Materials for W8

Infinite Sequences
1. Definition

1.1 Intuitive Definition

The term sequence is commonly used to denote a
succession of numbers whose order is determined by a rule or a
function. It is an unending succession of numbers, called
terms.

1.2 Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of all
positive integers greater or equal to some integer n 0 . The
function value an is called the nth term of the sequence.

1.3 Main concern of the study of sequences

• Notation: {an } - the sequence whose nth term is an .
• Most of the time, n0 = 1, but there are times (for
convenience or some other reasons) n0 = 0 or other
integers
• Main concern: to determine whether the terms an tend to
a finite limit as n tends to infinity. If the limit exists (that
is the limit is a real number), then the sequence is said to
converge, otherwise (limit equals ∞ or does not exist) it is
said to diverge.

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2. Techniques for finding limits

2.1 Theorems for finding limits of sequences
Theorem 1.1
Given that {an } is a sequence,
i. If an = c , where c is a constant, then lim c = c
n →∞
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
ii. If an = and α > 0 , then lim ⎜⎜ α ⎟ = 0
n α n →∞ ⎝n ⎠
iii. lim an = 0 if and only if lim an = 0 ,
n →∞ n →∞

equivalently
lim an ≠ 0 if and only if lim an ≠ 0
n →∞ n →∞

Theorem 1.2
Suppose that {an } is a sequence, f (n ) = an such that f (x )
exists for all real numbers x ≥ 1 and L is a real number.
i. If lim f (x ) = L , then lim an = L
x →∞ x →∞

ii. If lim f (x ) = ±∞ , then lim an = ±∞

x →∞ x →∞

iii. If lim f (x ) does not exist, then lim an does not exist
x →∞ x →∞

Theorem 1.3
Suppose that {n α }(α > 0) , {e n } , {ln n } , {sin n } , and
{cos n } are sequences, then
i. lim n α = ∞
n →∞

ii. lim e n = ∞
n →∞

iii. lim ln n = ∞
n →∞

iv. lim sin n and lim cos n does not exist

n →∞ n →∞

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Theorem 1.4 (properties of limits)

Let {an } and {bn } be sequences. Suppose that
lim an = L and lim bn = M
n →∞ n →∞

with L and M real numbers, then

i. lim [an ± bn ] = L ± M
n →∞

ii. lim [anbn ] = LM

n →∞
⎡a ⎤ L
iii. lim ⎢ n ⎥ = ,M ≠0
n →∞ ⎢ b ⎥ M
⎣ n⎦
iv. lim can = cL , c is a constant
n →∞

v. lim f (an ) = f (lim an ) , f is continuous

x →∞ x →∞

Theorem 1.5
Let {an } and {bn } be sequences. Suppose that
lim an = ∞ and lim bn = M
n →∞ n →∞

where M is a real number, then

i. lim [an ± bn ] = ∞
n →∞

ii. lim [anbn ] = ∞, M >0

n →∞
⎡a ⎤
iii. lim ⎢ n ⎥ = ∞, M > 0
n →∞ ⎢ b ⎥
⎣ n⎦
iv. lim [anbn ] = −∞, M < 0
n →∞
⎡ an ⎤
v. lim ⎢ ⎥ = −∞, M < 0
n →∞ ⎢ b ⎥
⎣ n⎦
⎡ bn ⎤
vi. lim ⎢ ⎥ = 0
n →∞ ⎢ a ⎥
⎣ n⎦

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Example 1 Determine if the following sequences converge or

diverge.

(a) { } 5
en
(b) {2 + ln n } (c) {(−1)n } { }
(d) sin
1
n

Solution (a)
⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ lim 5
lim ⎜ n ⎟ = n →∞
n →∞ ⎜
⎝e ⎠ lim e n
n →∞

From Theorem 1.1(i) lim 5 = 5 and from Theorem 1.3 (ii),

n→∞
n
lim e = ∞ . Therefore from Theorem 1.5(v)
n →∞
⎛5⎞
lim ⎜⎜ n ⎟⎟ = 0 . Since 0 is a real number, the sequence
n →∞ ⎝e ⎠

converges.

Solution (b)
lim (2 + ln n ) = lim 2 + lim (ln n )
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

From Theorem 1.1(i) lim 2 = 2 and from Theorem 1.3(iii),

n→∞

lim(ln n ) = ∞ . Therefore from Theorem 1.5(i)

n →∞

lim (2 + ln n ) = ∞ . Since ∞ is not a real number, the

n →∞

sequence diverges.

Solution (c)
{(−1)n } = −1,1, −1,1, −1,1,... Looking at the terms of the
sequence, we see that the terms oscillate between –1 and 1,
hence the sequence has no limit, therefore we conclude that the
sequence diverges.

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Solution (d)
Applying Theorem 1.4(v) we have
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛1⎞
lim ⎜⎜sin ⎟⎟ = sin lim ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = sin 0 = 0
n →∞ ⎝ n⎠ n →∞ ⎝ n ⎠

Therefore the sequence converges.

3. l’Hopital’s rule
The l’Hopital’s rule can also be applied to limits of
sequences as long as the conditions for the rules are satisfied.

