74 152.3472 -0.13396 1.067042 214.1628 5.366737 -2.01021 0.2632
3.5 21.92 139.2675 -0.16393 1.035534 235.355 5.461095 -1.80829 0.292267
4 24.26 128.0616 -0.19902 0.999829 256.167 5.54583 -1.61434 0.323467
4.25 25.25 124.0111 -0.21474 0.984239 267.7435 5.590029 -1.53834 0.336667
4.5 27.25 116.836 -0.24799 0.952047 276.1219 5.620842 -1.39436 0.363333
4.75 28.85 111.912 -0.27599 0.925763 287.1047 5.659847 -1.2874 0.384667
5 30.71 106.9375 -0.31001 0.894798 298.7758 5.699693 -1.17116 0.409467
5.25 33.1 101.5198 -0.35592 0.854648 311.8118 5.7424 -1.03306 0.441333
5.37 34.94 97.96513 -0.39283 0.823675 319.3448 5.766271 -0.93438 0.465867
1.15 10.52 272.6079 -0.03897 1.173374 133.5887 4.894766 -3.24503 0.140267

P vs H/A stress vs strain

0.5 350
0.45 300
0.4
0.35 250
σ𝑒(Mpa)

0.3
P (MPa)

200
0.25
150
0.2
0.15 100
0.1
50
0.05
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
H/A ε𝑒

ln(sress) vs ln(strain)
y = 0.4147x + 6.1875 Ln(k)= 6.1875

5.7 K= 486.63 MPa

n= .4147
5.5
ln (stress)

5.3
σ𝑒 = 486.63ε𝑒 .4147
5.1

4.9

4.7
-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1
ln (strain)
 Tension test
For Al specimen length L𝑜 : 86mm width: 12.3mm thickness: 1mm A𝑜 = 12.3 𝑚𝑚2

𝐹 𝐿
. σ𝑒 = ε𝑒 = ln ( )
A𝑜 L𝑜

stress vs strain Using the readings from the yield

140 point to fracture point then taking
120
Ln to both sides
100 As:
σ𝑒(MPa)

80 σ𝑦 =126.3Mpa σ𝑢 =138.14MPa
60

40

20

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
ε𝑒

ln(stress) vs ln(strain) y = 0.124x + 5.4693

4.95
Ln(k)= 5.4693
4.93
K= 237.3 MPa
4.91
ln(stress)

n= .124
4.89

4.87

4.85 σ𝑒 = 237.3ε𝑒 .124

4.83
-4.95 -4.85 -4.75 -4.65 -4.55 -4.45 -4.35 -4.25 -4.15
ln(strain)
Results discussion

Failure modes:

In tension test: the fail was on angle which is predicted because this is a ductile material but the
fraction wasn’t at the necking zone it was near the end of specimen and that could be caused of
the inappropriate fixation.

In the bulge test: the fail occurred at the edge near the fixation not at the top and this wasn’t
supposed to happen this can be caused due to existing crack in specimen or ununiformed pre-
tightening of the bolts.

Accuracy of measurements:

In tension test: the machine accuracy was high because the unit force control measures small
steps and the curve got out very smooth and too near to the idle curve of stress-strain.

In bulge test: the accuracy was bad because fluctuating of the pressure readings due to leakage
and the dial indicator accuracy was low also the reading steps was few.

Comparison between two tests:

The result got from tension test σ𝑒 = 237.3ε𝑒 .124

The result got from bulge test σ𝑒 = 264.73ε𝑒 .1646
*The values of K&n is too close from each test and this variation caused by that both test wasn’t
in idle conditions.
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production Engineering
Two Semesters System –4th Year
MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – Spring 2021

Applied Elasticity and Plasticity

Submitted to
Prof. Chahinaz Abdel-Rahman Saleh

Prepared by
Mahmoud Ahmed El-sayed Kassab B.N: 28

Tuesday, May 25, 2021

CREEP AND RELAXATION:
TENSILE AND BENDING LOADING
Objective
We had this experiment done to determine the material creep parameters B and N in
tension test. It also aims to analyze creep of a beam under pure bending using Norman’s
Equation. The experiment measures the amount of creep deflection of the beam under
three points bending as a function of time at constant temperature. The experimental data
compared to those obtained from the theoretical formula mentioned.

Description
For tensile creep testing a simple rack (a) is used to load the specimen under tension with
dead weights through leverage ratio of 5. The axial deflection is measured by means of a
dial indicator and the recorded against time at appropriate time intervals.
For beam bending a rigid test rig (b) is used to provide simple supports to the specimen at
both ends. Sufficient space must be allowed below the specimen for deflection
measurement at mid span.
 Tension Test (Experiment one)
Material Lead-tin 5%
Experiment One (Given)
 Leverage ratio= 5
 Diameter =6.5mm
 Length =68.5 mm.
 Load =10*5 = 50 Kg.
 Area = 33.18 mm2
 Force =490.5 N.
 Stress =14.78 MPa.

Time (min) Deflection (mm) Strain= Deflection-1.4/Length

0 1.4 0
0.27 1.6 0.00292
0.6 1.8 0.005839
1.2 2 0.008759
2 2.2 0.011679
3.9 2.5 0.016058
8.2 3 0.023358
14 3.5 0.030657
21.2 4 0.037956
28.8 4.5 0.045255
37.5 5 0.052555
48.3 5.6 0.061314
55.6 6 0.067153
63.25 6.4 0.072993
74.7 7 0.081752
86.6 7.6 0.090511
94 8 0.09635
105.3 8.6 0.105109
112 9 0.110949
123.4 9.6 0.119708

Time vs Strain
0.14
0.12
y = 0.0008x + 0.0205
0.1
0.08
Strain

0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)

ɛ̇ = 0.0008/min =.00001333/sec
 Experiment Two (Given)
 Leverage ratio= 5
 Diameter =6.6mm
 Length =69 mm.
 Load =9.1*5 = 45.5 Kg.
 Area = 34.21 mm2
 Force =446.355 N.
 Stress =13.0475 MPa.

Time (min) Deflection (mm) Strain= Deflection-.3/Length

0 0.3 0
.5 0.4 0.001449
2.25 0.5 0.002899
4.7 0.6 0.004348
20.75 1.2 0.013043
31.6 1.2 0.013043
42.25 1.4 0.015942
48.8 1.6 0.018841
67.9 1.8 0.021739
80.6 2 0.024638
120.2 2.55 0.032609
159.5 3.05 0.039855
194.2 3.5 0.046377
235.95 4 0.053623
274.2 4.5 0.06087
310.3 5 0.068116
346.8 5.5 0.075362

Time vs Strain
0.08
0.07 y = 0.0002x + 0.0093
0.06
0.05
Strain

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)

ɛ̇ = 0.0002/min =.00000333/sec

Experiment ɛ̇ /sec σ (Mpa)

One .00001333 14.78

Two .000003333 13.04
 B= 1.51x10 -18
MPa .Sec 
-N -1

 N=11.06
Experiment (made in lab time)
 Diameter= 6.47 mm.
 Length = 72 mm.
 Load = 430 N
 Area= 32.84 mm2
 Stress = 13.094 MPa.

