A TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES) UNDERTAKEN

AT

PETROLUEM EQULILIZER FUND (PEF)

ABUJA

CONDUCTED IN 24 WEEKS

BY

RAUDAH MUHAMMAD ABDULLAHI

SUMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GLASS AND SILCATE

TECHOLOGY, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY ZARIA,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREDMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE
IN BACHELOR OF GLASS AND SILICATE TECHNOLOGY.

SUPERVISED BY

MR. A.D FWATMWOL

JANUARY, 2020
 DECLARATION

I, RAUDAH MUHAMMAD ABDULLAHI hereby declare that this technical report has been
carried out by me under the supervision of MR A.D FWATMWOL and it is based on the
experience that I learned during my SIWES program undertaken at PETROLUEM
EQULIZATION FUND

_______________________ ___________________

RAUDAH MUHAMMAD ABDULLAHI DATE

 CERTIFICATION
This technical report by RAUDAH MUHAMMAD ABDULLAHI with the registration number
U16GT1076 meets the requirement governing the award of the degree of bachelor of science in
glass and silicate technology, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria and is approved for its contribution
to knowledge.

_____________________ _____________________
(SUPERVISOR) DATE
MR. A.D FWATMWOL

______________________ ______________________
(SIWES COORDINATOR) DATE
MRS JUMMAI TAGWOI

_______________________ ______________________
(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT) DATE
DR. GONAH .M. CLEMENT
 DEDICATION

This work is first and foremost dedicated to almighty GOD the most merciful who has created
us. I also wish to dedicate this work to my beloved parents, as well as my brother and sisters with
their tireless prayers and encouragement, may Allah bless you abundantly.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All thanks be to Allah, the Most High and the Most Merciful. I would like to thank my parents
for their unconditional endeavour in seeing that I become what I am today and who stood by my
side during my most difficult moment. I also thank my family who are the most helpful and
understanding people. Also i extend my gratitude to my lecturers for their immense support and
academic guidance towards a successful conduct of my SIWES.
Special thanks to my faculty SIWES Co-ordinator, and all academic and non-academic staffs of
the faculty of glass and silicate technology, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
Cover page
Declaration
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction of SIWES
1.1 The role of industrial training fund
1.2 Aims and objectives of SIWES
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Brief history of PEF(MB)
2.1 Objectives of PEF
2.2 Mission of PEF
2.3 Goals of PEF
2.4 Profile and chat of PEF
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Theoretical aspect of the program
3.1 Correlation between information technology and glass and silicate technology
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Visitation to AA Glass Company Abuja
4.1 Laminated glasses and glass making
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Contribution
5.1 Summary
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendation
5.4 Challenges faced during SIWES
5.5 Applicable solutions to SIWES challenges in Nigeria
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Students industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is designed to give student adequate skills
and exposure required for practical expertise into my organization in their discipline of
specialization after graduation, with its basic aim of impacting practical experience to the
students.
The course GLTE 302 titled SIWES 1 is a six credit course which is conducted at the end of
second semester level 300 and last for SIX months.

The report covers all the major activities which the student personally participated in between the
given period of (July to December 2019) at petroleum equalizer fund Abuja.

ABOUT SIWES

Student industrial work scheme (SIWES) was introduced to Nigeria by industrial training
fund (I.T.F) which was established under the decree 47 of 1972 by the supreme military
council, headed by the former head of the state general yakubu Gowon.
 The program provides the student with the opportunity of exposing themselves to the
need experience in handling equipment and machines after it has been realised that the
students in the past, after graduating find it difficult to fit their various places of work.

The students industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is a skill training program
designed to expose and prepare students of universities and other tertiary institutions of
the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after graduation. SIWES forms an
integral part of the minimum academic fulfilment for the award of bachelor of science
(HONS).

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

SIWES program is aimed at exposing students to professional work methods, equipment,

machines, tools, and the necessary perception to safety measures needed for safeguarding
the work area and the workers in the industry.

Below are some of the objectives of SIWES:

• Its prepares students for business careers/opportunities by merging their analytical

power with self-reliance.

• Having good moral conducts and sense of interaction with the public irrespective
of religion, tribe etc.

• Students will be exposed to work methods and techniques in handling equipment,

tools and machineries that are not available in their universities.

• Exposure to employment opportunities.

• Bridge the gap between theory and practical.

• To prepare students for further experience.

BRIEF HISTORY OF PETROLUEM EQUALIZER FUND (PEF)

The Petroleum Equalization Fund Management Board is a scheduled Parastatal of the Ministry
of Petroleum Resources, established by Decree No.9 of 1975 (as amended by Decree No. 32 of
1989), mainly to administer Uniform Prices of Petroleum products throughout the country. This
is achieved by reimbursing a marketer’s transportation differentials for petroleum products
movement from depots to their sales outlets (filling station), in order to ensure that products are
sold at uniform pump price throughout the country. The source of the Fund is from principally
the net surplus revenue recovered from Oil Marketing Companies.

The Board has a Head Office in Abuja, operational Offices in six (6) zones of the country
(Lagos, Kaduna, Enugu, Gombe, Port Harcourt and Ibadan) and Depot Offices in twenty-one
(21) NNPC/PPMC depots and 55 private depot facilities nationwide. It is headed by the
Executive Secretary who is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day to day
operations of the fund.

In 1979, Government, conscious of the fact that petroleum products supply did not reach the
remotest parts of the country encouraged Major Marketers to open filling stations in those areas.

OBJECTIVES OF PEF

1. To automate fully the processes of accruing and collecting allowances for delivery of
locally refined or imported petroleum products into the tanks of marketers.
2. To automate the process of reconciliation between what is owed to the board by the
marketer and vice versa.
3. And integrate solution to the board ERP (SAP Business One)
4. To provide a full reporting framework for all activities related to the above.
5. To monitor distribution of petroleum products by trucks within the country.
6. To register the loading of trucks with petroleum products and track the movement of
truck as well the content confirms proof of delivery and trigger a workflow process for
reimbursing the marketer for cost of transportation.

MISSION OF PEF

To the Public
To partner with other stakeholders in ensuring equitable and effective distribution of petroleum
products nationwide at government approved prices.

To Marketers
To be a prime and transparent organization for prompt reimbursement of marketers’
transportation claims.

To Employees
A place of pride to work; a conducive work environment where hard work, honesty and
transparency are rewarded.

To the State
A responsible, accountable and efficient parastatal facilitating the distribution of petroleum
products nationwide at government approved prices.

The Board’s core values of service, Dedication, Integrity, Accountability and Corporate Social
Responsibility are enshrined in its mission to stakeholders.

GOALS OF PEF

1. Implement a tank gauge solution using accurate volume measurement (physicalization)

Devices.

2. Track the movement of trucks using GPS, GPRS, RFID and/or any other applicable
technology.
3. Training.
4. Reporting software.
5. Business workflow software.
6. Track entry and exit of trucks from deports using track device.

PROFILE

Year of establishment; 1975

Zonal offices; six (6)

Owner; federal government

ORGANIZATIONAL FOR PETROLUEM AND EQUILIZER FUND (PEF)

 CHAPTER THREE

THEORITICAL ASPECT OF THE PROGRAMME

 Information technology (IT) unit

The term IT means (information technology) it stresses the role of unified communications
and the integration of telecommunication. It is the use of computers to store, retrieve,
transmit. And manipulate data, IT is the subset of information and communication
technology (ICT).
IT is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also
encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones.
Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology,
including computer hardware, software, electrons, semi-conductors, internet, telecom
equipment and e-commerce.

The IT unit has been the front runner in the derive of digitalize the organizations business
process. With the global evolution of digital business solutions, paperless offices, 0% real
time feedback mechanism, the unit has indeed been abreast with the global changes.

