Chapter 8

Sequence and Series

Contents
8.1 Definition of Sequences 3
8.2 Convergent Properties of Sequences 4
8.2.1 Subsequence and Limit Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.3 Definition of Series 9
8.4 Convergence and Divergence of a Series 10
8.5 Non–negative Term Series 16
8.6 Alternating series and alternating series test 22
8.7 Absolute and Conditional Convergence 23
8.8 Generalized Convergence Test 24
8.9 Exercise 27

If you look around your surrounding, you will find a number of patterns in nature like leaves and
flowers with similar structures, and the ripples on a lake and many more patterns that do not cease to
amaze us. Nature inspired mathematicians to try and explain these patterns to work on mathematical
models and understand the basics of geometric shapes and structures. Lot of works have been carried out
in the field of sequences and series to predict the possibility of an event, to design the structures and to
build, to analysis the real-life situations etc. Sequences and series are also used in business and financial
analysis to assist in decision-making and find the best solution to a given problem.

8.1 Definition of Sequences

Definition 8.1.1 A sequence is a function whose domain is the collection of all integers greater than
or equal to a given integer m (usually 0 or 1) denoted by {an }∞
n=m , where n is index, m is initial index
and an , n ≥ m is the general term of the sequence.

A sequence does not depend up on the symbol used for the index.
 Example 8.1 {an }∞
n=m and {ai }i=m are the same sequences.
∞ 

Example 8.2 Find the first four terms of {3 + n}∞ n=1 .

Solution: Let an is the nth term of the sequence {3 + n}∞ n=1 , then

The first term, a1 is 4

The second term, a2 is 5
The third term, a3 is 6
The forth term, a4 is 7

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2 Sequence and Series

8.2 Convergent Properties of Sequences

Definition 8.2.1 A sequence {an }∞
n=m has the limit L or lim an = L. If we can make the terms an as
n→∞
close to L as we like by taking n sufficiently large. If lim an exists, we say the sequence converges or
n→∞
is convergent. Otherwise, we say the sequence diverges or is divergent.

 Example 8.3 Consider the sequence { 21n }∞

n=0 . The first few terms are

1 1 1 1
1, , , , , · · ·
2 4 8 16
1
Thus, here we can see that for sufficiently large values of n, the terms an = 2n becomes very close to a
fixed number L = 0; that is,
1
lim =0
n→∞ 2n
Therefore, the sequence {an }∞
n=m is convergent and it converges to 0. 

Definition 8.2.2 A sequence {an } has the limit L and we write

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if for every ε > 0 there is a correspond integer N such that

if n > N, then |an − L| < ε

Theorem 8.2.1 Let L be a real number, let f be a function of a real variable x defined on [m, ∞) such
that lim f (x) = L. If {an }∞
n=m is a sequence such that f (n) = an for every n ≥ m, then lim an = L.
x→∞ n→∞

 Example 8.4 Find the limit of the sequence {(1 + 1n )n }∞

n=1 .
Solution: The nth term of the sequence is
1
an = (1 + )n , n ≥ 1
n
Let f (x) = (1 + 1x )x , x ∈ R, x 6= 0, then
1
f (n) = (1 + )n = an for all n ∈ R, n ≥ 1
n
That is the sequence {an } agrees with a function f (x) at every positive integer n. From elementary
calculus course,
1
lim f (x) = lim (1 + )x = e
x→∞ x→∞ x
So, by the above theorem,
1
lim an = lim (1 + )n = e
x→∞ n→∞ n
Thus, the infinite sequence {(1 + n1 )n }∞
n=1 converges. 

Definition 8.2.3 lim an = ∞ means that for every positive number M there is an integer N such that
n→∞

if n > N, then an > M

 Example 8.5 Show that the sequence {en }∞

n=0 diverges.
Solution: The nth term of the sequence is
an = en , n ≥ 1

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8.2 Convergent Properties of Sequences 3

Let f (x) = ex , x ∈ R, then

f (n) = en = an for all n ∈ R, n ≥ 1

That is the sequence {an } agrees with a function f (x) at every positive integer n. From elementary
calculus course,
lim f (x) = lim ex = ∞
x→∞ x→∞

So, by the above theorem,

lim an = lim en = ∞
n→∞ n→∞

Thus, the infinite sequence {en }∞

n=0 diverges. 

2n
 Example 8.6 Show that the sequence { 2n−1 }∞
n=1 divergent.
Solution: The nth term of the sequence is

2n
an = ,n ≥ 1
2n − 1
2x
Let f (x) = 2x−1 , x ∈ R, then

2n
f (n) = = an for all n ∈ R, n ≥ 1
2n − 1

That is the sequence {an } agrees with a function f (x) at every positive integer n. From elementary
calculus course,
2x ∞
lim f (x) = lim =
x→∞ x→∞ 2x − 1 ∞
Using L’Hopital rule to evaluate the limit of f (x), we obtain

2x
lim f (x) = lim
x→∞ x→∞ 2x − 1
d
(2x )
= lim d dx
dx (2x − 1)
x→∞

2x ln 2
= lim by L’Hoptial rule
x→∞ 2
= ∞

So, by the above theorem,

2n
lim an = lim =∞
n→∞ n→∞ 2n − 1

2n
Thus, the infinite sequence { 2n−1 }∞
1=0 diverges. 

Geometric Sequence
The geometric sequence {rn }∞
n=m is
1. Convergent if −1 < r ≤ 1 and
≤ −1 or r > 1
2. Divergent if r 
0 if − 1 < r < 1
Moreover, lim rn =
n→∞ 1 if r = 1
 Example 8.7 The sequence {( 23 )n }∞ 2 2
n=0 is geometric sequence with r = 3 and −1 < 3 < 1. Hence,
{( 23 )n }∞ 2 n
n=0 is convergent and lim ( 3 ) = 0. 
n→∞

 Example 8.8 Consider the sequence {(−1)n 2n }∞

n=0 is geometric sequence with r = −2 < −1. Hence,
{(−1)n 2n }∞
n=0 is divergent. 