Time (sec) Deflection (mm) Strain= Deflection-.75/Length

0 0.75 0
10 0.83 0.001111
20 0.84 0.00125
30 0.86 0.001528
40 0.87 0.001667
50 0.885 0.001875
60 0.89 0.001944
80 0.925 0.002431
100 0.945 0.002708
120 0.975 0.003125
150 1 0.003472
180 1.03 0.003889
210 1.055 0.004236
240 1.08 0.004583
270 1.105 0.004931
300 1.13 0.005278
360 1.18 0.005972
420 1.23 0.006667
480 1.275 0.007292
540 1.32 0.007917
600 1.367 0.008569
900 1.54 0.010972
1200 1.72 0.013472
1500 1.87 0.015556
1800 2.025 0.017708
2100 2.18 0.019861
2400 2.32 0.021806
2700 2.47 0.023889
3000 2.61 0.025833
3300 2.74 0.027639
3600 2.87 0.029444
 Time vs Strain
0.035
y = 7E-06x + 0.0043
0.03

0.025

0.02
Strain

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time (sec)

ɛ̇ = 0.000007/sec

Experiment ɛ̇ /sec σ (Mpa)

One .00001333 14.78

lab .000007 13.094

 B= 7.98x10-12 MPa-N.Sec-1
 N=5.32

Experiment used B MPa-N.Sec-1 N

One&Two 1.51x10-18 11.06

One&lab 7.98x10-12 5.32
Three-Point Bending Test (Experiment Two)
Material Lead-tin 5%
 Load= 7.43*4.9=36.4 Kg.
 b = 13.14 mm.
 d=13.8 mm.
 L=105 mm. 
 Z=52.5 mm.
 Force (P)= 357 N.
 B= 1.51x10-18 MPa-N.Sec-1
 N= 11.06
 V(theoretical)=-7.55 x10-4 mm/sec (from law)

Experimental Theoretical Experimental

Readings Deflection Deflection Time (sec)
1.05 0 0 0
1.2 0.00755 0.15 10
1.28 0.0151 0.23 20
1.35 0.02265 0.3 30
1.4 0.0302 0.35 40
1.46 0.03775 0.41 50
1.469 0.0453 0.419 60
1.57 0.0604 0.52 80
1.64 0.0755 0.59 100
1.7 0.0906 0.65 120
1.79 0.11325 0.74 150
1.87 0.1359 0.82 180
2.02 0.1812 0.97 240
2.1 0.2718 1.05 360
2.15 0.2265 1.1 300
2.27 0.2718 1.22 360
2.39 0.3171 1.34 420
2.48 0.3624 1.43 480
2.57 0.4077 1.52 540
2.645 0.453 1.595 600
2.97 0.6795 1.92 900
3.29 0.906 2.24 1200
3.54 1.1325 2.49 1500
3.79 1.359 2.74 1800
4.03 1.5855 2.98 2100
4.23 1.812 3.18 2400
 Deflection vs Time
3.5
y = 0.0009x + 1.0574
3

2.5
Deflection

1.5 Experimental
Theortical
1

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (sec)

V (Theoretical) =-7.55 x10-4 mm/sec

V (Experimental)=-9 x10-4 mm/sec

Calculations
For getting Norton parameters B and N
.ɛ̇ = Bσ𝑵
𝑙𝑛ɛ1̇ = lnB + Nlnσ1
𝑙𝑛ɛ1̇−𝑙𝑛ɛ2̇
𝑙𝑛ɛ2̇ = lnB + Nlnσ2 𝑁= 𝐵 = 𝑒 (𝑙𝑛ɛ1̇−Nlnσ1)
lnσ1−lnσ2

For calculation theoretical deflection rate for Three-Point Bending

beam loaded in center
Discussion
For (Experiment one) tension test:
There is a big difference in Norton parameters B and N obtained from the two given
experiments and the lab experiment, this big divergence would be for two basic reasons:

1-the time period for each experiment has big difference as for lab experiment time=1hr
, experiment One time= 2hr, and experiment Two time =5.78hr.
2-the temperatures for both given experiment and lab experiment surely are different as
for the lead-tin material is so sensitive to temperature in creep behavior.

For (Experiment two) bending test:

The result obtained for deflection per time for both theoretical and experimental is
slightly different and this could be for:

1-human error in measuring specimen dimensions.

2- specimen dimensions isn’t uniform.
3-human error in readings of deflection.
 Determination of Critical Stress Intensity Factor for Acrylic
Sheets in Tension & Bending

Introduction
This experiment aims to determine the fracture toughness KIC for acrylic material. A
tension test is carried for two specimens of nearly similar dimensions and different strain
rates. Then tension test has been carried for two specimens of different thickness and notch
dimensions to determine the fracture toughness of acrylic. This fracture toughness value is
used to estimate the breaking load for a 3-point loaded beam with V-notch.

Tables
Plain Tensile
Specimen Width Length Thickness Speed ɛ̇ Strain Fracture 𝜎(MPa)
(mm) (mm) (mm) mm/min Rate Load
(sec)-1 𝑃 (N)

No.1 25.4 85 2.7 5 0.0098 2902.76 42.326

No.2 25.2 84 3 500 .0992 5061.59 66.95

Cracked Tensile
Specimen Width Thickness Total Fracture Load Crack length
(mm) (mm) Area p(N) a (mm)
(mm2)
No.1 25.3 3 75.9 595.8 4.95
𝜎 (MPa) CCF Kc(MPa. m0.5 )
7.849 1.1558 1.1313
No.2 Width Thickness Total Fracture Load Crack length
(mm) (mm) Area p(N) a (mm)
(mm2)
25.5 5.7 145.35 1085.66 5.7
𝜎 (MPa) CCF Kc(MPa. m0.5 )
7.469 1.1785 1.178

Cracked Bending
Specimen Width Thickness Length Fracture 𝜎 (MPa) CCF Kc(MPa. m0.5 ) Crack length
(mm) (mm) (mm) Load a (mm)
p(N)
No.1 25.2 9.8 110 358.33 9.5 .904 .8475 3.1
 Calculations
For crack bending
 Kc = 𝜎 ∗ CCF * (πa) 0.5
 Crack Length: a= 3.1
 CCF= 0.904
 Load=75N
 Leverage ratio =(68+18)/18=4.77
 P=4.77*75=358.33 N
 L=110mm
 t=9.8mm
 w=25.2mm
 𝜎=1.5PL/tw2 =1.5*358.33*110/9.8*25.22=9.5MPa
 Kc =9.5*.904*( π*3.1*10-3) 0.5 =.8475 MPa. m0.5


Discussion
For plain tensile:
the results given in the table shows that as strain rate increases tensile strength increases
thus the stress at which the specimen fail increases and this is consistent of this graph that
shows this fact.
 For Cracked Tensile:
Both values of KIC are totally within the range for material properties of acrylic which is
from 0.8 to 1.7. Also, these given values are consistent with the fact that as thickness
increases the fracture toughness of the material decreases for the same stress applied and
same crack length according to this graph.

…………………………….
For Cracked Bending and Cracked tension:
Kc obtained from bending test =.8475 and from tension test=1.17 this noticeable difference
because
1-the thickness for both tests weren’t the same.
2-the exact fracture load for bending test wasn’t accurate because the load was increasing by
.25kg each time and this is a big incremental value for load.
3-the material of the acrylic itself isn’t the same.

Comparison of result and given material properties

Summary of results
Test Tension Tension Kc(MPa. m0.5 ) Bending
Kc(MPa. m0.5 )
Results 𝜎=42.326 MPa ɛ̇=.0098 t=3 mm Kc=1.1313 .8475
𝜎=66.95 MPa ɛ̇=.0992 t=5.7 mm Kc=1.178

Material properties 𝜎(f)=60-90 MPa Kc=.8-1.7 MPa. m0.5

 As shown from tension test 𝜎(f)= 66.95 MPa and this in the range of the material
property.
 All obtained Kc =1.1313&1.178&.8475 also this value within the range of the material
property.
Sources of errors in experiments
1-human error in measuring specimen dimensions.
2- specimen dimensions isn’t uniform.
3-not properly installing the specimen in bending test.