The introduction of project Aquila, which is powered by IT unit has in no doubt made the
organization a force the reckon with in the downstream sector. Other mechanisms that are up
and running includes the VSR for deport operations, hosting and managing of SAP business
1 solution, hard and software applications.

 Computer software
Software is a set of instructions, data or program’s used to operate computer and
execute specific tasks opposite to hardware, which describes the physical aspect of
computers, software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and
programs that run on a device. Software can be thought of as the variable part of a
computer and hardware the invariable part.
Software is often divided into application software, or user downloaded programs that
fulfil a wants or need and system software, which includes operating system’s and
any program that suppers application software. The term middleware is sometimes
used to describe programming that mediates between application and system software
or between two different kinds of application software. An additional category of
software is the utility, which is a small, use full program with limited capability.
Some utilities come with operating system. Like application, utilities tend to be
separately instable and capable of being used independently from the rest of the
operation system.

 Software can be distributed purchased in the following ways.

 Shareware: usually distributed on a fire or trail basis with the intention of sale when
the period is over.
 Open source: a type of software where the source code is furnished and users agree
not to limit the distribution of improvements.
 Free ware: can download for free but with copyright restrictions.

Application software
Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end users.
Examples of an application include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting
application, a web browser, an email client, a media player, a file viewer, an
aeronautical flight simulator, a console game or a photo editor. The collective noun
application software refers to all applications collectively. This contrasts with system
software, which is mainly involved with running the computer.

Applications may be bundled with the computer and its system software or published
separately, and may be coded as proprietary, open-source or university projects. Apps
built for mobile platforms are called mobile apps.

Types of application software

Word processor
A word processor (WP) is a device or computer program that provides for input,
editing, formatting and output of text, often with some additional features.
Early word processors were stand-alone devices dedicated to the function, but current
word processors are word processor programs running on general purpose computers.
The functions of a word processor program fall somewhere between those of a simple
text editor and a fully functioned desktop publishing program. However, the
distinctions between these three have changed over time, and were unclear after 2010.

Word processors did not develop out of computer technology. Rather, they evolved
from mechanical machines and only later did they merge with the computer field. The
history of word processing is the story of the gradual automation of the physical
aspects of writing and editing, and then to the refinement of the technology to make it
available to corporations and Individuals.

The term word processing appeared in American offices in early 1970s centered on
the idea of streamlining the work to typists, but the meaning soon shifted toward the
automation of the whole editing cycle.

At first, the designers of word processing systems combined existing technologies

with emerging ones to develop stand-alone equipment, creating a new business
distinct from the emerging world of the personal computer. The concept of word
processing arose from the more general data processing, which since the 1950s had
been the application of computers to business administration.
Through history, there have been 3 types of word processors: mechanical, electronic
and software.
The first word processing device (a "Machine for Transcribing Letters" that appears
to have been similar to a typewriter) was patented by Henry Mill for a machine that
was capable of "writing so clearly and accurately you could not distinguish it from a
printing press".

More than a century later, another patent appeared in the name of William Austin
Burt for the typographer. In the late 19th century, Christopher Latham Sholes created
the first recognizable typewriter that although it was a large size, which was described
as a "literary piano".

These mechanical systems could not “process text” beyond changing the position of
type, re-fill empty spaces or jump lines.[further explanation needed] It was not until
decades later that the introduction of electricity and then electronics into typewriters
began to help the writer with the mechanical part. The term “word processing” itself
was created in the 1950s by Ulrich Steinhilper, a German IBM typewriter sales
executive. However, it did not make its appearance in 1960s office management or
computing literatures, though many of the ideas, products, and technologies to which
it would later be applied were already well known. But by 1971 the term was
recognized by the New York Times as a business "buzz word". Word processing
paralleled the more general "data processing", or the application of computers to
business administration.

Thus by 1972 discussion of word processing was common in publications devoted to

business office management and technology, and by the mid-1970s the term would
have been familiar to any office manager who consulted business periodicals.

Spreadsheet software

A spreadsheet is a computer application for organization, analysis and storage of data

in tabular form. Spreadsheets were developed as computerized analogs of paper
accounting worksheets. The program operates on data entered in cells of a table. Each
cell may contain either numeric or text data, or the results of formulas that
automatically calculate and display a value based on the contents of other cells. A
spreadsheet may also refer to one such electronic document.

Spreadsheet users can adjust any stored value and observe the effects on calculated
values. This makes the spreadsheet useful for "what-if" analysis since many cases can
be rapidly investigated without manual recalculation. Modern spreadsheet software
can have multiple interacting sheets, and can display data either as text and numerals,
or in graphical form.

Besides performing basic arithmetic and mathematical functions, modern

spreadsheets provide built-in functions for common financial and statistical
operations. Such calculations as net present value or standard deviation can be
applied to tabular data with a pre-programmed function in a formula. Spreadsheet
programs also provide conditional expressions, functions to convert between text and
numbers, and functions that operate on strings of text.
Spreadsheets have replaced paper-based systems throughout the business world.
Although they were first developed for accounting or bookkeeping tasks, they now
are used extensively in any context where tabular lists are built, sorted, and shared.

LANPAR, available in 1969, was the first electronic spreadsheet on mainframe and
time sharing computers. LANPAR was an acronym: Language for Programming
Arrays at Random. VisiCalc was the first electronic spreadsheet on a microcomputer,
and it helped turn the Apple II computer into a popular and widely used system. Lotus
1-2-3 was the leading spreadsheet when DOS was the dominant operating system.
Excel now has the largest market share on the Windows and Macintosh platforms. A
spreadsheet program is a standard feature of an office productivity suite; since the
advent of web apps, office suites now also exist in web app form. Web based
spreadsheets are a relatively new category.
A spreadsheet consists of a table of cells arranged into rows and columns and referred
to by the X and Y locations. X locations, the columns, are normally represented by
letters, "A", "B", "C", etc., while rows are normally represented by numbers, 1, 2, 3,
etc. A single cell can be referred to by addressing its row and column, "C10" for
instance. This electronic concept of cell references was first introduced in LANPAR
(Language for Programming Arrays at Random) (co-invented by Rene Pardo and
Remy Landau) and a variant used in VisiCalc, and known as "A1 notation".
Additionally, spreadsheets have the concept of a range, a group of cells, normally
contiguous. For instance, one can refer to the first ten cells in the first column with
the range "A1:A10". LANPAR innovated forward referencing/natural order
calculation which didn't re-appear until Lotus 123 and Microsoft's MultiPlan Version
2.
In modern spreadsheet applications, several spreadsheets, often known as worksheets
or simply sheets, are gathered together to form a workbook. A workbook is physically
represented by a file, containing all the data for the book, the sheets and the cells with
the sheets. Worksheets are normally represented by tabs that flip between pages, each
one containing one of the sheets, although Numbers changes this model significantly.
Cells in a multi-sheet book add the sheet name to their reference, for instance, "Sheet
1!C10". Some systems extend this syntax to allow cell references to different
workbooks.

Users interact with sheets primarily through the cells. A given cell can hold data by
simply entering it in, or a formula, which is normally created by preceding the text
with an equals sign. Data might include the string of text hello world, the number 5 or
the date 16-Dec-91. A formula would begin with the equals sign, =5*3, but this
would normally be invisible because the display shows the result of the calculation,
15 in this case, not the formula itself. This may lead to confusion in some cases.

The key feature of spreadsheets is the ability for a formula to refer to the contents of
other cells, which may in turn be the result of a formula. To make such a formula, one
simply replaces a number with a cell reference. For instance, the formula =5*C10
would produce the result of multiplying the value in cell C10 by the number 5. If C10
holds the value 3 the result will be 15. But C10 might also hold its own formula
referring to other cells, and so on.

The ability to chain formulas together is what gives a spreadsheet its power. Many
problems can be broken down into a series of individual mathematical steps, and
these can be assigned to individual formulas in cells. Some of these formulas can
apply to ranges as well, like the SUM function that adds up all the numbers within a
range.