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4 Sequence and Series

Properties of limits of sequences

The following properties of limits of sequences are those given for limits of functions of real variable. Let
{an } and {bn } be two sequences, such that lim an = L and lim bn = K
n→∞ n→∞
1. lim (an ± bn ) = L ± K
n→∞
2. lim (an · bn ) = L · K
n→∞
3. lim c · an = c · L for any real number c
n→∞
an
4. lim = KL , where lim bn = K 6= 0
n→∞ bn n→∞
5. lim anp = L p for any p ∈ R and L p exists.
n→∞
6. lim pbn = pK for any p ∈ R and pK exists.
n→∞
2
 Example 8.9 Show that the sequence whose nth term is an = 2nn−1 converges.
n2 x2
Solution: Let an = 2n −1 , define f be a function of real variable x given by f (x) = 2x −1 for x ≥ 1. Thus,

n2
f (n) = = an for n ≥ 1
2n − 1
Now, applying L’Hopital rule twice produces
x2 ∞
lim f (x) = lim has indeterminate case
x→∞ x→∞ 2x − 1 ∞
d
(x2 )
= lim d dx
x
dx (2 − 1)
x→∞

2x ∞
= lim has indeterminate case
x→∞ 2x ln 2 ∞
2
= lim
x→∞ 2x (ln 2)2
= 0
n2
Therefore, the sequence whose nth term is an = converges. 2n −1 

√
 Example 8.10 Determine whether the sequence {
n ∞
n}n=2 converges or not.
√ 1 1 √
Solution: Let an = n for n ≥ 2. Define the function f (x) = x x for x ≥ 2. Then, f (n) = n n = n n = an
n

for any n ≥ 2.
1 1) ln x
lim x x = lim eln(x x = lim (e x )
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞

Now, lim ( lnxx ) has an indeterminate form ∞

∞. Then applying L’Hopital rule, we obtain
x→∞
d
ln x dx ln x 1
lim ( ) = lim d
= lim =0
x→∞ x x→∞
dx x
x→∞ x

ln x
This implies that lim exists. So,
x→∞ x

1 1)
lim x x = lim eln(x x
x→∞ x→∞
lim lnxx
= ex→∞
= e0
= 1
√ 1
Therefore, { n n}∞ lim n n = 1. Thus, the sequence is convergent.
2 converges and n→∞ 

√ √ √
 Example 8.11 Show that the sequence { n( n + 1 − n)}∞
√ √ √ √ is√convergent.
n=0 √
Solution: Let an = n( n + 1 − n) for n ≥ 0, define f (x) = x( x + 1 − x) for x ≥ 0. Then
√ √ √
f (n) = n( n + 1 − n) = an for x ≥ 0

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8.2 Convergent Properties of Sequences 5
√ √ √
lim f (x) = lim x( x + 1 − x)
x→∞ x→∞
√ √
√ √ √ x+1+ x
= lim x( x + 1 − x) √ √
x→∞ x+1+ x
√
x
= lim √ √
x→∞ x + 1 + x
√ ( √1x )
x
= lim √ √
x→∞ x + 1 + x ( √1 )
x
1
= lim q
x→∞
1 + 1x + 1
1 1
= since lim = 0
2 x→∞ x
√ √ √ √ √ √ 1
Therefore, the sequence { n( n + 1 − n)}∞
n=0 is convergent and lim n( n + 1 − n) = 2 . 
n→∞

Theorem 8.2.2 Squeezing theorem for sequences

For three sequence {an }∞
n=m , {bn }n=p and {cn }n=k , if n→∞
∞ ∞ lim an = L = lim bn and there exist an integer
n→∞
N such that an ≤ cn ≤ bn for all n > N, then lim cn = L.
n→∞

 Example 8.12 Show that lim sinn n = 0.

n→∞
Solution: Let an = sin n for any n ≥ 1, define f (x) = sin x. We know that −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for any x ≥ 1.
This implies that −1 sin x 1 1 1
x ≤ x ≤ x . Since lim (− x ) = 0 = lim ( x ). By squeezing theorem, it follow that
x→∞ x→∞
sin x sin n
lim = 0. Therefore, lim = 0. 
x→∞ x n→∞ n
(−1)n
 Example 8.13 Show that the sequence { n! }∞
n=0 converges and find its limit.
Solution: To apply the squeezing theorem, you must find two convergent sequences that can be related to
the given sequence. Two possibility are an = − 21n and bn = 21n both which converges to 0. We can see that

7 · · · n} for n ≥ 4 and
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · · · n = 24 · 5| · 6 ·{z
(n−4) factors
n
2 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · · · 2 = 16 · |2 · 2 · 2{z· 2 · · · 2} for n ≥ 4
(n−4) factors

This implies that 2n < n! for n ≥ 4. Thus, we have

1 (−1)n 1
− ≤ ≤ n for n ≥ 4
2n n! 2
(−1)n
Since lim − 21n = 0 = lim 1
n; by squeezing theorem, we have lim = 0. Thus, the sequence
n→∞ n→∞ 2 n→∞ n!
n
{ (−1)
n! }∞
n=0 converges. 

Theorem 8.2.3 For the sequence {an }∞

n=m , if lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.
n→∞ n→∞

(−1)n
 Example 8.14 Evaluate lim if it exists.
n→∞ n
n
Solution: Since the sign of the terms of { (−1)
n } are alternating, are first calculate the limit in absolute
values
(−1)n 1
lim = lim = 0
n→∞ n n→∞ n
(−1)n
Then, lim n = 0. 
n→∞

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6 Sequence and Series

 Example 8.15 Show that the sequence { nn!n }∞

n=1 converges to 0 by using squeezing theorem.
Solution: Both n → ∞ and nn → ∞ as n → ∞, but here we have no corresponding function for use with
L’Hopital’s rule. Let’s write a few terms to get a feeling for what happens to an as n → ∞.
1
a1 =
1
1·2
a2 =
2·2
.. ..
. .
1·2·3···n
an =
n·n·n···n
1 2·3·4···n
= ≤ 1 and an > 0
n n| · n ·{z
n · · · n}
n−1 factors
because 2 · 3 · 4 · · · n ≤ n · n · n · · · n

Hence,
2·3·4···n
0≤ ≤1
n·n·n···n
0 2·3·4···n 1
≤ ≤
n n·n·n···n n
n! 1
⇒0≤ n ≤
n n
n!
We know that lim an = lim n = 0; that is, the sequence { nn!n }∞
n=1 is convergent which converges to 0. 
n→∞ n→∞ n

Definition 8.2.4 A sequence {an } is called increasing if an < an+1 for all n ≥ 1; that is, a1 < a2 <
a3 < · · · . It is called decreasing if an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1. It is called monotonic if it is either increasng
or decreasing.
3
 Example 8.16 The sequence { n+5 } is decreasing because

3 3 3
> =
n + 5 (n + 1) + 5 n + 6

and so an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1. 

Definition 8.2.5 A sequence {an } is bounded above if there is a number M such that

an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1

It is bounded below if there is a number m such that

m ≤ an for all n ≥ 1

If it is bounded above and below, then {an } is a bounded sequence

Theorem 8.2.4 Bounded and Monotonic Sequence

If a sequence {an }∞
n=m is bounded and monotonic, then it is converges.

 Example 8.17 The sequence { n1 }∞ 1

n=1 is bounded since 0 ≤ n ≤ 1 for all n ≥ 1. Hence, by above
Theorem, the sequence {an }∞
n=m converges. 