Pictures of Failure

Double cracked tensile fracture plain tensile fracture

 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Test for Straightness by

using Auto-collimator

Submitted To
Dr. Ahmed Anani

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 3, 2020
 Position Mean Difference Rise or Cumulative Adjustment Errors
/Point Reading from first fall in rise or fall to bring from
of Auto- leading interval (mm) both ends straight
collimator (sec) length to zero line
(sec) (mm) (mm) (mm)
0 457.1 0 0 0 0 0
1 457.1 0 0 0 0.052545 0.052545
2 437.8 -19.3 -0.00982 -0.00982 0.10509 0.09527
3 430.4 -26.7 -0.01359 -0.02341 0.157636 0.134224
4 422 -35.1 -0.01787 -0.04128 0.210181 0.168901
5 408.8 -48.3 -0.02459 -0.06587 0.262726 0.196859
6 401 -56.1 -0.02856 -0.09442 0.315271 0.220847
7 394.7 -62.4 -0.03176 -0.12619 0.367817 0.241627
8 391 -66.1 -0.03365 -0.15984 0.420362 0.260524
9 382.7 -74.4 -0.03787 -0.19771 0.472907 0.275195
10 372.9 -84.2 -0.04286 -0.24057 0.525452 0.284878
11 369.7 -87.4 -0.04449 -0.28507 0.577997 0.292932
12 364.9 -92.2 -0.04693 -0.332 0.630543 0.298542
13 360.6 -96.5 -0.04912 -0.38112 0.683088 0.301964
14 350.9 -106.2 -0.05406 -0.43519 0.735633 0.300448
15 345.2 -111.9 -0.05696 -0.49215 0.788178 0.29603
16 327.8 -129.3 -0.06582 -0.55797 0.840723 0.282754
17 315.2 -141.9 -0.07223 -0.6302 0.893269 0.263065
18 301.6 -155.5 -0.07916 -0.70936 0.945814 0.236452
19 292.7 -164.4 -0.08369 -0.79305 0.998359 0.205309
20 279.5 -177.6 -0.09041 -0.88346 1.050904 0.167446
21 266.4 -190.7 -0.09708 -0.98053 1.10345 0.122915
22 246.3 -210.8 -0.10731 -1.08784 1.155995 0.068151
23 220 -237.1 -0.1207 -1.20854 1.20854 0
L=--1.20854

Comment:
The suface that we have all points are solped down in refrence with the first point and the
maximmum fall for the 2415mm length is 1.208mm.
Auto-collimator
Definition:
-Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small angular differences.
-For small angular measurements it provides a very sensitive and accurate approach.
-It is essentially an infinity telescope and a collimator combined into one instrument.

Working of Auto-collimator:
• A cross line target
graticule is positioned at
the focal plane of
telescope objective. when
the target graticule is
illuminated rays of light
diverging from the
intersection point reach
the objective via beam
splitter and are projected
from objective as parallel.
In this mode the optical
system works as
collimator.
• A flat reflector placed in front of objective and normal to the optical axis reflects parallel light
back along their original paths. They are then brought to focus in the plane of target graticule and
exactly coincident with its intersection. A proportion of the returned light passes straight through
the beam splitter and the return image of the target crossline is therefore visible through the
eyepiece thus operating as telescope focused at infinity.
•If the reflector is tilted for an angle, the reflected rays reflect twice the angle of tilt and are
brought to focus in the plane of the target graticule but linearly displaced from the actual target
by 2*(angle of tilt) * focal length.
• The linear displacement of the graticule image is measured by an eyepiece graticule, optical
micrometer or electronic detector system, scaled directly in angular units.
• Auto-collimator responds only to reflector tilt.
• Focal length and the effective aperture are the factors determines the basic sensitivity and
angular measuring range.
Types:
1- Photoelectric microptic auto-collimator
Micrometer adjustment is provided for setting, but coincidence of setting graticule and target
image is detected photo-electrically and shows null reading.

2- Automatic position sensing auto-collimator

Angular displacement of the reflector is displayed on a digital readout, eliminating any
micrometer reading for measuring. It is used for cramped positions.

3- Microptic auto-collimator
In this a pair of target wires take place of the point light source as it is not convenient to visualize
the reflected image of a point and then to measure the distance precisely.

Applications:
 Measurement of Parallelism of Two Surfaces.
 Measurement of Perpendicularity of Two Surfaces.
 Parallel Setting of Rolls and Yaw Measurement of Slides.
 Measurement of Roll-Angle.
 Straightness Measurement.
 Flatness Measurement.
 Measurement between a Vertical Spindle and a Machine Bed.
 Parallelism Measurement of Cylindrical Bore Holes.
 Testing of Accuracy of Rotary Tables and Index Tables.
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Surface Roughness Measurements using

Surtronic 3P instrument

Submitted To
Dr. Ahmed Anani

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Mar 30, 2021

Introduction:
Roughness is a measure of the texture of a surface. A surface can never be perfectly smooth and
will always have two components of surface texture namely roughness and waviness.
They may vary from fine to coarse according to the machine process used.
Roughness is quantified by the vertical deviations of a real surface from its ideal form. If these
deviations are large, the surface is rough; if they are small the surface is smooth.
Roughness is typically considered to be the high frequency, short wavelength component of a
measured surface.

Roughness plays an important role in determining how a real object will interact with its
environment. Rough surfaces usually wear more quickly and have higher friction coefficients than
smooth surfaces. Although roughness is usually undesirable, it is difficult and expensive to control
in manufacturing. Decreasing the roughness of a surface will usually increase exponentially its
manufacturing costs.

Definitions:
1-Surface texture: is the local deviations of a surface from its ideal shape e.g perfect flat shape,
perfect cylindrical shape, spherical shape etc. The measure of the surface texture is generally
determined in terms of its roughness, waviness. In surface texture there are many factors that, when
combined, characterize a surface’s profile will form. For example:
• the microstructure of the material.
• the action of the cutting tool.
• the instability of the cutting tool on the material.
• errors in the machine tool guideways.
• Mainly, what affects the surface texture could be summarized in the speed of the cutting tool,
feed rate & the depth of cut.

2-Roughness: a quantitative measure of the process marks

produced during the creation of the surface and other factors
such as the structure of the material. The action of the cutting
tool, chemical action, polishing, lapping, and the structure of
the material all contribute to the roughness of the surface.
3-Waviness: a longer wavelength variation in surface away from its basic form (e.g. straight line
or arc). It may result from such factors as machine or work deflection, vibration, chatter, heat
treatment, or warping strains.
4-Lay: refers to the predominant direction of the
surface texture. Ordinarily lay is determined by the
particular production method and geometry used.
Turning, milling, drilling, grinding, and other cutting
tool machining processes usually produce a surface
that has lay.
5-Profile: is, mathematically, the line of intersection
of a surface with a sectioning plane which is
(ordinarily) perpendicular to the surface. It is a two-
dimensional slice of the three-dimensional surface. Almost always profiles are measured across
the surface in a direction perpendicular to the lay of the surface. Shortly saying, it's the graphical
representation of the surface.

6-Filters: are electronic or mathematical methods or algorithms which separate out different
wavelengths and allow us to see only the wavelengths we are interested in.
7-Cut-off: is a filter and is used as a means of separating or
filtering the wavelengths of a component. Cut-offs have a
numerical value that when selected will reduce or remove
the unwanted wavelengths on the surface.
8-Sample length: after the data has been filtered with a cut
–off, we then sample it. Sampling is done by breaking the
data into equal sample lengths. The sample lengths have the
same numeric value as the cut-off.
9-Roughness Width: The roughness width is the distance parallel to the nominal surface between
successive peaks or ridges which constitute the predominate pattern of the roughness. It is
measured in millimeters.
10-Roughness Height: It is the height of the irregularities with respect to a reference line. It is
measured in millimeters or microns or microfiches. It is also known as the height of unevenness.
11-Waviness Width: Waviness height is the peak to valley distance of the surface profile,
measured in millimeters.
Roughness measurements method:

(CLA or 𝑹𝒂 ):

Where:
∑A = surface of area above and below the center
L = sample length (graph)
Mv = Vertical Magnification
Roughness measuring Instruments

• Atomic Force Microscopes (AFM) (Area roughness)

The atomic force microscope (AFM) measures the

asperity of a sample using the atomic forces between the
tip and the sample. To perform measurements, the user
moves the cantilever, equipped with a sharp tip (probe)
at its end, into proximity of a sample surface to a
distance of several nanometers. In order to maintain a
constant force between the tip and the sample (a
constant deflection of the cantilever), the AFM gives
feedback to the piezo scanner while scanning. The
displacement provided as feedback to the piezo scanner
is measured to obtain the z-axial displacement, which
represents the surface structure.