Spreadsheets share many principles and traits of databases, but spreadsheets and
databases are not the same thing. A spreadsheet is essentially just one table, whereas a
database is a collection of many tables with machine-readable semantic relationships
between them. While it is true that a workbook that contains three sheets is indeed a
file containing multiple tables that can interact with each other, it lacks the relational
structure of a database. Spreadsheets and databases are interoperable—sheets can be
imported into databases to become tables within them, and database queries can be
exported into spreadsheets for further analysis.
A spreadsheet program is one of the main components of an office productivity suite,
which usually also contains a word processor, a presentation program, and a database
management system. Programs within a suite use similar commands for similar
functions. Usually sharing data between the components is easier than with a non-
integrated collection of functionally equivalent programs. This was particularly an
advantage at a time when many personal computer systems used text-mode displays
and commands, instead of a graphical user interface.

Database software
A database is an organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed
electronically from a computer system. Where databases are more complex they are
often developed using formal design and modeling techniques.

The database management system (DBMS) is the software that interacts with end
users, applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze the data. The DBMS
software additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to administer the
database. The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications
can be referred to as a "database system". Often the term "database" is also used to
loosely refer to any of the DBMS, the database system or an application associated
with the database.

Computer scientists may classify database-management systems according to the

database models that they support. Relational databases became dominant in the
1980s. These model data as rows and columns in a series of tables, and the vast
majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s, non-relational
databases became popular, referred to as NoSQL because they use different query
languages.
"database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to this
data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of
an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more
databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although
restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides
various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of
information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.

Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used
casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it.

Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often
used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index)
as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of a database management
system.

Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and
its data which can be classified into four main functional groups:

Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the
organization of the data.
Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data.
Retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing
by other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically
the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or
combining existing data from the database.
Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security,
monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency
control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an
unexpected system failure.

Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database
model. "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database
management system, and database.
Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases
and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually
multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for
stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via
a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing
environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs
may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support,
but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these
functions.

Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often
take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans.

Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that
they support (such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a
server cluster to a mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database
(such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which affects performance,
scalability, resilience, and security.

Communication software
Communication software is used to provide remote access to systems and exchange
files and messages in text, audio and/or video formats between different computers or
users. This includes terminal emulators, file transfer programs, chat and instant
messaging programs, as well as similar functionality integrated within MUDs. The
term is also applied to software operating a bulletin board system, but seldom to that
operating a computer network or Stored Program Control exchange.

Presentation software
A presentation program is a software package used to display information in the form
of a slide show. It has three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted
and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images, and a slide-
show system to display the content. Presentation software can be viewed as enabling
a functionally-specific category of electronic media, with its own distinct culture and
practices as compared to traditional presentation media.
Presentations in this mode of delivery are pervasive in all aspects of business
communications, especially in business planning, as well as in academic conference
and professional conference settings, and in the knowledge economy generally, where
ideas are a primary work output. Presentations may also feature prominently in
political settings, especially workplace politics, where persuasion is a central
determinant of group outcomes.

Most modern meeting rooms and conference halls are configured to include
presentation electronics, such as overhead projectors suitable for displaying
presentation slides, often driven by the presenter's own laptop, under direct control of
the presentation program used to develop the presentation. Often the presenter will
present a lecture using the slides as a visual aid for both the presenter (to track the
lecture's coverage) and the audience (especially when an audience member mishears
or misunderstands the verbal component).
Generally, in presentations, the visual material is considered supplemental to a strong
aural presentation that accompanies the slide show, but in many cases, such as
statistical graphics, it's difficult to convey essential information other than by visual
means; additionally, a well-designed infographic can be extremely effective in a way
that words aren't. Endemic over-reliance on slides with low information density and
with a poor accompanying lecture has given presentation software a negative
reputation as sometimes functioning as a crutch for the poorly informed or the poorly
prepared.

Web browser
A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for
accessing information on the World Wide Web. When a user requests a particular
website, the web browser retrieves the necessary content from a web server and then
displays the resulting web page on the user's device.
A web browser is not the same thing as a search engine, though the two are often
confused. For a user, a search engine is just a website, such as Google Search, Bing,
or DuckDuckGo, that stores searchable data about other websites. However, to
connect to a website's server and display its web pages, a user must have a web
browser installed.

As of March 2019, more than 4.3 billion people use a browser, which is about 55% of
the world's population. The three most popular browsers are Chrome, Firefox, and
Safari.
The first web browser, called Worldwide Web, was created in 1990 by Sir Tim
Berners-Lee. He then recruited Nicola Pellow to write the Line Mode Browser, which
displayed web pages on dumb terminals; it was released in 1991.
Nicola Pellow and Tim Berners-Lee in their office at CERN.
Marc Andreessen, lead developer of Mosaic and Navigator

1993 was a landmark year with the release of Mosaic, credited as "the world's first
popular browser". Its innovative graphical interface made the World Wide Web
system easy to use and thus more accessible to the average person. This, in turn,
sparked the Internet boom of the 1990s, when the Web grew at a very rapid rate.
Marc Andreessen, the leader of the Mosaic team, soon started his own company,
Netscape, which released the Mosaic-influenced Netscape Navigator in 1994.
Navigator quickly became the most popular browser.

Microsoft debuted Internet Explorer in 1995, leading to a browser war with Netscape.
Microsoft was able to gain a dominant position for two reasons: it bundled Internet
Explorer with its popular Microsoft Windows operating system and did so as
freeware with no restrictions on usage. Eventually the market share of Internet
Explorer peaked at over 95% in 2002.
WorldWideWeb was the first web browser.
In 1998, Netscape launched what would become the Mozilla Foundation to create a
new browser using the open source software model. This work evolved into Firefox,
first released by Mozilla in 2004. Firefox reached a 28% market share in 2011.

Apple released its Safari browser in 2003. It remains the dominant browser on Apple
platforms, though it did not become popular elsewhere.

The last major entrant to the browser market was Google. Its Chrome browser, which
debuted in 2008, steadily took market share from Internet Explorer and became the
most popular browser in 2012. Chrome has remained dominant ever since.

In terms of technology, browsers have greatly expanded their HTML, CSS,

JavaScript, and multimedia capabilities since the 1990s. One reason has been to
enable more sophisticated websites, such as web applications. Another factor is the
significant increase of broadband connectivity, which enables people to access data-
intensive web content, such as YouTube streaming, that was not possible during the
era of dial-up modems.
  Computer hardware
Computer hardware is the physical components that a computer system requires
to function. It encompasses everything with a circuit board that operates within a
pc or laptop: including the motherboard, graphics card CPU (central processing
unit), ventilation fans, webcam, power supply.
Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or
instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing
system, although other systems exist with only hardware components.
Computer hardware gets upgraded by adding new hardware to a computer that
improves its performances, adds capacity or new features.

 Types of computer hardware

1. Motherboard: the motherboard is the most important component in the system unit and
the main function of the motherboard is to act as the main circuit board.
The motherboard is what connects and communicates with all the devices and
components that are attached to it. The necessary parts of the computer system and the
peripheral go through the motherboard. The chipset that is on the motherboard directs the
flow of the between a variety of buses that are connected with each components and the
main purpose is to make sure the information reaches where it is supposed to.
The motherboard contains the CPU, PCI slots, graphic cards, BIOS, memory, serial and
parallel ports and also external connectors such as the keyboard and the mouse. The CPU
which is responsible for taking command and carrying out the action are not compatible
with every motherboard but only certain motherboards. The PCI slot also known as
peripheral component interconnect which allows the component to be placed directly
onto the motherboard. The graphics cards is a device which takes the data and then
converts it onto information that can read such as images so that this can be displayed on
the computer monitor.
 There are two chops on the motherboard which are known as south bridge and north
bridge and north bridge are what manages what goes on within the computer and also
helps the communication between multiply devices and chips. The north bridge is
responsible for communication between the CPU interface, the memory and many video
processes, whereas, the south bridge communicates with all the remaining devices. The
north bridge is directly connected with the CPU, RAM and graphic controller, so it acts
as a bridge for the south bridge chip to communicate with these components.