8.2.1 Subsequence and Limit Point

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8.3 Definition of Series 7

Definition 8.2.6 Let {an } be a sequence and let {nk } be a strictly increasing sequence of natural
numbers such that nk < nk+1 , for all k ∈ N. Then {ank } is called a subsequence of {an }.

 Example 8.18 Let {an } = { 1n }, if nk = k2 for all k ∈ N. Then the corresponding subsequence of { 1n } is
{ n1 } = { k12 }∞
k=1 . 
k

 Example 8.19 Let {an } = {n} be a sequence, if nk = 3k for k ∈ N, then {3k}∞

k=1 = {3n}n=1 is a
∞

subsequence of {n}. Again {3k + 1}∞

k=1 is a subsequence of {n}. 

Theorem 8.2.5 Let an be a convergent sequence with an → l as n → ∞. Then every subsequence of an

converges to l. But, the converse of the above statement may not be true.

Remark 8.2.6 If the sequence are convergent, then the subsequence also convergent and if the
subsequence of the sequence is not convegent, then the sequence also not convergent.

 Example 8.20 Let an = (−1)n , then ank = −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, · · · . Here an2k+1 → −1 as k → ∞ but
an2k → 1 as k → ∞; that is, all subsequence of an = (−1)n for n ∈ N is convergent but an = (−1)n is
divergent. 

 Example 8.21 Consider an = (−1)n + 1n . This sequence does not converge but the subsequence ank
where nk = 2k is convergent, since
1 1
ank = a2k = (−1)2k + = 1+
2k 2k
Thus, a2k → 1 as k → ∞. 

Corollary 8.2.7 If a sequence {an } has two subsequences which converges to different limits, then
the sequence {an } it self is divergent.

Corollary 8.2.8 If the sequence {an } has a divergent subsequence, then the sequence {an } is divergent.

Theorem 8.2.9 The Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

Definition 8.2.7 A real number l is called a limit point of a sequence an , n ∈ N, iff there is a
subsequence ank such that l = lim ank .
k→∞

Theorem 8.2.10 A convergent sequence has one and only one limit point, this point is the limit of the
sequence.

Theorem 8.2.11 Let an , n ∈ N be a bounded sequence which has only one limit point l. Then an → l
as n → ∞.

Example 8.22 Show that sequence {an } = {n} is divergent by using the concept of sequence subse-
quence.
Solution: We know that {3k}∞ k=1 = {3n}n=1 is a subsequence of {n} and it is divergent. By using the
∞

above corollary we can conclude that the sequence also divergent. 

8.3 Definition of Series

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8 Sequence and Series
∞
Definition 8.3.1 Let {an }∞
n=m be an infinite sequence. Then sum ∑ an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · · is
n=1
called series (or infinite series).

Remark 8.3.1 If the sum of a series exists, then it is unique.

 Example 8.23 The following are some particular example of series

∞
1. ∑ 2n = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + · · ·
n=0
∞
2. ∑ (3 + (−1)n ) = (2 + 4) + (2 + 4) + (2 + 4) + · · ·
n=1
∞
n 2 3 4
3. ∑ ln n = ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 + · · ·
n=2


8.4 Convergence and Divergence of a Series

∞
Definition 8.4.1 For the series ∑ an the sum
n=1

n
sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an = ∑ ak
k=1

is called the nth partial sum of the series.

If the sequence {sn }∞n=1 of partial sums is convergent and lim sn = s exists as a real number where the
n→∞
∞
number s is called the sum of the series, then we say that the infinite series ∑ an is convergent and
n=1
∞
we write a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = s or ∑ an = s.
n=1
∞
If the sequence {sn }∞
n=1 is divergent, then we say that the series ∑ an diverges.
n=1

 Example 8.24 Show that the series 21n = 12 + 41 + 18 + · · · converges and find its sum.
Solution: The series has the following partial sums
1
s1 =
2
1 1 3
s2 = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 7
s3 = + + =
2 4 8 8
1 1 1 1 15
s4 = + + + = and so on
2 4 8 16 16
Then by simple inspection, from the pattern of the above partial sums, we can write the nth partial sum as
1 1 1 1 2n − 1
sn = + + +···+ n =
2 4 8 2 2n
It follow that
2n − 1
lim sn = lim
n→∞ n→∞ 2n
∞
has an indeterminate form ∞ . Then by L’Hopital’s rule;

(2n − 1)0 2n ln 2
lim sn = lim n 0
= lim n =1<∞
n→∞ n→∞ (2 ) n→∞ 2 ln 2

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8.4 Convergence and Divergence of a Series 9
∞
1
That is, lim sn exists. Hence, the infinite series ∑ 2n is convergent and has sum
n→∞
n=1

∞ ∞
1
s= ∑ 2n = ∑ sn = 1
n=1 n=1


∞
 Example 8.25 The series ∑ c = c + c + c + · · · , where c 6= 0 has nth partial sum
n=1

∞
sn = ∑ c = c + c + c + · · · + c = nc
n=1

∞
and lim sn = lim nc = ±∞. Therefore, the series ∑ c diverges. 
n→∞ n→∞
n=1

Definition 8.4.2 The series of the form

∞
∑ (bn − bn+1 ) = (b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) + · · ·
n=1

is called Telescopic Series.

∞
 Example 8.26 Find nth partial sum of a Telescopic series ∑ (bn − bn+1 ).
n=1
∞
Solution: The nth partial sum of a telescopic series ∑ (bn − bn+1 ) is given by
n=1

Sn = (b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) + · · · + (bn − bn+1 )

Sn = b1 − bn+1

Thus, lim sn = lim (bn − bn+1 ) = b1 − lim bn+1 . 

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
∞
1
 Example 8.27 Show that ∑ n(n + 1) = 1.
n=1
1
Solution: By method of partial fractions an = n(n+1) can be written as

1 1 1
= −
n(n + 1) n n + 1

Now, the nth partial sum of the series is

n n
1 1 1 1
sn = ∑ k(k + 1) ∑ ( k − k + 1 ) = 1 − n + 1
=
k=1 k=1

Then
1 1
lim sn = lim = 1 − lim = 1−0 = 1
n→∞ n→∞ n(n + 1) n→∞ n+1
∞ ∞
1 1
Hence, the infinite series ∑ n(n + 1) converges and has sum ∑ n(n + 1) = n→∞
lim sn = 1. 

n=1 n=1
∞
2
 Example 8.28 Find the sum of the series ∑ 4n2 − 1 .
n=1
2
Solution: Let an = 4n2 −1
for n ≥ 1. Using partial fractions,

2 2 A B
an = = = +
4n2 − 1 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n − 1 2n + 1

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10 Sequence and Series

Then, 2 = A(2n + 1) + B(2n − 1) =⇒ 2 = (2A + 2B)n + (A − B). It follow that 2A + 2B = 0 and A − B = 2.