A common way of measuring the displacement of the piezo scanner is the adoption of the optical
lever method, in which a laser beam is emitted on the back side of the cantilever and the reflected
beam is detected by two- or four-segment photodiodes.

Advantages

1. High resolution.
2. Capable of 3D measurement with super-high magnification. Collected data can be processed.
3. Observation in atmospheric conditions is possible, not needing pretreatment of sample.
4. Capable of analyzing physical properties (electrical property, magnetic property, friction,
viscoelasticity, etc.).

Disadvantages

1. Incapable of low magnification (wide range) measurements.

2. Difficulties in positioning due to the need to narrow down the field of view.
3. Analysis for each sample takes significant amounts of time.
4. Inability to measure large samples due to the need for pretreatment and processing.
5. Relatively difficult operations; experience required for cantilever replacement, etc.
• Profile-Measuring Laser Microscopes (Area roughness)

A 3D laser scanning microscope is an

observation/measuring equipment that enables both 3D
measurements and deep focus depth observation at the
same time. It has no restrictions on the size or material of
a sample and allows for observations under normal
environmental conditions. In addition, the 3D laser
scanning microscope features user-friendly operability
similar to that of an optical microscope; samples do not
need pretreatment before measurement. Observations can
be done in color, which helps accurate analysis of the
conditions of the target object. A 3D laser scanning
microscope can also be used for measuring the thickness
of films, as well as for observing the surface, inside, and
backside of a translucent object.
While the 3D laser scanning microscope is better than a scanning electron microscope or an
atomic force microscope in terms of operability, it is inferior in observation magnification and
measurement resolution. Bottom parts with high aspect ratios and slopes with large angles cannot
be measured or observed because they do not reflect the laser beam.
Advantages

1. Deep depth of focus

2. Target object can be observed in color
3. Produces 3D profiles and displays 3D images in color
4. Capable of measuring film thickness of translucent objects, such as resist for semiconductor
fabrication
5. Analysis in atmospheric conditions is possible, not needing pretreatment of sample
6. No limitation on sample size and material, easy operation makes it excellent for general-purpose
use
Disadvantages

1. Incapable of high-definition observation and high-precision measurements below 1 nm

2. Data on the surfaces of the sample that do not receive laser beam emission (such as the sides)
cannot be acquired
3. Incapable of measuring materials that absorb laser beam wavelength
A) Ground Surface
Cut off length = .8mm Range = 99.99 micron

A.1) Traverse across the lay direction

Traverse No. 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm

1 4.71 0.8
2 4.88 0.79
Average 4.795 0.795

A.2) Traverse 45 degree to the lay

Traverse No. 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm
1 5.61 0.86
2 4.46 0.83
Average 5.035 0.845

A.3) Traverse parallel to the lay

Traverse No. 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm
1 4.18 0.53
2 3.99 0.78
Average 4.085 0.655
 B) Turned Surface
Cut off length = 2.5mm Range = 999.9 micron

B.1) Traverse across the lay direction

Traverse No. 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm

1 176.6 43.5
2 164.9 39.1
Average 170.75 41.3

B.2) Traverse parallel to the lay

Traverse No. 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm
1 146.2 33.1
2 125.6 29.9
Average 135.9 31.5

Results:
1.for the ground surface
Traverse direction 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm
Across the lay 4.795 0.795
45 degree to the lay 5.035 0.845
Parallel to the lay 4.085 0.655
2.for the turned surface
Traverse direction 𝑅𝑡𝑚 µm 𝑅𝑎 µm
Across the lay 170.75 41.3
Parallel to the lay 135.9 31.5

Discussion:
1- As expected the ground surface has much lower values of 𝑅𝑡𝑚 & 𝑅𝑎 compared to the turned
surface.
2- Also the result verified the expectations of that the higher value of 𝑅𝑡𝑚 & 𝑅𝑎 for the same
surface always for the Across the lay and the more you turn to be parallel to the lay those
value decrease significantly.
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Optical microscopic
Examination

Submitted To
Dr. Mamdouh Mohammed

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 10, 2020

Objective
To examine the microstructure of cast iron specimens using optical microscope.

Introduction
Cast iron has different types and its depends on the cooling rate it has been done on it and this
main types are (gray cast iron / white cast iron / ductile cast iron / malleable cast iron).
Each of those types has different microstructure that has different phases and different shapes of
those phases.
So by examination of our specimen microstructure we will be able identify its type because of its
special shape of its phases.

Equipment set up and testing procedure

Equipment:
1-Specimen Preparation Machine.
2-Nital acid (Alcohol 98% + Nitric acid 2%)
3-lab plate.
4-dryer.
5- optical microscope.

Sample characteristics:
Cylindrical specimen of cast iron its height doesn’t exceed 4cm to fit under the optical
microscope.

testing procedure:
1-prepare the specimen by grinding it on (Specimen Preparation Machine) and this procedure
should be done gradually by using abrasive paper with low C index then increase the value until
ending with the finest abrasive paper available C=2500.
2-because its cast iron specimen and its brittle doesn’t need to be polished skip it to etching
phase, put little amount of Nital acid (Alcohol 98% + Nitric acid 2%) on the lab plate and leave it
for approximately 6sec then wash it with running water.
3-dry the specimen sufficiently with the dryer.
4-examine the specimen with the optical microscope with the right magnification lens.
5-take few images of the microstructure then analyze it.

Observations and Results

The 2 images taken for the specimen

The three phases observed in microstructure are

1-pearlite (gray area).
2-ferrite (white area).
3-graphite (black nodular inside the ferrite).
The image analysis using imagej software:
First image

phase Area fraction %

Ferrite 39.576
Pearlite 46.894
Graphite 13.53
Second image

Phase Area fraction %

Ferrite 38.47
Pearlite 50.251
Graphite 11.279

phase Average fraction area % Density g/cm3

Ferrite 39.023 7.766
Pearlite 48.5725 7.868
Graphite 12.4045 2.26
Results discussion

1-because the 3 phase existing in the microstructure are (perlite and ferrite
and graphite) and the graphite is in shape of nodular then this cast iron
specimen is ductile (nodular) cast iron.

Assuming 1- the area fraction = the volume fraction

2-the densities of pearlite and ferrite are constants

3-the carbon content is represented by graphite content only

.124045∗2.26
2-Chemical composition = C% = = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑%
.124045∗2.26+.485725∗7.868+.39023∗7.766

Getting the densities of pearlite and

ferrite phases

Comparing the area fraction

for our specimen to the
specimen obtained from
table they are very close but
our specimen has more
pearlite phase at the expense
of ferrite phase

The obtained carbon

content percent (3.93%) is
in the normal range for
ductile cast iron type
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production Engineering

Two Semesters System –4th Year

MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – Fall 2020

Fatigue Lab
(Machine Surface Roughness Effect on the Material Life for the Rotating Bending Fatigue)

Submitted to
Dr. Sherif Ali Abd El Rahman

Prepared by B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed Kassab 28 in Group 4

April 25,2021
Objective
To study the fatigue life behavior of 4 cylindrical specimens of same material and dimensions
with different surface roughness degrees to see the effect of surface roughness of specimen on its
fatigue life.

Introduction
Fatigue:
Fatigue failures occur when metal is subjected to repetitive or fluctuating stress and will fail at a
stress much lower than its tensile strength. Most of the fatigue failure can’t be expected, and it is
a catastrophic failure without warning.

Fatigue fracture characteristics and stages:[1]

Stage(1)Initiation: Initiation is the most complex stage of fatigue.
The most significant factor about the initiation stage of fatigue
fracture is that the irreversible changes in the metal are caused by
repetitive shear stresses. The accumulation of micro changes over
a large number of load applications, called "cumulative damage,"
.The initiation site of a given fatigue fracture is very small, never
extending for more than two to five grains around the origin. At
the location of a severe stress concentration, the number depends
on the geometry of the part as well as on environmental, stress,
metallurgical, and strength conditions.