Figure 2.1 motherboard

2. Fan and heat sink: heat sink is a device that is attached to the processor chip which series
s purpose to draw heat from the processor to make sure the temperature of the processor
is down the heat sinks are made of an aluminum alloy and have fins to maximize the heat
that is sucked in by the heat sink.
A cooling fan is a small fan that is fitted on to the heat sink to prevent it from
overheating. So when the heat sink sucks in the heat sink sucks in the heat, the air flow
produced by the fan will lower the temperature of the heat sink in order to prevent it from
overheating.
 Figure 2.2 fan and heat sink

3. Speakers: A computer speaker is an output hardware device that connects to a computer

to generate sound. The signal used to produce the sound that comes from a computer
speaker is created by the computer's sound card. although usually capable of other audio
uses, e.g. for an MP3 player. Most such speakers have an internal amplifier and
consequently require a power source, which may be by a mains power supply often via an
AC adapter, batteries, or a USB port.
The signal input connector is often a 3.5 mm jack plug (usually color-coded lime green
per the PC 99 standard); RCA connectors are sometimes used, and a USB port may
supply both signal and power (requiring additional circuitry, and only suitable for use
with a computer).
Battery-powered wireless Bluetooth speakers require no connections at all. Most
computers have speakers of low power and quality built in; when external speakers are
connected they disable the built-in speakers. Altec Lansing claims to have created the
computer speaker market in 1990.
Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. Computer speakers sometimes
packaged with computer systems are small, plastic, and have mediocre sound quality.
Some computer speakers have equalization features such as bass and treble controls.
Bluetooth speakers can be connected with a computer by using an Aux jack and
compatible adaptor.

Figure 2.3 speakers

4. Monitor: A monitor is a piece of computer hardware that displays the video and graphics
information generated by a connected computer through the computer's video card.
Monitors are similar to TVs but usually display information at a much higher resolution.
Also unlike televisions, monitors typically sit atop a desk rather than being mounted on a
wall.
A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A
monitor usually comprises the display device, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The
display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display
(TFT-LCD) with LED backlighting having replaced cold-cathode fluorescent lamp
(CCFL) backlighting. Older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT). Monitors are
connected to the computer via VGA, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), HDMI, DisplayPort,
Thunderbolt, low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) or other proprietary connectors
and signals.
Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were
used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors) have
been used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have
implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and
computer monitors, has changed from 4:3 to 16:10, to 16:9.
Modern computer monitors are easily interchangeable with conventional television sets.
However, as computer monitors do not necessarily include integrated speakers, it may not
be possible to use a computer monitor without external components.

Figure 2.4 MONITOR

5. CD-ROM: Compact Disc Read-Only Memory, a CD-ROM is an optical disc that contains
audio or software data whose memory is read-only. A CD-ROM Drive or optical drive is
the device used to read them. CD-ROM drives have speeds ranging from 1x to 72x,
meaning it reads the CD roughly 72 times faster than the 1x version. As you would
imagine, these drives are capable of playing audio CDs and reading data CDs, including
CD-R and CD-RW discs.
an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disc drive that uses laser light or electromagnetic waves
within or near the visible light spectrum as part of the process of reading or writing data
to or from optical discs. Some drives can only read from certain discs, but recent drives
can both read and record, also called burners or writers. Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-
ray discs are common types of optical media which can be read and recorded by such
drives. Optical disc drives that are no longer in production include CD-ROM drive, CD
writer drive, combo (CD-RW/DVD-ROM) drive, and DVD writer drive supporting
certain recordable and rewritable DVD formats (such as DVD-R(W) only, DVD+R(W)
only, DVD-RAM only, and all DVD formats except DVD-R DL). As of 2015, DVD
writer drive supporting all existing recordable and rewritable DVD formats is the most
common for desktop PCs and laptops. There is also the DVD-ROM drive, BD-ROM
drive, Blu-ray Disc combo (BD-ROM/DVD±RW/CD-RW) drive, and Blu-ray Disc
writer drive.

Optical disc drives are an integral part of standalone appliances such as CD players, DVD
players, Blu-ray disc players, DVD recorders, certain desktop video game consoles, such
as Sony PlayStation 4, Microsoft Xbox One, Nintendo Wii U, and Sony PlayStation 3,
and certain portable video game consoles, such as Sony PlayStation Portable. They are
also very commonly used in computers to read software and consumer media distributed
on disc and to record discs for archival and data exchange purposes. Floppy disk drives,
with capacity of 1.44 MB, have been made obsolete: optical media are cheap and have
vastly higher capacity to handle the large files used since the days of floppy discs, and the
vast majority of computers and much consumer entertainment hardware have optical
 writers. USB flash drives, high-capacity, small, and inexpensive, are suitable where
read/write capability is required.

Disc recording is restricted to storing files playable on consumer appliances (films,

music, etc.), relatively small volumes of data (e.g. a standard DVD holds 4.7 gigabytes)
for local use, and data for distribution, but only on a small scale; mass-producing large
numbers of identical discs is cheaper and faster than individual recording.

Optical discs are used to back up relatively small volumes of data, but backing up of
entire hard drives, which as of 2015 typically contain many hundreds of gigabytes or
even multiple terabytes, is less practical. Large backups are often instead made on
external hard drives, as their price has dropped to a level making this viable; in
professional environments magnetic tape drives are also used.

Figure 2.5 CD-ROM

6. Microphone: a microphone is a hardware peripheral and input device originally invented

by Emile Berliner in 1877. A microphone allows computer users to input audio into their
computers. The picture is an example of Blue Microphone's Yeti USB microphone -
silver edition and an example of a high-quality computer microphone.
A microphone is a device – a transducer – that converts sound into an electrical signal.
Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, hearing aids, public
address systems for concert halls and public events, motion picture production, live and
 recorded audio engineering, sound recording, two-way radios, megaphones, radio and
television broadcasting, and in computers for recording voice, speech recognition, VoIP,
and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic sensors or knock sensors.

Several types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the
air pressure variations of a sound wave to an electrical signal. The most common are the
dynamic microphone, which uses a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field; the
condenser microphone, which uses the vibrating diaphragm as a capacitor plate; and the
piezoelectric microphone, which uses a crystal of piezoelectric material. Microphones
typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or
reproduced.

Figure 2.6 MICROPHONE

7. floppy disk: a floppy disk is a type of storage media, capable of storing electronic data,
like a computer file. The floppy diskette was first created in 1967 by IBM as an
alternative to buying hard drives, which were extremely expensive at the time.
A floppy disk is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic
storage medium encased in a rectangular plastic carrier. It is read and written using a
floppy disk drive (FDD). Floppy disks were an almost universal data format from the late
1970s into the 1990s, used at first as a primary data storage mechanism, and later mostly
as a file transfer system as part of what became known as "sneaker net".

Work on a drive that led to the world's first floppy disk and disk drive began in 1967 at a
San Jose (CA) IBM facility, and introduced into the market in an 8-inch format in 1972.
The more conveniently sized 5 1⁄4-inch disks were introduced in 1976, and became
 almost universal on dedicated word processing systems and personal computers. This
format was more slowly replaced by the 3 1⁄2-inch format, first introduced in 1982. There
was a significant period where both were popular. A number of other variant sizes were
introduced over time, with limited market success.