Solving the above system of linear equations, we obtain A = 1 and B = −1. Thus, we can write an as
2 2 1 1
an = = = −
4n2 − 1 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n − 1 2n + 1

Which shows that the given series is telescopic series. From this telescopic form, we can see that the nth
partial sum of the series is
∞
2
sn = ∑ 4n2 − 1
n=1
∞
1 1
= ∑ ( 2n − 1 − 2n + 1 )
n=1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ( − )+( − )+( − )+···+( − )
1 3 3 5 5 7 2n − 1 2n + 1
1
= 1−
2n + 1
Then
1 1
lim sn = lim (1 − ) = 1 − lim =1
n→∞ n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2n + 1
∞
2 2
Therefore, the telescopic series ∑∞
n=1 4n2 −1 converges and the sum is ∑ 4n2 − 1 = n→∞
lim sn = 1. 

n=1

∞
1
Definition 8.4.3 The series ∑ n is called harmonic series.
n=1
∞
1 1 1
 Example 8.29 Show that the harmonic series ∑ n = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · is divergent.
n=1
Solution: For this particular series it is convenient to consider the partial sums s2 , s4 , s8 , s16 , s32 , · · · and
show that they become large

s1 = 1
1
s2 = s21 = 1 +
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s4 = s22 = 1 + + + > 1 + + + = 1 + 2 , since >
2 3 4 2 4 4 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s8 = s23 = 1 + + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
> 1+ +( + )+( + + + ) = 1+ + + = 1+
2 4 4 8 8 8 8 2 2 2 2
In a similar manner, we can write
4
s16 = s24 > 1 +
2
5
s32 = s25 > 1 +
2
6
s64 = s26 > 1 +
2
In general, s2k > 1 + 2k .
∞
1
This show that lim s2n = ∞ and so the series ∑ n is divergent. 
n→∞
n=1

∞
Definition 8.4.4 The series having the form ∑ crn = crm + crm+1 + crm+2 + crm+3 + · · · , Where r
n=m

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8.4 Convergence and Divergence of a Series 11

and c are constants and c 6= 0 is called a geometric series.

∞
Theorem 8.4.1 A geometric series ∑ crn
n=m
∞
crm
1. Converges if −1 < r < 1 and has the sum S = ∑ crn = 1 − r .
n=m
2. Diverges if r ≤ −1 or r ≥ 1.
∞
3
 Example 8.30 Check the convergence or divergence of the following geometric series ∑ 2n . If it
n=0
converges, find the sum.
∞ ∞
3 1
Solution: ∑ n = ∑ 3( )n . Here c = 3 and the ratio is r = 12 where −1 < r < 1. Thus, the series is
n=0 2 n=0 2
convergent which has sum
∞
3 crm 3( 1 )0 3
s= ∑ n = = 2 1 = 1 =6
n=0 2 1 − r 1 − 2 2


3n+2 ∞
 Example 8.31 Check the convergence or divergence of the following geometric series ∑ . If it
2n−1
n=0 2
converges, find the sum.
∞
3n+2 ∞
3n · 32 ∞
3
Solution: ∑ 2n−1 = ∑ 2n −1 = ∑ 18( )n . Here c = 18, m = 0 and r = 34 where −1 < 34 < 1.
n=0 2 n=0 2 · 2 n=0 4
Hence, the series is convergent and has sum
∞
3 ∞
3 crm 18( 34 )0
s= ∑ 2n = ∑ 18( 4 )n = 1 − r = 1 − 43
= 4(18) = 72
n=0 n=0


Remark 8.4.2 The formula for the sum of a convergent geometric series can be used to write a
repeating decimal as a rational number of the form ba , b 6= 0.

 Example 8.32 Write the decimal number 0.34 as a ratio ab by using geometric series.
Solution: 0.34 can be write as

0.34 = 0.343434 · · ·
= 0.34 + 0.0034 + 0.000034 + · · ·
34 34 34
= 2
+ 4 + 6 +···
10 10 10
1 1 1 2 1 3
= 34( ) + 34( ) + 34( ) +···
100 100 100
∞
1 n
= ∑ 34( )
n=1 100
1 1
34( 100 )
= 1
1 − 100
34
=
99


Theorem 8.4.3 Divergence Test

∞
1. If the series lim an = 0
∑ an is convergent, then n→∞
n=1

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12 Sequence and Series
∞
2. If lim an does not exist or lim an 6= 0, then the series ∑ an is divergent.
n→∞ n→∞
n=1

The converse of the above theorem generally not true.

∞
1
 Example 8.33 lim n1 = 0, but the series lim an = 0, does not tell us anything
∑ n is divergent. Thus, n→∞
n→∞
n=1
∞
about the convergence or divergence of the series ∑ an . 

n=1
∞
n2
 Example 8.34 Show that the series ∑ 5n2 + 4 diverges.
n=1
n2
Solution: Let an = 5n2 +4
for n ≥ 1. Then

n2
lim an = lim
n→∞ n→∞ 5n2 + 4
1
n2 n2
= lim 1
n→∞ 5n2 + 4
n2
1
=
5 + n22
1
= 6= 0
5
∞
n2
Hence, by the Divergence Test Theorem the series ∑ 5n2 + 4 is divergent. 

n=1
∞
 Example 8.35 Show that the series ∑ (−1)n is divergent.
n=1
Solution: Let an = (−1)n for n ≥ 0. Then {an }∞
n=1 = {1, −1, 1, −1, · · · } which oscillates between −1 and
∞
1. Hence an = (−1)n does not exist. Then by the Divergence Test, the series ∑ (−1)n diverges. 

n=1
∞
1
 Example 8.36 Show that the series ∑ n sin n diverges.
n=1
1 sin 1n
Solution: Let an = n sin = n 1 , then
n

sin 1n
lim an = lim 1
n→∞ n→∞
n

Letting m = 1n , we have lim an = lim sin m

= 1, since m → 0 whenever n → ∞. Hence, by a Divergence
n→∞ m→0 m
∞
1
Test, the series ∑ n sin n diverges. 

n=1

Properties of Convergent Series

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
If ∑ an and ∑ bn are convergent series, then so are ∑ an ± ∑ bn , and ∑ c · an , where c is constant,
n=m n=m n=m n=m n=m
and
∞ ∞ ∞
1. ∑ (an ± bn ) = ∑ an ± ∑ bn
n=m n=m n=m
∞ ∞
2. ∑ c · an = c · ∑ an
n=m n=m
∞ ∞
3. ∑ an = ∑ am+n
n=m n=0

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8.4 Convergence and Divergence of a Series 13
∞
3 1
 Example 8.37 Find the sum of the series ∑ ( n(n + 1) + 2n ).
n=1
∞ ∞
1 1 1
Solution: The series ∑ n = ∑ ( n ) is convergent geometric series, since r = 2 and |r| < 1, and has
n=1 2 n=m 2
∞
1 ∞
1 crm
sum ∑ n = ∑ ( n ) = , where c = 1, r = 21 , and m = 1. So,
n=1 2 n=m 2 1−r