Stage (2)Propagation: The propagation stage of fatigue

causes the microcrack to change direction and grow
perpendicular to the tensile stress. The propagation stage
of fatigue is usually the most readily identifiable area of
a fatigue fracture.

Stage (3)Final Rupture: As the propagation of the

fatigue crack continues, gradually reducing the cross-
sectional area of the part or test specimen, it eventually
weakens the part so greatly that final, complete fracture
can occur with only one more load application. The fracture mode may be either ductile (with a
dimpled fracture surface) or brittle (with a cleavage, or perhaps even intergranular, fracture
surface) or any combination thereof, depending upon the metal concerned, the stress level, the
environment, etc.
Equipment set up and testing procedure and precautions
Equipment:

1-Contact type stylus (Surtronic 3P) to measure the surface roughness of

specimens.

Surtronic 3P
2- Rotating Bending Fatigue Machine
(Model RBF-200) to preform the fatigue
loading on specimens.

Rotating Bending Fatigue Machine Model RBF-200

Testing procedure:

1-Prepare 4 specimens from the same alloy, same dimensions, and with different degrees of
surface roughness.

2- Measure the surface Roughness parameter (Ra) for each specimen by using the Surtronic 3P
device.

3- Mount the specimen on the rotating bending machine and fix it in the spindle.

4- get the speed controller on zero.

5- connect the machine to the power source.

6- wait for period of time until the cooling cycle complete.

7- adjust your required bending load.

8- start increase your speed gradually up to your desired rpm.

9- wait for the specimen to break.

10- take the reading of the time taken to break and how many cycles.

11- unmount and repeat the steps for remaining 3 specimens.

Testing precautions:

1-make sure that the cooling cycle is complete before you run the machine.

2-always start your test with zero rpm and increase it gradually.

3-make sure you fixed the specimen properly.

4-make sure that the safety lock is working to stop the machine when the specimen breaks or a
high vibrations affect the machine.

Observations and Results

Experiment parameters

The applied bending moment = 22.6 N.m

the rotational speed = 5000 rpm

the specimens are made from same

material of steel. Illustration of the cylindrical specimen

the specimens are cylindrical with necked circular cross section with same dimensions.

Average Ra No. of Cycles

3.533 16400
4.766 4400
12.066 3600
14.233 2000

Surface roughness vs Fatigue life

16
14
12
Average Ra

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
No. of Cycles
Results discussion

1-The degree of the surface finish roughness of the component produced by the machining process has
a significant impact on its fatigue life.

2-The effect of surface finish roughness isn’t direct proportional to the number of cycles to failure as
shown in plot the slight increase of surface finish roughness (from 3.5 to 4.7) decreased the number of
cycles to failure significantly (from 16400 to 4400) However the relatively big increase of surface finish
roughness (from 4.7 to 12) decreased the number of cycles to failure a little bit (from 4400 to 3600).

References

[1] “Stages of fatigue failure.” https://www.tec-eurolab.com/eu-en/stages-of-fatigue-

failure.aspx (accessed Apr. 25, 2021).
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

The Q&P relationship of a pressure

compensated variable geometric volume
vane pump

Submitted To
Dr. Saad Kassem

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 24, 2020

Objective
To find out experimentally the flow rate of a pressure compensated vane pump at different
supply pressures.

Theory:
𝑄
Qt = Vo ∗ n ∗ 10−3 Q = Qt − QL η𝑣 = Q
t

Equipment set up and testing procedure

Equipment:
The hydraulic training rig equipped with a variable vane pump

testing procedure:
1-Construct on the hydraulic training rig
2-Adjust the relief valve of the circuit
at5 MPa this is made as follows:
-Close the throttle valve (3) completely
and open the relief valve (2) completely.
-Run the pump (1).
-Adjust the relief valve such that the
pressure gauge (4) reads 5 MPa.
3-Open valve (3) completely and measure the supply pressure (p) Close the shutoff
valve (6) and find the pump flow rate by measuring the time (t) necessary to collect
a volume (V) of oil in the measuring glass.
4-Drain the measuring glass.
5- Change the supply pressure in steps using the throttle valve (3) At each pressure
find the ump flow rate using the measuring glass and a stop watch
 Observations and Results
P (bar) P after zero error (Mpa) Time (sec) V (L) Q(L/min)
Zero error =2.5bar
49 4.65 29 3 6.2
46 4.35 20 3.5 10.5
43 4.05 15 3.5 14
40 3.75 12.3 3.5 17
37 3.45 11.2 3.5 18.75
35 3.25 11 3.5 19.1
30 2.75 10.2 3.5 20.6
25 2.25 10 3.5 21
20 1.75 7 2.5 21.4
15 1.25 10.2 3.5 20.6
10 0.75 9.8 3.5 21.4

static characteristic curve

24
22
20
18
16
Q (L/min)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
P (MPa)

Results discussion
Qt∗ 10−3 24∗10−3
The geometric volume of pump: V𝑜 = = = 16.55𝑐𝑚3 /𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑛 1450

𝑄 19.5
The pump volumetric efficiency at pressure 3.5 MPa: η𝑣 = Q = 24
= 81.25%
t

 As the efficiency bigger than 80% then the pump in good condition and
leakage is reasonable.
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production Engineering
Two Semesters System –4th Year
MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – Fall 2020

System Dynamics and Control

(Free and Forced Vibration of A SDOF Vibrating Table)

Submitted to
Dr. Ahmed Haroun

Prepared by B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed Kassab 28

April 13, 2021

Table of Contents
Objective ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
System Description ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Analytical Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Procedure...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Results ........................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Free Vibration ................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Forced Vibration ............................................................................................................................... 6
1. Speed One ..................................................................................................................................... 6
2. Speed Two ..................................................................................................................................... 6
3. Speed Three .................................................................................................................................. 7
4. Speed Four .................................................................................................................................... 7
Sources of Error ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Objective

The objective of this experiment is to collect a vibration data of a vibrating system under
different conditions:
• Free Vibration
• Forced Vibration (By Mass Unbalance) at Different Speeds.
By using data acquisition system (Accelerometer, data acquisition card and a computer
software), the experimental data can be collected and easily graphed to get the vibration system
parameters.
The purpose of this experiment is comparing the collected experimental data with the analytical
one of the same system and the same initial conditions, detecting the existing errors and
discussing their sources.

Introduction

Vibratory systems comprise means for storing potential energy (spring), means for
storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and means by which the energy is gradually lost
(damper). The vibration of a system involves the alternating transfer of energy between its
potential and kinetic forms. In a damped system, some energy is dissipated at each cycle of
vibration and must be replaced from an external source if a steady vibration is to be maintained.
Although a single physical structure may store both kinetic and potential energy and may
dissipate energy.
Models of vibratory systems can be divided into two broad classes, lumped and
continuous, depending on the nature of the parameters. In the case of lumped systems, the
components are discrete, with the mass assumed to be rigid and concentrated at individual points,
and with the stiffness taking the form of massless springs connecting the rigid masses. The
masses and springs represent the system parameters, and we refer to such models as discrete or
lumped parameter models. The motion of discrete systems is governed by ordinary differential
equations. Continuous systems, on the other hand, differ from discrete systems in that the mass
and elasticity are continuously distributed. Such systems are also known as distributed-parameter
systems, and examples include strings, rods, beams, plates and shells. While discrete systems
possess a finite number of degrees of freedom, continuous systems have an infinite number of
degrees of freedom because we need an infinite number of coordinates to specify the
displacement of every point in an elastic body. The displacement in this case depends on two
independent variables, namely x and t. As a result, the motion of continuous systems is governed
by partial differential equations to be satisfied over the entire domain of the system, subject to
boundary conditions and initial conditions.

Page | 1
System Description

It is a simple table plate mounted over four thin cantilevers with Length (L), Width (w) and
Thickness (b). A motor of is fixed on the table plate making up together the Mass (M).