Floppy disks remained a popular medium for nearly 40 years, but their use was declining
by the mid-1990s.The introduction of high speed computer networking and formats based
on the new NAND flash technique (like USB flash drives and memory cards) led to the
eventual disappearance of the floppy disk as a standard feature of microcomputers, with a
notable point in this conversion being the introduction of the floppy-less iMac in 1998.
After 2000, floppy disks were increasingly rare and used primarily with older hardware
and especially with legacy industrial computer equipment.

Figure 2.7 floppy disk

8. keyboard: A computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a
computer. Similar to an electric typewriter, a keyboard is composed of buttons that create
letters, numbers, and symbols, as well as perform other functions. The following sections
provide more in-depth information and answers to some of the more frequently asked
questions about the keyboard.
Keyboard keys (buttons) typically have characters engraved or printed on them, [better
source needed] and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol.
However, producing some symbols may require pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or
 signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute
computer commands.
In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface for typing text and
numbers into a word processor, text editor or any other program. In a modern computer,
the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard
distinguishes each physical key from every other key and reports all key presses to the
controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming — either regular
keyboards or keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used
keystroke combinations.
A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as
Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination. Although on Pre-Windows 95 Microsoft
operating systems this forced a re-boot, now it brings up a system security options screen.
A command-line interface is a type of user interface navigated entirely using a keyboard,
or some other similar device that does the job of one.

Figure 2.8 keyboard

9. mouse: A computer mouse is a hand-held pointing device that detects two-dimensional
motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a
pointer on a display, which allows a smooth control of the graphical user interface. The
first public demonstration of a mouse controlling a computer system was in 1968.
Originally wired to a computer, many modern mice are cordless, relying on short-range
radio communication with the connected system.
Mice originally used a ball rolling on a surface to detect motion, but modern mice often
have optical sensors that have no moving parts. In addition to moving a cursor, computer
mice have one or more buttons to allow operations such as selection of a menu item on a
display. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and "wheels",
which enable additional control and dimensional input.
 A computer mouse is a handheld hardware input device that controls a cursor in a GUI
(graphical user interface) and can move and select text, icons, files, and folders on your
computer.

Figure 2.9 mouse

10. memory card reader: A memory card reader is a device for accessing the data on a
memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or Multimedia Card
(MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can
function as a pen drive.
Some printers and Smartphones have a built-in card reader, as do most personal
computers and the majority of Tablet computers.
A multi card reader is used for communication with more than one type of flash memory
card. Multi card readers do not have built-in memory capacity, but are able to accept
multiple types and styles of memory cards.
The number of compatible memory cards varies from reader to reader and can include
more than 20 different types. The number of different memory cards that a multi card
reader can accept is expressed as x-in-1, with x being a figure of merit indicating the
number of memory cards accepted, such as 35-in-1. There are three categories of card
readers sorted by the type and quantity of the card slots: single card reader (e.g. 1x SD-
only), multi card reader (e.g. 9-in-1) and series card reader (e.g. 4x SD-only).
Some kinds of memory cards with their own USB functions do not need the card reader,
such as the Intelligent Stick memory card, which can plug directly into a USB slot.
The USB device class used is 0x08.
 Modern UDMA-7 CompactFlash Cards and UHS-I Secure Digital cards provide data
rates in excess of 89 MB/s and up to 145 MB/s, when used with memory card readers
capable of USB 3.0 data transfer rates as of 2011, Secure Digital memory cards received
an additional option of a UHS-II bus interface. It increased the maximum data transfer
speed to 312 MB/s.

Figure 2.10 memory card reader

11. printer: A printer is an external hardware output device that takes the electronic data
stored on a computer or other device and generates a hard copy of it. For example, if you
created a report on your computer, you could print several copies to hand out at a staff
meeting. Printers are one of the most popular computer peripherals and are commonly
used to print text and photos. The picture is an example of an inkjet computer printer, the
Lexmark Z605.
printer is a peripheral device which makes a persistent representation of graphics or text,
usually on paper. While most output is human-readable, bar code printers are an example
of an expanded use for printers.

Figure 2.11 printer

12. hard drive: A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a
non-volatile data storage device. It is usually installed internally in a computer, attached
directly to the disk controller of the computer's motherboard. It contains one or more
platters, housed inside of an air-sealed casing. Data is written to the platters using a
magnetic head, which moves rapidly over them as they spin.
is an electro-mechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and
retrieve digital information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated
with magnetic material. The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on
a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed
in a random-access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or
retrieved in any order and not only sequentially. HDDs are a type of non-volatile storage,
retaining stored data even when powered off.

Figure 2.12 hard drive

13. scanner: a scanner or optical scanner is a hardware input device that optically "reads" and
image and converts it into a digital signal. For example, a scanner may be used to convert
a printed picture, drawing, or document (hard copy) into a digital file which can be edited
on a computer. The picture shows an example of a flatbed scanner, the Epson V300.
scanner, is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting or an object and
converts it to a digital image. Commonly used in offices are variations of the desktop
flatbed scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held
scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning "wands"
to 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement,
 orthotics, gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven scanners that move the
document are typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed design would be
impractical.
Modern scanners typically use a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a contact image sensor
(CIS) as the image sensor, whereas drum scanners, developed earlier and still used for the
highest possible image quality, use a photomultiplier tube (PMT) as the image sensor. A
rotary scanner, used for high-speed document scanning, is a type of drum scanner that
uses a CCD array instead of a photomultiplier. Non-contact planetary scanners essentially
photograph delicate books and documents. All these scanners produce two-dimensional
images of subjects that are usually flat, but sometimes solid; 3D scanners produce
information on the three-dimensional structure of solid objects.
Digital cameras can be used for the same purposes as dedicated scanners. When
compared to a true scanner, a camera image is subject to a degree of distortion,
reflections, shadows, low contrast, and blur due to camera shake (reduced in cameras
with image stabilization). Resolution is sufficient for less demanding applications. Digital
cameras offer advantages of speed, portability and non-contact digitizing of thick
documents without damaging the book spine. As of 2010 scanning technologies were
combining 3D scanners with digital cameras to create full-color, photo-realistic 3D
models of objects.
In the biomedical research area, detection devices for DNA microarrays are called
scanners as well. These scanners are high-resolution systems (up to 1 µm/ pixel), similar
to microscopes. The detection is done via CCD or a photomultiplier tube.

Figure 2.13 scanner

14. photocopier: A photocopier (also known as copy machine or copier) was first introduced
by Xerox in 1959. It is a machine that produces paper copies of text documents, photos,
or illustrations. Most modern photocopiers use a technology called xerography, a method
that uses electrostatic charges on a light sensitive photoreceptor to attract and lay down
toner to paper. Heat, pressure or both are then used to meld the toner onto the paper
creating a visible image.
photocopier is a machine that makes copies of documents and other visual images onto
paper or plastic film quickly and cheaply. Most modern photocopiers use a technology
called xerography, a dry process that uses electrostatic charges on a light-sensitive
photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a powder) onto paper in the
form of an image. Heat, pressure or a combination of both is then used to fuse the toner
onto the paper. Copiers can also use other technologies such as ink jet, but xerography is
standard for office copying. Earlier versions included the Gestetner stencil duplicator,
invented by David Gestetner in 1887.
Commercial xerographic office photocopying was introduced by Xerox in 1959, and it
gradually replaced copies made by Verifax, Photostat, carbon paper, mimeograph
machines, and other duplicating machines.
Photocopying is widely used in the business, education, and government sectors. While
there have been predictions that photocopiers will eventually become obsolete as
information workers increase their use of digital document creation, storage and
distribution, and rely less on distributing actual pieces of paper, as of 2015, photocopiers
continue to be widely used. In the 1980s, there is a convergence in some high-end
machines between the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine, a scanner, and a computer
network-connected printer into a multi-function printer. Lower-end machines that can
copy and print in color have increasingly dominated the home-office market as their
prices fell steadily through 1999. Higher-end color photocopiers capable of handling
heavy duty cycles and large-format printing remain a costlier specialty for print and
design shops.
 Figure 2.14
15. CPU: a processor, central processor, or microprocessor, the CPU (pronounced sea-pea-
you) is the central processing unit of the computer. A computer's CPU handles all
instructions it receives from hardware and software running on the computer.
main processor, is the electronic circuitry within a computer that executes instructions
that make up a computer program. The CPU performs basic arithmetic, logic, controlling,
and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has
used the term "central processing unit" at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the
term "CPU" refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit
(CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such
as main memory and I/O circuitry.
The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their
history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal
components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic
and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the
results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from
memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the
ALU, registers and other components.
Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, where the CPU is contained on a single metal-
oxide-semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may
also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such
integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).
Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or
more CPUs called "cores"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as
"sockets".
 Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel,
with no unit considered central. There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are
an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.