∞
1 11 1
∑ 2n = 1 −2 1 = 2
1
=1
n=1 2 2
∞
1
The series ∑ n(n + 1) is telescopic series, and as seen in example above,
n=1

∞ ∞
1 1
∑ n(n + 1) = ∑ (1 + n + 1 ) = 1
n=1 n=1

Then, we have
∞ ∞ ∞
3 1 3 1
∑ ( n(n + 1) + 2n ) = ∑ n(n + 1) + ∑ 2n
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
1 1
= 3∑ +∑ n
n=1 n(n + 1) n=1 2
= 3(1) + 1
= 4

∞
3n+1 − 5n
 Example 8.38 Find the sum of the series ∑ .
n=2 3n · 2n
Solution:
3n+1 − 5n 3n+1 5n 3 · 3n 5n 1 5n 1 5
n n
= n n
− n n
= n n
− n n
= 3 n
− n
= 3( )n − ( )n
3 ·2 3 ·2 3 ·2 3 ·2 3 ·2 2 6 2 6
∞ ∞
1 5
Since −1 < 1
2 < 1 and −1 < 5
6 < 1, both series ∑ ( 2 )n and ∑ ( 6 )n are convergent geometric series and
n=2 n=2
∞
1 1 ∞
5 25 ∞
3n+1 − 5n
have sum ∑ ( )n = and ∑ ( )n = . Therefore, by the series ∑ n n
converges and has sum
n=2 2 2 n=2 6 6 n=2 3 · 2

∞
3n+1 − 5n ∞
1 ∞
5
∑ n n
= 3 ∑ ( )n − ∑ ( )n
n=2 3 · 2 n=2 2 n=2 6
1 25
= 3( ) −
2 6
3 25
= −
2 6
8
= −
3


Notice that finite number of terms does not affect the convergence and divergence of a series.
∞
2
 Example 8.39 Find the sum of the series ∑ n(n + 1) .
n=4
Solution: From an example before, we know that
∞ ∞
2 1
∑ n(n + 1) = 2 ∑ n(n + 1) = 2(1) = 2
n=1 n=1

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14 Sequence and Series

We have,
∞ ∞
2 2 2 2 2
∑ n(n + 1) = 1(2) + 2(3) + 3(4) + ∑ n(n + 1)
n=1 n=4
∞
2
Then ∑ n(n + 1) is convergent and has sum
n=4

∞ ∞
2 2 1 1
∑ n(n + 1) = ∑ n(n + 1) − (1 + 3 + 6 )
n=4 n=1
3
= 2−
2
1
=
2


∞ ∞
In general, for m2 > m1 the series ∑ an converges if and only if the series ∑ converges. In
n=m1 n=m2
∞ ∞
addition to this, if both series ∑ an and ∑ an converges, then
n=m1 n=m2

∞ m2 −1 ∞
∑ an = ∑ an + ∑ an
n=m1 n=m1 n=m2
∞
= (am1 + am1 +1 + · · · + am2 −1 ) + ∑ an
n=m2

8.5 Non–negative Term Series

Integral Test

Theorem 8.5.1 Let {an }∞

n=1 be a non–negative sequence and let f be a continuous, decreasing function
∞
defined on [1, ∞), such that f (n) = an for n ≥ 1, then the series ∑ an is convergent if and only the
n=1
improper integral Z ∞
f (x) dx
1
is convergent.
In other words the Integral Test states the following
R∞ ∞
1. If 1 f (x) dx converges, then ∑ an converges.
n=1
R∞ ∞
2. If 1 f (x) dx diverges, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1

∞
1
 Example 8.40 Use integral test to determine whether convergent or divergent ∑ n.
n=1
Solution: Let f (x) = 1x , then
Z m
1 1
Z ∞
dx = lim dx
1 x m→∞ 1 x
= lim (ln m − ln 1)
m→∞
= ∞

The integral diverges and consequently so does the series. 

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8.5 Non–negative Term Series 15
∞
1
 Example 8.41 Show that ∑ n2 is convergent.
n=1
1 1
Solution: If we replace n by x in the integral term n2
, we obtain the function f (x) = x2
, which is decreasing
and continuous for x ≥ 1. Since
Z m
1 1
Z ∞
2
dx = lim dx
1 x m→∞ 1 x2
1
= lim (− )|m
m→∞ m 1
1
= lim (1 − )
m→∞ m
= 1

The integral converges and consequently the series converges by the integral test. 

∞
1
 Example 8.42 Using integral test, show that the series ∑ n2 + 1 converges.
n=1
Solution: Let an = n21+1 for n ≥ 1. Let f (x) = x21+1 . Clearly f (x) ≥ 0 and f (x) is defined for all x ≥ 1.
Moreover, f 0 (x) = (x2−2x
+1)2
= 0 if f 0 (x) = 0 at x = 0 and f 0 (x) < 0 for x > 0; that is, by first derivative test,
f is decreasing on [1, ∞). Thus, the condition for the integral test are satisfied by f . Then we can integrate
f on [1, ∞) to obtain
Z m
1
Z ∞
f (x) dx = lim dx
1 m→∞ 1 x2 + 1
= lim (tan−1 x)|m
1
m→∞
= lim (tan−1 m − tan−1 1)
m→∞
π
= lim tan−1 m −
m→∞ 4
π π
= −
2 4
π
=
4
Rm 1
that is, the improper integral lim dx converges. Hence, by the integral test, the infinite series
m→∞ 1 x +1
2
∞
1 Rm 1 π
∑ n2 + 1 converges. But the improper integral m→∞
lim 1 x2 +1 dx converges to 4 does not imply that the
n=1
∞
1
infinite series ∑ n2 + 1 converges to π4 . 

n=1
∞
1
 Example 8.43 Show that ∑ n p converges if and only if p > 1.
n=1
∞
1 1
Solution: If p ≤ 0, the terms np do not tend to 0 as n increases. So, the series ∑ n p diverges.
n=1
For p = 1, the series is the harmonic series which we know diverges.
Assume that p > 0 and p 6= 1. Define f by f (x) = x1p for x = 1
Since f (n) = n1p for n = 1 and f is continuous and decreasing on [1, ∞)
Z b
1 1 1 1
dx = |b = ( − 1)
1 xp (−p + 1)x p−1 1 (−p + 1) b p−1
Rb 1 R∞
since lim 1 x p dx exists if p > 1 and not exist if 0 < p < 1, it follows that 1 f (x) dx converges if p > 1
b→∞
∞
1
and diverges if 0 < p < 1. Therefore, ∑ n p converges if p > 1. 

n=1

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16 Sequence and Series
∞
1 1 1
Definition 8.5.1 For a given real number p, the series of the form ∑ n p = 1 + 2 p + 3 p + · · · is called
n=1
p–series, and converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.
∞ ∞ ∞
2 2 1
 Example 8.44 Consider the series ∑ n3 , the series ∑ n3 = 2 ∑ n3 is a p–series with p = 3 > 1.
n=1 n=1 n=1
Hence the series converges. 

∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1 3
 Example 8.45 Consider the series ∑ √5 n3 , the series ∑ √5 n3 = 2 ∑ 3 is a p–series with p = 5 < 1.
n=1 n=1 n=1 n 5
Hence the series diverges. 

Comparison Test

Let {an }∞
n=1 be a non–negative sequences
∞
1. If ∑ bn converges and 0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n ≥ 1, then
n=1

∞ ∞ ∞
∑ an ≤ ∑ bn and ∑ an is converges.
n=1 n=1 n=1

∞ ∞
2. If ∑ bn diverges and 0 ≤ bn ≤ an for all n ≥ 1, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1 n=1
∞
1
 Example 8.46 Show that the series ∑ n2 + 1 is convergent by comparison test.
n=1
∞
1 1 1
Solution: Let an = n2 +1
and bn = n2
. Here an ≤ bn for all n ≥ 1, since ∑ n2 converges by using p–series,
n=1
∞
1
then ∑ 2 is converges. 

n=1 n +1

2 cos2 n
∞
 Example 8.47 Using comparison test, show that the series ∑ is converges.
n=0 3n
∞
2 cos2 n 2 2
Solution: Let an = 3n and bn = 3n . Here an ≤ bn for all n ≥ 1, since cos2 n ≤ 1, then ∑ 3n converges
n=0
1 2 cos2 n∞
because it is geometric series and r = 3. Therefore, by comparison test, ∑ is converges. 

n=0 3n
∞
1
 Example 8.48 Show that ∑ 3n + 5 is whether convergent or divergent.
n=1
Solution: Since

3n + 5 ≥ 3n for all n ≥ 1
1 1
n
≥ n for all n ≥ 1
3 3 +5
∞ ∞
1 1
⇒∑ n≥∑ n
n=1 3 n=1 3 +5

∞ ∞
1 1
But ∑ 3n is a geometric series with r = 31 < 1 and it is convergent. Hence, by comparison test ∑ 3n + 5
n=1 n=1
is convergent. 

∞
1
 Example 8.49 Show that ∑ √n is whether convergent or divergent.
n=1

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8.5 Non–negative Term Series 17

Solution: Since

√
n ≤ n for all n ≥ 1
1 1
≤ √ for all n ≥ 1
n n
∞ ∞
1 1
⇒∑ ≤∑√
n=1 n n=1 n

∞ ∞
1 1 R ∞ dx
But we know that ∑ is divergent. Therefore, ∑ √n is also divergent or by integral test 1
√ =
x
√ n=1 n n=1
2 x|∞
1 = ∞ is divergent. 

Limit Comparison Test

∞ ∞
Theorem 8.5.2 Let lim abnn = L, where L is a
∑ an and ∑ bn be a non–negative sequences. Suppose n→∞
n=1 n=1
positive number.
∞ ∞
1. If ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an converges.
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
2. If ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1 n=1

∞ √
n
 Example 8.50 Using limit comparison test, show that the series ∑ 4n2 − 3 converges.
√ √ n=4
n n
Solution: Let an = 4n2 −3
and bn = 4n2
.

√
n
an 4n2 −3 4n2
lim = lim √ = lim =1
n→∞ bn n→∞ n n→∞ 4n2 − 3
4n2

√ ∞√ ∞ √
n n
But bn = 4nn2 = 1
3 and it is p- series (p = 32 > 1), it converges. Since ∑ 4n2 converges, then ∑ 4n2 − 3
4n 2 n=4 n=4
converges. 

∞
4n − 3
 Example 8.51 Show that ∑ n3 − 5n − 7 converges.
n=1
∞
4n−3 4 4
Solution: Let an = n3 −5n−7
and bn = n2
but ∑ n2 is converges. So,
n=1

an 4n − 3 n2
lim = lim 3 =1>0
n→∞ bn n→∞ n − 5n − 7 4

∞
4n − 3
By limit comparison test ∑ n3 − 5n − 7 converges. 

n=1
√ ∞
n
 Example 8.52 Show that ∑ converges.
n2 +1
n=1 √
n
Solution: Let an = n2 +1
. Disregarding all but the highest power of n in both the numerator and the

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18 Sequence and Series
√
n 1
denominator of an , we obtain bn = n2
= 3 . Then
n2

√
n
an n2 +1
lim = lim
n→∞ bn n→∞ 1
3
n2
1
n2 n2
= lim 1
n→∞ n2 + 1
n2
1
= lim
n→∞ 1 + n12
= 1<∞

∞
1 3
The series ∑ 3 is convergent p-series, since p = 2 > 1. Therefore, by limit comparison test the series
∞ √ n=1 n 2
n
∑ n2 + 1 converges. 

n=1

Ratio Test

∞
Theorem 8.5.3 Let ∑ an be a non–negative series. Suppose an 6= 0 for all n and
n=1

an+1
lim = r( possibly ∞)
n→∞ an
∞
1. If 0 ≤ r < 1, then ∑ an converges.
n=1
∞
2. If r > 1, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1
3. If r = 1, then we can not draw any conclusion.

∞
1
 Example 8.53 Show that ∑ 2n is whether convergent or divergent.
n=0
1 1
Solution: Let an = 2n and an+1 = 2(n+1)
. So,

an+1
r = lim
n→∞ an
1
2(n+1)
= lim 1
n→∞
2n
2n 1
= lim
n→∞ 2n 2
1
= <1
2

∞
1
Therefore, ∑ 2n is convergent. 

n=0

∞
n!
 Example 8.54 Using ratio test, show that the series ∑ 2n diverges.
n=0

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8.5 Non–negative Term Series 19

n! (n+1)!
Solution: Let an = 2n and an 6= 0 for all n, then an+1 = 2n+1
. So,

an+1
r = lim
n→∞ an
(n+1)!
n+1
= lim 2 n!
n→∞
2n
(n + 1)n!2n
= lim
n→∞ 2n!2n
n+1
= lim
n→∞ 2
= ∞
∞
n!
since r = ∞ > 1, the series ∑ 2n diverges.
n=0
The ratio test is the most effective convergence test for most seres involving factorials or/and powers in
the terms of the series. 

Root Test

∞
√
Theorem 8.5.4 Let lim n an = r( possibly ∞).
∑ an be a non–negative series. Suppose n→∞
n=1
∞
1. If 0 ≤ r < 1, then ∑ an converges.
n=1
∞
2. If r > 1, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1
3. If r = 1, then we can not draw any conclusion.