Analytical Analysis

Table Plate & Motor Mass (M) = 4.87+8.812 = 13.682 Kg

Six Bolts Mass (m) = 6*19.83 gm = 118.98 gm
Four Cantilevers Length (L) = 44.5 cm. Width (w) = 2.5 cm
Thickness (b) = 3.5 mm
Steel Young’s Modulus (E) for steel E = 200 GPa

3EI 1
K Cantilever = I= wb3 = 89.323 mm4
L3 12
3∗200∗109 ∗89.323∗(10−3 )4
K Cantilever = .4453
= 608.1 N/m K static = 4 ∗ K Cantilever = 4 ∗ 608.1 = 2432.73N/m

Page | 2
Instrumentation

1. Accelerometer

Accelerometers are devices that measure

the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a
structure. They have a transducer that converts
mechanical force caused by vibration or a change
in motion, into an electrical current using the
piezoelectric effect.

Accelerometer

2. Data Acquisition Card

3. A computer Software (Lab view)

Data Acquisition Card

Procedure

1. Apply a small impulsive force to the table plate in the direction of the cantilever
thickness (b).
2. Run recording data on visual basics.
3. Repeat step (1) with another small impulsive force and record its data.
4. Run Motor with different speeds at each time and repeat steps (1&2) for each speed, for 4
times, recording the vibration data caused by the rotating unbalance subjected by 6 small
bolts attached to the motor.
5. Export all the data as an excel sheet.

Page | 3
Results

1. Free Vibration

Getting the first two progressive peaks values x1= 8.92688 at t1= 0.294863
X2= 8.46555 at t2= 0.744121

1 X0 2πζ 1 8.92688 2πζ

δ = n ln (X1) = δ = 1 ln (8.46555) = .053062 = ζ = .00844
√1−ζ2 √1−ζ2

2π 2π
Td = t2 − t1 = .744121 − .294863 = .449258 sec Td = . 449258 =
ωn √1−ζ2 ωn √1−.008442

K
Wn = 13.9862 rad/sec Wn = √M K D = ωn 2 ∗ M = 13.98622 ∗ 13.682 = 2676.38 N/m

K D 2676.38
Stiffness Ratio Sr = = = 1.1
K s 2432.73

*There is a small error between analytical(static) and experimental(dynamic) stiffness.

Page | 4
Getting the second two progressive peaks values x1= 10.4346 at t1= 0.989941
X2= 9.72705 at t2= 1.441621

1 X0 2πζ 1 10.4346 2πζ

δ = n ln (X1) = δ = 1 ln ( 9.72705 ) = .070216 = ζ = .0111
√1−ζ2 √1−ζ2

2π 2π
Td = t2 − t1 = 1.441621 − .989941 = .45168 sec Td = . 45168 =
ωn √1−ζ2 ωn √1−.01112

K
Wn = 13.9115 rad/sec Wn = √M K D = ωn 2 ∗ M = 13.91152 ∗ 13.682 = 2647.89 N/m

K D 2647.89
Stiffness Ratio Sr = = = 1.088
K s 2432.73

*There is a small error between analytical(static) and experimental(dynamic) stiffness.

Page | 5
 2. Forced Vibration
1. Speed One

Peak at x=0.091965 m/s^2 and freq=1.816774 cps

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑊) = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓(𝑐𝑝𝑠) = 2𝜋 ∗ 1.816774 = 11.415 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

2. Speed Two

Peak at x= 0.691685 m/s^2 and freq= 2.312258 cps

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑊) = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓(𝑐𝑝𝑠) = 2𝜋 ∗ 2.312258 = 14.5283 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Page | 6
 3. Speed Three

Peak at x= 0.274121 m/s^2 and freq= 2.807742 cps

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑊) = 2π ∗ f(cps) = 2π ∗ 2.807742 = 17.6415 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

4. Speed Four

Peak at x= 0.048625 m/s^2 and freq= 2.312258 cps

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑊) = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓(𝑐𝑝𝑠) = 2𝜋 ∗ 2.312258 = 14.5283𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Page | 7
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 Wn = W at peak = 14.5283 rad/sec
Wn − Wn (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) 14.5283 − 13.9862
error% = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 3.876%
Wn (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) 13.9862
*small error is acceptable

Sources of Error

1. System does not vibrate in a single direction, but it vibrates in multiple directions due to
fixation.
2. In forced vibration, rotating unbalance is subjected by six small bolts, they are distributed
on both sides of the motor (Motor wheels). Due to unsymmetric distribution of bolts,
there might be error in vibration response.
3. System stiffness is presented by four thin plates making up simple cantilevers. Due to
dimensions tolerance among plates, there might be error.
4. There are multiple sources of unbalance there for the wave isn’t sine wave.
5. We need more points (more than 4 points) to get accurate graph of (acceleration vs
speed) thus accurate resonance frequency value.

Page | 8
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Excavator hydraulic arm

Submitted To
Dr. Mohamed Ahmed Elgamil

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Nov 24, 2020

Objective
1- Identify the electric and hydraulic components of the system.
2- Recognize the importance of the motor-pump alignment.
3- recognize the engineering solutions to facilitate assembly (e.g using bell housing to assemble
motor/pump)
4- Expect the specifications required for a hydraulic cylinder. Read the name plate of the
hydraulic cylinder. Identify the data needed.
5- Identify chains of 4-bars in more than 4- bar mechanisms.
6- Be aware that even if the Grubler's equation gives more DOF, sometimes there is a surplus of
DOF in one part which cannot be transferred to other parts.
7- Recognize the concept of geological constrains and difference between planner and spatial
mechanisms.
8. Able to design mechanism targeting ease of & assembly.
9- Able to design mechanism targeting links free of stresses due to wrong selections.
10- Recognize the consequences of having more or less than the required degrees of freedom.
11- Know how to design the mechanism so that he extra degrees of freedom do not affect the
performance.
12-Кnow how to generate output motion from a different input motion drive.

Introduction:
Excavators (hydraulic) are heavy construction
equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or stick),
bucket and cab on a rotating platform known as the
"house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with
tracks or wheels. They are a natural progression
from the steam shovels and often mistakenly
called power shovels. All movement and functions
of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished through
the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders
and hydraulic motors. Due to the linear actuation
of hydraulic cylinders, their mode of operation is
fundamentally different from cable-operated
excavators which use winches and steel ropes to
accomplish the movements.
a-Number and classification of links and joints
The excavator is consisted of 17 links + the ground which makes a total links number of 18
links, they are connected together by 23 joints classified as:
1-cylindrical 2-revolute 3-spherical.

For the sake of an easy study of the excavator, it can be divided into two main systems.
The first consists of 6 links and 6 revolute joints each of them is driven by a mechanism.
The second system is the driving mechanism itself, which is either 4-bar mechanism or 6-bar
mechanism.

The driving mechanism has a hydraulic cylinder as an actuator, where the mechanism itself
converts the linear motion of the cylinder into rotary motion at the robot 6 hinges.

b-DOF
The number of DOF for a 3D mechanism is given by (equation 1).

DOF = 6 (L − 1) − 5J 1 − 4J 2 − 3J 3 − 2J 2 − J 5 +G.C (1)

For the driving mechanism, the number of designed DOF should be equal to the number of
required actuators in order to precisely control the robot. This can be achieved either by
applying geometric constraints of parallel axes at joints (equation 2) or by proposing another
design.

DOF = 6 (4 − 1) − 5 * 4 + 3 = 1 (2)

Due to manufacturing capabilities, the geometric constraints were minimized to reduce the
assembly and manufacturing cost and were used only whenever inevitable, replacing the
revolute joint by a ball joint.
Ball joints allow rotation around 3 axes and prevent the 3 translations, in addition to that, it
allowed the cylinder piston to rotate around its axis. The alternative design DOF is given by
equation 3
For the 6-bar driving mechanism which controls the bucket, since the alternative design
wasn’t applicable also since the bucket assembly doesn’t need to be very accurate, a
geometric constraint was introduced.