Figure 2.15
 Correlation between information technology and glass and silicate technology

What is glass and silicate technology?

Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid, that has widespread practical,
technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, optics, and
optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass
are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the
primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to
this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and glass bottles. Of the
many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a
specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2),
sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide (CaO), also called
lime, and several minor additives.

GLASS is one of man's most useful and versatile materials. It is also one of

the oldest. Obsidian, a glass formed by volcanic action, had widespread usage

during the Stone Age because it was easily flaked to form sharp cutting edges

for arrowheads, spearheads, knives and the like. Its use has been documented

in East Africa as early as 150,000 years ago and it was used at least to the end

of the Stone Age in the New World, about 1500 years ago. Indeed, obsidian

has been known as the "Dating Stone" (1) because of the ease to which it
lends itself in age determination. Wherever prehistoric peoples and volcanic

glass occurred together in nature, humans made use of this natural product as

a raw material for manufacture of tools. This has become evident from the

widespread discovery of detritus, in the form of worked- fragments and

shards, found in the vicinity of present- day deposits of eruptive rocks in

many parts of the world.

Obsidian varies in appearance from nearly clear colorless to pinkish or even

gray-green, brown, red, and black. Its usefulness as a tool- making material

derives from the ease with which it furnishes the sharp edges required for

cutting or scraping. Obsidian is readily flaked by percussion and pressure

methods similar to those used for working flint. However, the edges

produced are much sharper than any other material, except perhaps that of

worked metals.

Glass production

It involves two main methods – the float glass process that produces sheet glass, and

glassblowing that produces bottles and other containers.

modern glass container factories are three-part operations: the batch house, the hot end, and
the cold end. The batch house handles the raw materials; the hot end handles the manufacture
proper the fore hearth, forming machines, and annealing ovens; and the cold end handles the
product-inspection and packaging equipment.

Batch processing system (batch house)

Batch processing is one of the initial steps of the glass-making process. The batch house
simply houses the raw materials in large silos (fed by truck or railcar) and holds anywhere
from 1–5 days of material. Some batch systems include material processing such as raw
material screening/sieve, drying, or pre-heating (i.e. cullet). Whether automated or manual,
the batch house measures, assembles, mixes, and delivers the glass raw material recipe
 (batch) via an array of chutes, conveyors, and scales to the furnace. The batch enters the
furnace at the 'dog house' or 'batch charger'. Different glass types, colors, desired quality, raw
material purity / availability, and furnace design will affect the batch recipe.

Hot end

The hot end of a glassworks is where the molten glass is manufactured into glass products.
The batch enters the furnace, then passes to the forming process, internal treatment, and
annealing.

The following table lists common viscosity fix points, applicable to large-scale glass
production and experimental glass melting in the laboratory.

log10(η, log10(η,
Description
Pa·s) P)
1 2 Melting Point (glass melt homogenization and fining)
3 4 Working Point (pressing, blowing, gob forming)
4 5 Flow Point
Littleton Softening Point (Glass deforms visibly under its own weight.
6.6 7.6
Standard procedures ASTM C338, ISO 7884-3)
8–10 9–11 Dilatometric Softening Point, Td, depending on load
Deformation Point (Glass deforms under its own weight on the μm-scale
10.5 11.5
within a few hours.)
11–12.3 12–13.3 Glass Transition Temperature, Tg
12 13 Annealing Point (Stress is relieved within several minutes.)
Strain Point (Stress is relieved within several hours.)
13.5 14.5

Furnace

The batch is fed into the furnace at a slow, controlled rate by the batch processing system. The
furnaces are natural gas- or fuel oil-fired, and operate at temperatures up to 1,575 °C (2,867
°F). \The temperature is limited only by the quality of the furnace’s superstructure material and
by the glass composition. Types of furnaces used in container glass making include 'end-port'
(end-fired), 'side-port', and 'oxy-fuel'. Typically, furnace "size" is classified by metric tons per
day (MTPD) production capability.
Forming process

There are currently two primary methods of making glass containers: the blow and blow method
for narrow-neck containers only, and the press and blow method used for jars and tapered
narrow-neck containers.

In both methods, a stream of molten glass, at its plastic temperature (1,050–1,200 °C [1,920–
2,190 °F]), is cut with a shearing blade to form a solid cylinder of glass, called a gob. The gob is
of predetermined weight just sufficient to make a bottle. Both processes start with the gob
falling, by gravity, and guided, through troughs and chutes, into the blank moulds, two halves of
which are clamped shut and then sealed by the "baffle" from above

In the blow and blow process, the glass is first blown through a valve in the baffle, forcing it
down into the three-piece "ring mould" which is held in the "neckring arm" below the blanks, to
form the "finish", [The term "finish" describes the details (such as cap sealing surface, screw
threads, retaining rib for a tamper-proof cap, etc.) at the open end of the container.] The
compressed air is blown through the glass, which results in hollow and partly formed container.
Compressed air is then blown again at the second stage to give final shape.

Containers are made in two major stages. The first stage moulds all the details ("finish") around
the opening, but the body of the container is initially made much smaller than its final size.
These partly manufactured containers are called parisons, and quite quickly, they are blow-
molded into final shape.

The "rings" are sealed from below by a short plunger. After the "settleblow" finishes, the plunger
retracts slightly, to allow the skin that's formed to soften. "Counterblow" air then comes up
through the plunger, to create the parison. The baffle rises and the blanks open. The parison is
inverted in an arc to the "mould side" by the "neckring arm", which holds the parison by the
"finish".

As the neckring arm reaches the end of its arc, two mould halves close around the parison. The
neckring arm opens slightly to release its grip on the "finish", then reverts to the blank side. Final
blow, applied through the "blow head", blows the glass out, expanding into the mould, to make
the final container shape.
n the press and blow process. the parison is formed by a long metal plunger which rises up and
presses the glass out, in order to fill the ring and blank moulds. The process then continues as
before, with the parison being transferred to the final-shape mould, and the glass being blown out
into the mould.

The container is then picked up from the mould by the "take-out" mechanism, and held over the
"dead plate", where air cooling helps cool down the still-soft glass. Finally, the bottles are swept
onto a conveyor by the "push out paddles" that have air pockets to keep the bottles standing after
landing on the "dead plate"; they're now ready for annealing.

Forming process

Forming machines

The forming machines hold and move the parts that form the container. The machine consists of
basic 19 mechanisms in operation to form a bottle and generally powered by compressed air
(high pressure – 3.2 bar and low pressure – 2.8 bar), the mechanisms are electronically timed to
coordinate all movements of the mechanisms. The most widely used forming machine
arrangement is the individual section machine (or IS machine). This machine has a bank of 5–20
identical sections, each of which contains one complete set of mechanisms to make containers.
The sections are in a row, and the gobs feed into each section via a moving chute, called the gob
distributor. Sections make either one, two, three or four containers simultaneously. (Referred to
as single, double, triple and quad gob). In the case of multiple gobs, the shears cut the gobs
simultaneously, and they fall into the blank moulds in parallel.