∞
n
 Example 8.55 Using root test, show that the series ∑ ( 3n + 2 )n converges.
n=1
n
Solution: Let an = ( 3n+2 )n .
√
n
r = lim an
n→∞
r
n
= lim n ( )n
n→∞ 3n + 2
n
= lim
n→∞ 3n + 2
1
=
3
∞
n
Since r = 1
3 < 1, ∑ ( 3n + 2 )n converges. 

n=1
∞
n
 Example 8.56 Show that ∑ 5n converges.
n=1
n
Solution: Let an = 5n , clearly an ≥ 0 for all n ≥ 1.
√n
r = lim an
n→∞
r
n
= lim n n
n→∞ 5
√n
n
= lim
n→∞ 5
1 1
= lim n n has indeterminate form ∞0
5 n→∞

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20 Sequence and Series

Then, we can apply L’Hopital rule as follows

1 1 ln n
lim n n = lim e n ln n = lim e n
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
ln n ∞
Now, lim has indeterminate form ∞, then, by L’Hospital rule
n→∞ n

ln n (ln n)0 1
lim = lim = lim = 0
n→∞ n n→∞ n0 n→∞ n
1 1
Therefore, lim n n exist and lim n n = e0 = 1
n→∞ n→∞
√n
r = lim an
n→∞
r
n
= lim n n
n→∞ 5
1 1
= lim n n
5 n→∞
1 ln n
= lim e n
5 n→∞
1 0
= e
5
1
= <1
5
∞
n
Hence, by root– test, the series ∑ 5n converges. 

n=1
∞
n
 Example 8.57 Show that ∑ 2n converges.
n=1
Solution: Taking the nth roots of the terms of the series. We find that
r √n
n n n 1
r = lim = lim =
n→∞ 2n n→∞ 2 2
Thus the root test implies that the series converges. 

The root test is the most effective for series involving powers of exponents n(and not factorials) in the
terms of the series.

8.6 Alternating series and alternating series test

If the terms in the series are alternately positive and negative, we call the series an alternating series.
 Example 8.58 The following are some particular examples of alternate series
∞
• ∑ (−1)n+1 2n = 2 − 4 + 8 − 16 + · · ·
n=1
∞
1 1 1 1
• ∑ (−1)n n! = − 1! + 2! − 3! + · · ·
n=1


Definition 8.6.1 Let {an }∞

n=1 be a decreasing sequence of positive numbers such that lim an = 0. n→∞
∞ ∞
n n+1
Then the alternating series ∑ (−1) an and ∑ (−1) an are convergent series.
n=1 n=1
∞
1
 Example 8.59 Show that the series ∑ (−1)n+1 n converges.
n=1
Solution: Let an = n1 , since lim 1
= 0, and the series is alternating series,
n→∞ n
∞
By alternating series test, ∑ (−1)n+1 an converges. 

n=1

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8.7 Absolute and Conditional Convergence 21
∞
1
 Example 8.60 Show that the series ∑ (−1)n n! converges.
n=1
1 1 ∞ 1 1
Solution: Let bn = n! . n=0 = { n! }n=0 is decreasing,
Then the sequence {bn }∞ (n+1)! ≤ n! for all n ≥ 0.
1
Moreover, bn = n! > 0 for all n ≥ 0 and lim bn = lim 1 = 0. Thus, the hypotheses of the alternating
n→∞ n→∞ n!
∞
1
series fulfilled. Therefore, the alternating series ∑ (−1)n+1 n converges. 

n=1
∞
ln n
 Example 8.61 Show that the series ∑ (−1)n
n
converges.
n=1
Solution: Let bn = lnnn . Then we can easily see that bn = lnnn > 0 for all n ≥ 2 and

ln n
lim bn = lim
n→∞ n→∞ n
∞
has an indeterminate in the form ∞. Then by L’Hopital’s rule

ln n (ln n)0 1
lim bn = lim = lim = lim = 0
n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n0 n→∞ n

∞
ln n
and bn+1 < bn for all n ≥ 2. Hence by alternating series, the series ∑ (−1)n n
converges. 

n=1

8.7 Absolute and Conditional Convergence

∞
The convergence tests we studied so far cannot be applied directly to a series ∑ an which is neither
n=1
non-negative nor alternating.
 Example 8.62 The following examples have both positive and negative terms. Yet they are not
alternating
∞
sin n sin 2 sin 3
1. ∑ 2 = sin 1 + + +···
n=1 n 4 9
∞
√ √
nπ 3 1 3
2. ∑ cos = 1+ + −1− +···
n=0 6 2 2 2


∞ ∞
Theorem 8.7.1 If the series ∑ |an | converges, then ∑ an converges.
n=1 n=1

The converse of the above theorem does not holds true.

∞ ∞
1 1
 Example 8.63 Consider the series ∑ (−1)n n . By alternating series and it is convergent but ∑ |(−1)n n | =
n=1 n=1
∞
1
∑ n is not convergent (divergent). 

n=1

10n
∞
 Example 8.64 Show that the series ∑ (−1)n
n!
converges.
n=1
Solution: The series is alternating. But it may be difficult to use the alternating series test

∞
10n ∞
10n
∑ |(−1)n n!
|= ∑
n=1 n=1 n!

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22 Sequence and Series

10n 10n+1
Let an = n! and an+1 = (n+1)! , then

an+1
r = lim
n→∞ an
10n+1
(n+1)!
= lim n
n→∞ 10
n!
10 · 10n · n!
= lim
n→∞ (n + 1)(n!)(10n )
= 0
∞
10n ∞
10n
Thus, r = 0 < 1. Hence, by ratio test, the series ∑ |(−1)n n!
| is convergent. Therefore, ∑ (−1)n
n!
n=1 n=1
converges. 

∞
sin n
 Example 8.65 Show that the series ∑ 3
converges.
n=1 n
∞ ∞
sin n sin n
Solution: The series 3
is neither non-negative nor alternative. Yet ∑
∑ 3
is non-negative term
n=1 n n=1 n
∞
sin n
series. We may use the comparison test to check the convergence of ∑ 3
. We know that | sin n| ≤ 1.
n=1 n
This implies that
sin n 1
≤ 2
n3 n
∞
1
and the series ∑ n2 is convergent p-series since p = 2 > 1. Therefore, by comparison test, the series
n=1
∞ ∞
sin n sin n
∑ is convergent. Hence ∑ converges. 

n=1 n3 n=1 n
3

Absolute and Conditional Convergence

∞
Definition 8.7.1 Let ∑ an convergent series.
n=1
∞ ∞ ∞
1. If ∑ |an | converges, then the series ∑ an is called absolutely convergent or we say that ∑ an
n=1 n=1 n=1
converge absolutely.
∞ ∞ ∞
2. If ∑ |an | diverges, then the series ∑ an is called conditionally convergent or we say that ∑ an
n=1 n=1 n=1
converge conditionally.
∞ ∞
1 1
 Example 8.66 ∑ (−1)n n is convergent by alternate series test but ∑ n is divergent by integrating
n=1 n=1
∞
n1
test because of this ∑ (−1) n
is conditional convergent. 