DOF = 6 (4 − 1) − 5 * 2 − 4 * 1 − 3 * 1 = 1 (3)
c-Dimensions and motion ranges
The hydraulic cylinder’s relevant dimensions are determined as shown in table

Cylinder Pressure Bore diameter (mm) Rod diameter(mm) Stroke

(bar)
Base 70 25 12 160
Bucket 70 25 12 190
One 25 40 70 100
Two 70 25 12 230
Three 70 25 12 260

For the whole excavator, it has 5 hydraulic cylinders for 5 driving mechanisms
i.e. 1 DOF for each.

The links dimensions and joints range of motion have been measure experimentally
as shown in table

Link Length (mm) Joint Range of motion

(deg)
0 Ground 1 100
1 112 2 40
2 70 3 85
3 55 4 105
4 20 5 110

d-Formulas that express the motion ranges

To calculate the forward kinematics of the excavator, Denavit-Hartenberg method was used.

As in table shows Denavit- Hartenberg parameters for the robot

i alpha(i-1) a(i-1) d(i) Theta(i)

1 0 0 0 Ө1

2 pi/2 112 0 Ө2

3 0 70 0 Ө3

4 0 53 0 Ө4

5 0 20 0 Ө5
The bucket coordinates can be calculated using the following equations

𝑥 = 112.0 ∗ cos(𝑠1) + 70.0 ∗ cos(𝑠1) ∗ cos(𝑠2) − 53.0 ∗ sin(𝑠3) ∗ (cos(𝑠1) ∗ sin(𝑠2) − 20.0 ∗
sin(𝑠4) ∗ (cos(𝑠3) ∗ (cos(𝑠1) ∗ sin(𝑠2) + sin(𝑠3) ∗ (cos(𝑠1) ∗ cos(𝑠2) − 20.0 ∗ cos(𝑠4) ∗ (1.0 ∗
sin(𝑠3) ∗ (cos(𝑠1) ∗ sin(𝑠2) − cos(𝑠3) ∗ (cos(𝑠1) ∗ cos(𝑠2) + 53.0 ∗ cos(𝑠3) ∗ (cos(𝑠1) ∗
cos(𝑠2)

𝑦 = 112.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1)) + 70.0 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1) − 1.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1) ∗

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2))) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1)) − 1.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2))) − 1.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠1) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2))

𝑧 = 70.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2) + 53.0 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠3) + 53.0 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠3) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2) + 20.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠4) ∗
(𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠3) − 1.0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠3)) + 20.0 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠4) ∗ (𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠2) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠3) +
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠3) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠2)

using workspace representation

 y (cm

-20

-80

-100

-120

-140

-160
—200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Z (cm)

Z(cm) / 0
20

20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140

4 00 150 200 250 300

Due to time constraints the workspace and equations have been checked using a photos of
the excavator. Photos showed similar matlab-workspaces and real workspaces of the
excavator with a small error for the equations due to primitive measuring techniques used.
e- Schematic drawing of the linkage arrangement
 Extreme positions of the mechanism
Max Extreme Position Min Extreme Position

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3
 Max Extreme Position Min Extreme Position
Group 4
g-Excavator photos
Observations and Result
1- The result obtained from the 3D DOF equation is different from that obtained from the 2D DOF
equation.

2- In the 2D equation there are geometrical constrains that won’t be satisfied in the 3D equation

3- In 3D, the calculated DOF were -2 that is a problem as the DOF has to be equal 1. As a result,
ball joints were used instead of using revolute joints. ball joints allow rotation in 3 axes, one is
effective and the other 2 are redundant that won’t be a problem.

4- As the hydraulic cylinder has 2 links, it is considered as 2 force member.

5- The 6-bar mechanism at the end of the excavator consisted of 2 four bar mechanism in which
the frame and the rocked are in common in 2 mechanisms.

 The first 4-bar mechanism has +2 degrees of freedom.

 The second one has -2 and the +2 can’t compensate for the -2.

6- In the first mechanism the precision was required, so we used ball joints, but the application lead
us to neglect some of the precision since the excavator works in dirt and in a contaminated
environment.
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production Engineering
Two Semesters System –4th Year
MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – Fall 2020

Pneumatic Lab

Submitted to
Dr. Mohamed Ahmed EL-Gamil

Prepared by B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed Kassab 28

April 13,2021
Pneumatics
Pneumatic Application
Some industrial applications employing pneumatics are listed below:
1-General methods of material handling: (Clamping – Shifting – Positioning -Orienting -
Branching of material flow).

2-General applications: (Packaging Filling - Metering - Locking - Driving of axes - Door or

chute control - Transfer of materials - Turning and inverting of parts - Sorting of parts - Stacking
of components - Stamping and embossing of components).
3-carrying out machining and working operations: (Drilling – Turning – Milling – Sawing –
Finishing – Forming - Quality control).

Advantage of pneumatics

Availability Air is available practically everywhere in unlimited quantities.

Transport Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over large distances.
Storage Compressed air can be stored in a reservoir and removed as required. In addition,
the reservoir can be transportable.
Temperature Compressed air is relatively insensitive to temperature fluctuations.
This ensures reliable operation, even under extreme conditions.

Explosion Compressed air offers no risk of explosion or fire.

proof
Cleanliness Unlubricated exhaust air is clean. Any unlubricated air which escapes through
leaking pipes or components does not cause contamination.
Components The operating components are of simple construction and therefore relatively
inexpensive.
Speed Compressed air is a very fast working medium. This enables high working speeds
to be attained.
Disadvantage of pneumatics

Preparation Compressed air requires good preparation. Dirt and condensate should not be
present.
Compression It is not always possible to achieve uniform and constant piston speeds with
compressed air.

Force Compressed air is economical only up to a certain force requirement. Under the
requirement normal working pressure of 600 to 700 kPa (6 to 7 bar) and dependent on the
travel and speed, the output limit is between 40 000 and 50 000 Newtons.
Noise level The exhaust air is loud. This problem has now, however been largely solved due
to the development of sound absorption material and silencers.

Factors in the development of pneumatic control systems:

▪ Reliability ▪ Interchangeability and adaptability
▪ Ease of maintenance ▪ Compact design
▪ Cost of spare parts ▪ Economic efficiency
▪ Assembly and connection ▪ Documentation
▪ Maintenance and repair costs

Structure and signal flow

The primary levels in a pneumatic system are:

– Energy supply
– Input elements (sensors)
– Processing elements (processors)
– Control elements
– Power components (actuators)
Air preparation
1-Industrial environment
The drying of compressed air in an industrial environment is usually achieved with one of the
following methods:
• Deliquescent dryer
A deliquescent dryer typically consists of a container filled with hygroscopic material
that absorbs the water. Advantage: No additional energy is required. Disadvantage:
The hygroscopic materials have to be replaced regularly.
• Desiccant dryer
Also called twin tower dryer or adsorption dryer. The air flows through a desiccant
material such as silica gel. The gel's ability to keep water is limited, but can be easily
reset by blowing the water out (“purging” the gel). No additional energy is required
here either, but there is a loss of compressed air due to the purge. Large equipment is
needed for air flows at high speeds.
• Membrane dryer
First the air has to be filtered with a high quality coalescing filter, then the air passes
through a center bore of a hollow fibre in a membrane bundle. Dryer air is floating
outside the membrane. This leads to an exchange of vapor. Disadvantage: the flow is
limited to around 1000 l/min.
• Refrigerated dryer
Refrigerated drying is based on
the principle that colder air can
hold less water. The air passes a
heat-exchanger that is cooled to
around 3°C. The cooled-down
air loses water as well as oil,
both of which are collected.
After drying the air is filtered.

2-Normal environment
*Use FRL unit.
Components of a pneumatic system

1-The air service unit (Known as FRL unit) : is a combination of

the following :
a- Compressed air filter (with water separator)
b- Compressed air regulator
c- Compressed air lubricator

2-Valves :To control the pressure or flow rate of pressure media. Depending on design, these can
be divided into the following categories:
a. Directional control valves
b. Input/signaling elements
c. Processing elements
d. Control elements
e. Non-return valves
f. Flow control valves
g. Pressure control valves

3-pneumatic actuator: converts energy

into motion.
Types of pneumatic actuators:
a- Rotary actuators
b- Pneumatic cylinder
c- Grippers
d- Rod less actuators
e- Vacuum generators
Grippers

Pneumatic cylinder
Types of cylinders and valves
1-Single-Acting Cylinder
• Compressed air is applied to only one side.
• The piston rod side of the cylinder is vented to atmosphere.
• Perform work in only in the advance direction of travel.
• The piston rod is driven inwards by the force of a built-in spring or by external forces.