Forming machines are largely powered by compressed air and a typical glass works will have
several large compressors (totalling 30k–60k cfm) to provide the needed compressed air.
Furnaces, compressors, and forming machine generate quantities of waste heat which is
generally cooled by water. Hot glass which is not used in the forming machine is diverted and
this diverted glass (called cullet) is generally cooled by water, and sometimes even processed
and crushed in a water bath arrangement. Often cooling requirements are shared over banks of
cooling towers arranged to allow for backup during maintenance.

Internal treatment

After the forming process, some containers particularly those intended for alcoholic spirits
undergo a treatment to improve the chemical resistance of the inside, called internal treatment or
de-alkalization. This is usually accomplished through the injection of a sulfur- or fluorine-
containing gas mixture into bottles at high temperatures. The gas is typically delivered to the
container either in the air used in the forming process (that is, during the final blow of the
container), or through a nozzle directing a stream of the gas into the mouth of the bottle after
forming. The treatment renders the container more resistant to alkali extraction, which can cause
increases in product pH, and in some cases container degradation.

Annealing

As glass cools, it shrinks and solidifies. Uneven cooling causes weak glass due to stress. Even
cooling is achieved by annealing. An annealing oven (known in the industry as a Lehr) heats the
container to about 580 °C (1,076 °F), then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20 –
60 minute period.

Cold end

The role of the cold end of glass container production is to complete the final tasks in the
manufacturing process: spray on a polyethylene coating for abrasion resistance and increased
lubricity, inspect the containers for defects, label the containers, and package the containers for
shipment.

Coatings
Glass containers typically receive two surface coatings, one at the hot end, just before annealing
and one at the cold end just after annealing. At the hot end a very thin layer of tin(IV) oxide is
applied either using a safe organic compound or inorganic stannic chloride. Tin based systems
are not the only ones used, although the most popular. Titanium tetrachloride or organo titanates
can also be used. In all cases the coating renders the surface of the glass more adhesive to the
cold end coating. At the cold end a layer of typically, polyethylene wax, is applied via a water
based emulsion. This makes the glass slippery, protecting it from scratching and stopping
containers from sticking together when they are moved on a conveyor. The resultant invisible
combined coating gives a virtually unscratchable surface to the glass. Due to reduction of in-
service surface damage, the coatings often are described as strengtheners, however a more
correct definition might be strength-retaining coatings.

Inspection equipment

Glass containers are 100% inspected; automatic machines, or sometimes persons, inspect every
container for a variety of faults. Typical faults include small cracks in the glass called checks and
foreign inclusions called stones which are pieces of the refractory brick lining of the melting
furnace that break off and fall into the pool of molten glass, or more commonly oversized silica
granules (sand) that have failed to melt and which subsequently are included in the final product.
These are especially important to select out due to the fact that they can impart a destructive
element to the final glass product. For example, since these materials can withstand large
amounts of thermal energy, they can cause the glass product to sustain thermal shock resulting in
explosive destruction when heated. Other defects include bubbles in the glass called blisters and
excessively thin walls. Another defect common in glass manufacturing is referred to as a tear. In
the press and blow forming, if a plunger and mould are out of alignment, or heated to an
incorrect temperature, the glass will stick to either item and become torn. In addition to rejecting
faulty containers, inspection equipment gathers statistical information and relays it to the
forming machine operators in the hot end. Computer systems collect fault information and trace
it to the mould that produced the container. This is done by reading the mould number on the
container, which is encoded (as a numeral, or a binary code of dots) on the container by the
mould that made it. Operators carry out a range of checks manually on samples of containers,
usually visual and dimensional checks.
Secondary processing

Sometimes container factories will offer services such as labelling. Several labelling
technologies are available. Unique to glass is the Applied Ceramic Labelling process (ACL).
This is screen-printing of the decoration onto the container with a vitreous enamel paint, which is
then baked on. An example of this is the original Coca-Cola bottle. Absolut Vodka Bottles have
various added services such as: Etching (Absolut Citron/) Coating (Absolut Raspberry/Ruby
Red) and Applied Ceramic Labelling (Absolut Blue/Pears/Red/Black).

Packaging

Glass containers are packaged in various ways. Popular in Europe are bulk pallets with between
1000 and 4000 containers each. This is carried out by automatic machines (palletisers) which
arrange and stack containers separated by layer sheets. Other possibilities include boxes and even
hand-sewn sacks. Once packed, the new "stock units" are labelled, warehoused, and ultimately
shipped.

Marketing

Glass container manufacture in the developed world is a mature market business. World demand
for flat glass was approximately 52 million tonnes in 2009. The United States, Europe and China
account for 75% of demand, with China's consumption having increased from 20% in the early
1990s to 50%. Glass container manufacture is also a geographical business; the product is heavy
and large in volume, and the major raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) are generally
readily available. Therefore, production facilities need to be located close to their markets. A
typical glass furnace holds hundreds of tonnes of molten glass, and so it is simply not practical to
shut it down every night, or in fact in any period short of a month. Factories therefore run 24
hours a day 7 days a week. This means that there is little opportunity to either increase or
decrease production rates by more than a few percent. New furnaces and forming machines cost
tens of millions of dollars and require at least 18 months of planning. Given this fact, and the fact
that there are usually more products than machine lines, products are sold from stock. The
marketing/production challenge is therefore to predict demand both in the short 4- to 12-week
term and over the 24- to 48-month-long term. Factories are generally sized to service the
requirements of a city; in developed countries there is usually a factory per 1–2 million people. A
typical factory will produce 1–3 million containers a day. Despite its positioning as a mature
market product, glass does enjoy a high level of consumer acceptance and is perceived as a
"premium" quality packaging format.

Lifecycle impact

Glass containers are wholly recyclable and the glass industries in many countries have a policy,
sometimes required by government regulations, of maintaining a high price on cullet to ensure
high return rates. Return rates of 95% are not uncommon in the Nordic countries (Sweden,
Norway, Denmark and Finland). Return rates of less than 50% are usual in other countries.
[citation needed] Of course glass containers can also be reused, and in developing countries this
is common, however the environmental impact of washing containers as against re-melting them
is uncertain. Factors to consider here are the chemicals and fresh water used in the washing, and
the fact that a single-use container can be made much lighter, using less than half the glass (and
therefore energy content) of a multiuse container. Also, a significant factor in the developed
world's consideration of reuse are producer concerns over the risk and consequential product
liability of using a component (the reused container) of unknown and unqualified safety. How
glass containers compare to other packaging types (plastic, cardboard, aluminium) is hard to say;
conclusive lifecycle studies are yet to be produced.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 VISITATION TO A.A GLASS COMPANY IDU ABUJA.
4.1 LAMINATED GLASS
Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the event of
breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene-
vinyl acetate (EVA), between its two or more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of
glass bonded even when broken, and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into
large sharp piece. Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact
or where the glass could fall if shattered and also for architectural applications. Skylight glazing
and automobile windshields typically use laminated glasses.
4.1.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF LAMINATED GLASSES
A typical laminated makeup is 2.5 mm glass, 0.38 mm interlayer, and 2.5 mm glass. This gives a
final product that would be referred to as 5.38 laminated glasses. Multiple laminates and thicker
glass increases the strength. Bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using polycarbonate,
thermoplastic materials, thermoset EVA, and layers of laminated glass. A similar glass is often
used in airliners on the front and side cockpit windows, often three plies of 4 mm toughened
glass with 2.6 mm thick PVB between them. This is one of the makeups used for the Boeing 747
cockpit side windows. The BAC/SAF Concorde forward pressure windshields had 7 plies, 4
glasses and 3 PVB total thickness 38 mm
4.1.2 LAMINATED GLASS PRODUCTION LINE
Laminated glass is made of two or more pieces of glass sandwiched between the PVB diaphragm
by high temperature and high pressure firmly bonded from the safety glass, laminated glass
production is processing glass, bulletproof glass, decorative glass and automotive windshield
essential production line.
Laminated glasses process
 The glass is kept clear and put in the machine; the machine takes up the glass.
 Wait for the second piece of glass and then the first piece of the bottom and calibration.
The film spread in the middle of the two pieces of glass.
 The previous glass is then put down and recalibrated with the first piece, and then placed
in the device for high temperature bonding and then into the autoclave to strengthen the
adhesion.