Theorem 1.6
Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions and
lim f (n ) = 0 = lim g(n ) or lim f (n ) = ∞ = lim g(n )
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

then
f (n ) f ′(n )
lim = lim
n →∞ g (n ) n →∞ g ′(n )

Example 2 Find the limits of the following sequences.

⎧⎪⎪ 3n 2 + n − 1 ⎫
⎪
⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟⎫
⎪
(a) ⎨ 2 ⎬ (b) ⎨n ln ⎜
⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎬
⎪⎪n + 4n − 3 ⎭⎪⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎪
⎩ n ⎠⎪⎭⎪

Solution (a)
⎛ 3n 2 + n − 1 ⎞⎟ ∞
lim ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟= . Aplly l’Hopital’s rule:
n →∞ ⎝⎜ n + 4n − 3 ⎠⎟ ∞
⎛ 6n + 1 ⎞⎟ ∞
lim ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = . Apply the rule a second time.
n →∞ ⎝ 2n + 4 ⎠ ∞
⎛6⎞
lim ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3 . The sequence converges to 3.
n→∞ ⎝ 2 ⎠

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Solution (b)
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
lim ⎢n ln ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟⎥ = ∞ ⋅ 0 - an indeterminate form. Rewrite
n →∞ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ n ⎠⎦⎥
the expression of limit.
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
⎡ ⎢ ln ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎥ = 0 . Now we can apply
lim ⎢n ln ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟⎥ = lim ⎢⎢ ⎥
n →∞ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ n ⎠⎥⎦ n →∞
⎢ 1 ⎥ 0
⎢ n ⎥
⎣ ⎦
the l’Hopital’s rule.
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢ ln ⎜⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎜− 2 ⎟⎟
⎢ ⎝ n ⎠⎥ ⎢
⎣ 1 + (1/ n ) ⎦⎥ ⎝ n ⎠
lim ⎢
1 ⎥ = nlim 1
n →∞
⎢ ⎥ →∞
− 2
⎢ n ⎥ n
⎣ ⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ 1
= lim ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ = =1
n →∞ ⎜
⎝1 + (1/ n )⎠⎟ 1 + 0
The sequence converges to 1.

4. The Sandwich Theorem

This theorem will be useful for finding limits of sequences that
cannot be obtained directly. Before that we will state the
following useful result.

Theorem 1.7
If {r n } is a sequence, then
⎧
⎪0, r <1
n
lim r = ⎨⎪
n →∞ ⎪
⎪∞, r > 1
⎩

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Theorem 1.8 (The Sandwich Theorem)

Suppose that {an } , {bn } and {cn } are sequences, and for every
integer n ≥ 1 we have an ≤ bn ≤ cn (term-wise).

If lim an = L = lim cn then lim bn = L .

n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

Example 3
⎧
⎪ cos2 n ⎫
⎪
Find the limit of the sequence ⎨ n ⎪⎬ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ 5 ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
Solution
The given sequence is {bn } . Your approach is to think of what
two known sequences to use as {an } and {cn } such that
an ≤ bn ≤ cn . Let’s examine the given term. We know that
0 ≤ cos2 n ≤ 1 from the property of that trigonometric function,
hence if we divide each part of the inequality with 5n , we have
the middle part as bn , that is
0 cos2 n 1
≤ ≤
5n 5n 5n
Now we have the appropriate {an } and {cn } , which are:

{ }
{an } = {0} and {cn } = n
5
1

n
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
lim an = lim 0 = 0 and lim cn = lim n = lim ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0 from
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞ n →∞ 5 n →∞ ⎝ 5 ⎠

Theorem 1.7. Since both limit are equal to zero, the limit for
the sandwiched sequence should also be zero. Therefore
cos2 x
lim = 0 . This is thus a convergent sequence.
n →∞ 5n

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Example 4

Find the limit of the sequence { }

n!
n n
.

Solution
n!
If n is a positive integer, then clearly 0 < . So we can
nn
have an = 0 .
n!
Next we analyse the term . We begin with rewriting
nn
the term in the following fashion:
n! 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 …n ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛
⎟ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 …n ⎞⎟
= = ⎜ ⎜
nn n ⋅ n ⋅ n ⋅ n …n ⎜⎝ n ⎠⎝ ⎟⎜ n ⋅ n ⋅ n …n ⎠⎟
⎛ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 …n ⎞⎟
The value of the term ⎜⎜ < 1 (agree?). If we compare
⎝ n ⋅ n ⋅ n …n ⎠⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 …n ⎞⎟ 1
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ with we would have the following
⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⋅ n ⋅ n …n ⎠⎟ n
inequality:
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 …n ⎞⎟ 1
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ≤ , (why?).
⎝ n ⎠⎝ n ⋅ n ⋅ n …n ⎠⎟ n
Therefore we can write
n! 1
0< n <
n n
1
Thus we now have cn = .
n
1
We know lim an = lim 0 = 0 and lim cn = lim = 0 . It
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞ n →∞ n

n!
follows from Theorem 1.8, lim bn = lim n = 0 . The sequence is
n →∞ n →∞ n

a convergent sequence.