2-Double-Acting Cylinder
• Actuated in both directions with compressed air.
• It can perform work in both directions of movement.
• The force transmitted to the piston rod is greater during the advance stroke than during
the return stroke.
 Double-acting cylinder with adjustable end-position cushioning at both ends.

Double-acting cylinder with double-ended piston rod.

Double-acting rod less cylinder with adjustable end-position cushioning at both

ends (pneumatic linear drive)

3- solenoid valves
a-Direct-acting valves
Solenoids in direct-acting valves open the valve magnetically through
direct action, hence the name. The coil pushes and pulls a shaft and
causes the seat of the valve to shift. When there’s no electrical
current, the spring coil returns to the default position. Direct-acting
valves need full power to operate the valve. Whether that position
is normally open or normally closed depends on the application.
In an energized normally closed valve, the inlet pressure is released
when the solenoid coil retracts, thereby allowing the fluid to pass
through the outlet. The solenoid coil is typically larger in a direct
acting valve, compared to a pilot operated valve.
b-Pilot-operated valves
Pilot operated valves use the pressure of the fluid in the line to open
the valve. One of the benefits is the ability to use a smaller coil and a lower cost. Although pilot-
operated valves uses less electrical power, you must have the available pressure to operate the
valve.
Type of Valve
Solenoid valves are available as 2-Way, 3-Way, and 4-Way. The application will dictate the
types of solenoid valves you chose.
a-2-Way Valves
A 2-way valve is used in On/Off applications that requires a quick response and higher flow.
Two-way valves can replace a lever to automate a process. In venting applications, the valve is
actuated to release excess pressure on the fluid.
b-3-Way Valves
A 3-way valve has three ports. This allows for it to be in 1 of 2 states, or circuits. A 3-way valve
can open, close, convey, or distribute, or combine media.
c-4-Way Valves
In a 4-way valve, all ports are in the off position by default. They create two states, or actions,
and have two exhaust ports. You control the speed of each action by attaching a flow
control valve to each exhaust port.

4-Non-return and Flow Control Valves

Non-return valves block the flow in one direction and release it in the opposite direction.
A distinction is made between:
a- Non-return valves
b- Shuttle valves (OR)
c- Dual pressure valves (AND)
d- One-way flow control valves
e- Quick exhaust valves

5-Pressure Control Valves

Pressure control valves influence the pressure or
are controlled through the size of the pressure. A
distinction is made between:
a- Pressure regulating valves
b- Pressure relief valves
c- Pressure sequence valves

6- circuit cables
*The cables are using quick coupling mechanism.
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production
Engineering Two Semesters System – 4th Year

Industrial Laboratory (5S)

Submitted To

Dr. Adel Shalaby

Prepared by

Name B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed 28

Dec 1, 2020
Workplace description:
The coming photos are of the workshop, it is located in the Cairo university faculty of
engineering building number 15, the workshop mainly used for electrical racing teams to work in
and also some mechanical work is done in it.

Assessment Recommendations

-The output score is 31 more -They need to be more aware about 5s.
than 25% and less than 50%.
-They need classify then remove the unwanted items.
-No formal approach for 5S.
-There need to be certain areas for waste.
-The workshop manager and
workers are randomly -Standard codes, signs and colors need to be used.
practicing 5S.
-Need to apply schedules for cleaning and maintenance.

-The workshop need to be reorganized.

-A system of 5S is need to be implemented and poster or

reminder of it need to standout.
Workplace Photo:
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
Mechanical Design and Production Engineering
Two Semesters System –4th Year
MDP407: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory

Lean Manufacturing Lab

(Simulation for Production line using PUSH/PULL and Kanban Methods)

Submitted to
Dr. Adel Shalaby

Prepared by B.N
Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed Kassab 28

April 27,2021
 Performance and Profit Estimation

Assumptions

➢ 𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒= 0

➢ Revenue of a delivered unit = 20 EGP.
➢ Inventory costs 3 EGP/unit.
➢ Holding kit costs 2 EGP/unit.
➢ Sorted waiting brick (Between stations B & C) costs 1 EGP/unit.
1. 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 / 𝐶𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
2. 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 /Number 𝑜𝑓 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒
3. 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚e
4. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 = 20 𝐸𝐺𝑃 ∗5∗ Number 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟s 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
5. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = (3 𝐸𝐺𝑃/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 ∗ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 in inventory) + (2 𝐸𝐺𝑃/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 ∗ 𝑁umber 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑖𝑡𝑠
in station C) + (1 𝐸𝐺𝑃/𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 ∗ 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 stations 𝐵&𝐶)
6. Profit = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 - 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡

Performance Run1: PUSH Run2: PULL

Measures (KPI’s)

Total Run Time 600 Sec 600 Sec

(Sec)
Units Delivered. 0 10
(Shipped)

Inventory (Station D) 7+4(rejected from shipping) 0+2(rejected from shipping)

WIP (Station C) 9 0
(complete kits)
WIP (Station B) (bricks) 0 0

600/(5*6)=20 Sec 600/(5*6)=20 Sec

Takt Time (Sec)

Cycle Time (Sec) 600/(0+7+4)=54.54 Sec 600/(10+0+2)=50 Sec

Lead Time (Sec) 600 Sec 600 Sec

Quality Defects ------- ------
Total Revenue (EGP) 20 * (5*0) = 0 EGP 20 * (5*2) = 200EGP

Total Cost (EGP) 3*(11) + 2*(9) + 1*(0) =51 EGP 3*(2) + 2*(0) +1*(0) =6 EGP

Profit (EGP) -51 EGP 194 EGP

The result show that the pull system is better in the experiment because the production system has higher
revenue and lower cost than the push system
PUSH System Modifications
To improve efficiency of the push system, you suggested to:
a. Combine station A and B and assign one operator to only to both to so the
sorting and sizing.
b. Assign the above saved operator to the assembly station D.
c. Work in lots of size 5 as the experiment.

This improvement will decrease the cycle time from two factors
First, combining stations A and B to one operator will make the process faster because
the operator will sort the bricks with their color directly to the brick inventory so for
each time, he pulls a brick he will place it in its right color and size inventory and will
neglect the time-consuming process of putting the same color bricks in random sizing.

Secondly, Assigning the saved operator to the assembly station D will duplicate
the production, because as observed the bottleneck of process was this station
(slowest station) and production was depending on the production of this station.
So, duplicate the production will decrease cycle time to half of its value.
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = .5*54.5 = 27.25 sec

But it won’t affect lead time as it lead time is much lower to cover all the orders even if the
production is duplicated.
Lead Time = 600 Sec
 PULL System Modifications
To improve the efficiency of the PULL system, you suggested to introduce a
buffer (WIP) limit of 2 units (instead of 1) for inventory, and for WIP between
Stations C, D and E.

a) New Kanbans

Kit WIP Inventory – Final Product

Kanban between station (C&D) Station (E)
White Yellow Red White Yellow Red
1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

b)
Bros of Increasing Buffer Limit
1- Faster shipments for customer orders.
2- Decrease waiting time if there are any rejects in kits.
3- Increasing productivity.

Cons of Increasing Buffer Limit

1- Increasing the total cost by increasing holding cost so decreasing the profit.

c)Conditions make PUSH system better than PULL system.

1. If the suppliers you deal with doesn’t have fixed delivery policy.
2. You manufacture complex and high variety products so you need a lot of (WIP).
3. You considered with safety stock as cost of stock out is high.
4. Dealing with large demands or fixed demands.
5. Dealing with long time period demands.