n=1

8.8 Generalized Convergence Test

Generalized Comparison Test
∞ ∞ ∞
Let ∑ an be a series and |an | ≤ |bn | for all n ≥ 1. If ∑ |bn | converges, then ∑ an converges absolutely.
n=1 n=1 n=1

Generalized Limit Comparison Test

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8.8 Generalized Convergence Test 23

∞ ∞
Theorem 8.8.1 Let ∑ an and ∑ bn be a two series. Suppose lim | abnn | = L, where L is a positive
n→∞
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
number. If ∑ |bn | converges, then ∑ an converges absolutely.
n=1 n=1

Generalized Ratio Test

∞
an+1
Theorem 8.8.2 Let ∑ an be a series and assume that an 6= 0 for all n ≥ 1. Let lim an =
n→∞
n=1
r( possibly ∞).
∞
1. If r < 1, then ∑ an converges absolutely.
n=1
∞
2. If r > 1 or r = ∞, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1
3. If r = 1, then we can not draw any conclusion.

Generalized Root Test

∞ p
Theorem 8.8.3 Let lim n
∑ an be a series. Suppose n→∞ |an | = r( possibly ∞).
n=1
∞
1. If r < 1, then ∑ an converges absolutely.
n=1
∞
2. If r > 1 or r = ∞, then ∑ an diverges.
n=1
3. If r = 1, then we can not draw any conclusion.

∞
sin n
 Example 8.67 Determine whether the series ∑ n2 + 1 is convergent or divergent.
n=0
∞
sin n sin n
Solution: The series ∑ 2 is neither non-negative nor alternating. Let an = n2 +1
. Then since
n=0 n +1
|an | = | sin n| ≤ 1 and n2 + 1 ≥ n2 for all n ≥ 1, then we have

sin n | sin n| 1 1
= 2 ≤ ≤
n2 + 1 |n + 1| n2 + 1 n2

∞
1
for all n ≥ 1. We know that ∑ n2 is convergent p-series with p = 2 > 1. Therefore, by the generalized
n=0
∞
sin n
comparison test, the series ∑ n2 + 1 converges absolutely. 

n=0

∞ (− 12 )n (2n)!
 Example 8.68 Determine whether the series ∑ is convergent or divergent.
n=0 n!
∞ (− 12 )n (2n)! (− 12 )n (2n)!
Solution: The series ∑ is neither non-negative nor alternating. Let an = n! and
n=0 n!

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24 Sequence and Series

(− 12 )n+1 (2n+1)!
an+1 = (n+1)! , then

an+1
r = lim
n→∞ an
(− 12 )n+1 (2n+1)!
(n+1)!
= lim
n→∞ (− 21 )n (2n)!
n!
( −1
2 )(2n + 2)(2n + 1)
= lim
n→∞ n+1
= lim | − (2n + 1)|
n→∞
= lim (2n + 1)
n→∞
= ∞
∞ (− 12 )n (2n)!
Therefore, by the generalized ratio test, the series ∑ diverges. 

n=0 n!

Corollary 8.8.4 Let {an }∞

n=1 be a sequence. If

an+1 p
lim | | = r < 1 or lim n |an | = r < 1
n→∞ an n→∞

then lim an = 0.
n→∞

n
 Example 8.69 Show that lim xn! = 0 for all x.
n→∞
xn
Solution: If x = 0, then clearly the limit is 0. If x 6= 0, let an = n! . Then
an+1
r = lim | |
n→∞ an
xn+1
(n+1)!
= lim | xn |
n→∞
n!
n!
= lim |x |
n→∞(n + 1)!
n!
= |x| lim | |
n→∞ (n + 1)!
n!
= |x| lim
n→∞ (n + 1)!
= 0

Since r < 1, the result follows from the above corrollary. 

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8.9 Exercise 25

8.9 Exercise
1. Find a formula for the general term an of the sequence {1, − 32 , 49 , − 27
8
, · · · }, assume that the pattern
of the first few terms continues.
Ans. an = (− 32 )n−1
3+5n2
2. Determine whether the sequence an = n+n2
converges or diverges. If it converges, find the limit.
Ans. 5
cos2 n
3. Determine whether the sequence an = 2n converges or diverges. If it converges, find the limit.
Ans. 0
4. Determine whether the sequence an = ln(n + 1) − ln n converges or diverges. If it converges, find
the limit.
Ans. 1
1
5. Determine whether the sequence an = 2n+3 is increasing, decreasing or not monotonic. Is the
sequence bounded?
Ans. Decreasing, Yes
6. Determine whether the geometric series 3 + 2 + 43 + 89 + · · · is convergent or divergent. If it
convergent, find is sum
Ans. 9
∞
(−3)n−1
7. Determine whether the geometric series ∑ is convergent or divergent. If it convergent,
n=1 4n
find is sum
1
Ans. 7
∞
8. Determine whether the series ∑ arctan n is convergent or divergent. If it convergent, find is sum.
n=1

Ans. Divergent
∞
3
9. Determine whether the series ∑ n(n + 3) is convergent or divergent. If it convergent, find is sum.
n=1
11
Ans. 6

10. Write the repeating decimal number 1.23456 as a fraction form.

45,111
Ans. 333,000
∞
11. Find the value of c if ∑ (1 + c)−n = 2.
n=2
√
Ans. 21 ( 3 − 1)
∞
12. Use integral test to determine whether the series ∑ ne−n is convergent or divergent.
n=1

Ans. Convergent
∞
1
13. Determine whether the series ∑ n2 + 4 is convergent or divergent.
n=1

Ans. Convergent

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26 Sequence and Series
∞
1
14. Determine whether the series ∑ n ln n is convergent or divergent.
n=1

Ans. Divergent
∞
15. Find the value of p for which the series ∑ n(1 + n2 ) p is convergent.
n=1

Ans. p < −1
∞
1
16. Determine whether the series ∑ √n2 + 1 is convergent or divergent.
n=1

Ans. Divergent
∞
1
17. Determine whether the series ∑ sin( n ) is convergent or divergent.
n=1

Ans. Divergent
∞
π
18. Test the series ∑ (−1)n sin( n ) is convergent or divergent.
n=1

Ans. Convergent
∞
(−1)n+1
19. Determine whether the series ∑ √
4
is absolutely convergent, conditional convergent or
n=1 x
divergent.
Ans. Conditional Convergent
∞
10n
20. Determine whether the series ∑ (n + 1)42n+1 is absolutely convergent, conditional convergent or
n=1
divergent.
Ans. Absolutely Convergent

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