4.1.3 LAMINATED PRODUCTION LINES

Laminated glass is used in IG unit and in other architectural applications for its safety features.
This product is the result of two or more plates assembled with plastic foil (PVB) between them.
After autoclave process, the glass is processed on inspection lines and stacked on final racks. The
production lines are as follows;

 LOADING

The glass plates are loaded on lines with different type of loading systems, according to glass
sizes, types and numbers of racks and cycle time of the line. Loaders can be traditional systems
and/or robot solutions.

 GLASS TRANSPORT

Synchronized conveying systems to move glass plates along all line areas.Customized solutions
according to factory layout and customers’ needs. These solutions can include accumulators,
LES rotators and cutting systems

 PVB STORAGE
Line control automatically manages the PVB storage with 6 interchangeable rolls and self-fitting
pre-unwinding system according to the size of processed plates.

 PVB UNWINDING SYSTEM

PVB unwinding system with device to reduce air quantity between PVB and glass plate. Multi-
layers unwinding possibility

 PVB TRIMMING

Automatic bridges for the trimming of all 4 edges through a rotary disk for a continuous, fast and
accurate finishing without damaging the glass edges.

 OVEN AND NIP ROLLS

Modular system for pre-oven and oven with infrared lamps. The modular system gives the
possibility to customize the solution according to glass type and line cycle time. Nip rolls with
automatic positioning and automatic pressure set-up according to the glass thickness

 UNLOADING

After the pre-laminated process, the glass plates are unloaded on special racks for autoclave.
During the glass unloading, the stacker arranges the spacers to separate the glass or the packs on
the autoclave rack.

 LINE CONTROL

Line control based on PLC platform. Server/clients SCADA system for Human interface for all
areas with synoptic and troubleshooting functions.

4.2 GLASS TEMPERING

Tempered or toughened glass is a type of safety glass processed by controlled thermal or

chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the
outer surfaces into compression and the interior into tension. Such stresses cause the glass, when
broken, to crumble into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as plate
glass (a.k.a. annealed glass) does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.Tempered
glass is glass that has been heat-treated to make it harder, more resistant to heat, and break safely
to prevent injury. The process is relatively straightforward, although it does require some
specific equipment or facilities. Make sure to do all the cutting and shaping of the glass before
you temper it, then heat it to the correct temperature and cool it right away to complete the
process.

4.2.1 TEMPERED GLASS PRODUCTION LINE

Cut the glass into the desired shape first. You have to cut and shape the glass before the glass
is tempered. You will weaken or break the glass if you attempt to cut or reshape it in any way
after tempering.
Tempered glass is much harder than regular glass. However, if you cut, drill, or otherwise
modify it after tempering, then it is highly likely that it will shatter into small pieces because it is
more brittle than regular glass. Even if it doesn’t break, the glass will be compromised and will
not be as strong as intended

Inspect the glass for imperfections like cracks and bubbles. Look closely to make sure that
there are no cracks or other imperfections in the glass after you cut it to size. Such imperfections
can make the glass break during tempering, so do not try to temper glass with any cracks or
bubbles.
Sand the edges of the glass with wet sandpaper until they are smooth. Use a medium-coarse
sandpaper like 80-grit sandpaper. Wet the sandpaper to keep glass dust from flying up in the air,
and sand along the edges until the sharp edges are gone so that they aren’t dangerous.You can
sand the edges by hand, with an electric sander, or with a rotary tool like a Dremel tool
Wash the glass to remove dust from sanding and any dirt. Small grains of glass and dirt can
interfere with the tempering process. Make sure to wash the glass thoroughly to remove any
traces of loose materials from it.
Place the glass in a heated tempering oven or kiln with tongs or a paddle. The temperature
needs to be at least 600 °F (316 °C) in order to temper the glass, so make sure the oven is at least
this hot before you put the glass in. The industry standard for tempering glass is 620 °F (327 °C).
Heat the glass for 2-25 minutes to temper it. Glass will take between 2 and 25 minutes to
temper depending on the thickness, temperature of the oven, and other factors. Heat it for a full
25 minutes at above 600 °F (316 °C) to be sure you temper it.
In a glass tempering facility, you will be able to be more precise with the times because of the
special ovens they have. However, if you are tempering glass in less-scientific conditions, then
you will have to experiment to learn exactly how long it takes to temper different thicknesses of
glass in your oven or kiln
Remove the hot glass from the oven and set it on a brick or cement surface. Use tongs or a
paddle made for handling hot glass. Remove it from the oven carefully and set it down on the
surface to start the cooling process as quickly as possible.
Quench the glass with blasts of cool air for 3-10 seconds to cool it. Immediately start blasting
the glass with cool air from high-pressure nozzles at various angles after you remove it from the
oven. This causes the outer surfaces of the glass to contract and compress against the center by
cooling them faster, which is what makes the tempered glass strong.
If you are tempering glass in a special facility with a quenching oven, the oven will have nozzles
to blast cool air preset at different angles. If you are working with more limited resources, you
can use a compressed air hose and move it constantly while blasting the glass to hit all the
different angles.

Tempered glass is about 6 times stronger than regular glass. When it does break, it will break
into small shards that are much safer than the jagged pieces that regular glass (called float glass)
breaks into

Check the glass with polarized glasses and by shining a light through it. Properly tempered
glass has shadow-like patterns that you will be able to see through polarized lenses. These
patterns are called “quench marks”. Shine a light through the glass to make them easier to see.
These quench marks can look like dark, shady spots or lines that stretch across the surface of the
glass

CHAPTER FIVE
CONTRIBUTION
Looking back at my time at PEF(MB), The contribution I have made towards the organization
was through dedicated learning of what we were taught inside and outside of my course of study.
Helping others has been one of my greatest supports to the organization, I helped in
programming and a lot more, helped in all general and regular supports carried out at the
organization.

SUMMARY
A brief history of SIWES has been examined; The role of the scheme has also not been left out.
Relationship between glass and silicate technology and information and communication
technology and also met colleagues from other universities and other departments, we worked
together to achieve our goals during the SIWES program.

CONCLUSION
The scheme has exposed students to new work methods and experience needed in handling
equipment and facilities have not been available in school but needed to perform certain jobs
have been gained. Students with the help of SIWES were able to bridge the gab between
knowledge acquired in the school and the relevant practical skills required in work places. I wish
to conclude by saying that my IT experience is one of the best any student could wish for.

RECOMMENDATION
I recommend that future IT students use their time well, it is highly recommended that the
program be well supervised and proper encouragement to be given to students during training to
serve as a motivation for them. Also, ICT and self-employment opportunities should be included
in the program This could be achieved by student’s ability to choose functional libraries, be ICT
compliant and obtain necessary information and computer literacy. Also, more field trips should
be created so that more of what is learnt in the classroom is practically seen in real world.

CHALLENGES FACED DURING SIWES

- Lack of orientation: Most Nigerian internship students aren’t being properly informed
by their schools and departments on what the SIWES program is all about
- Lack of supervision and care: Some schools find it very difficult to send representatives
to the various workplaces of their internship students to monitor, supervise and advise
them on the right things to do as a result student don’t do for their training at all.
- Report Presentation: Most schools and lecturers are only interested in how well their
internship student’s were able to defend and present their works (logbooks) other than
how much was benefited and gained from the training, as a result of this students who
participated and benefited well from the program are being awarded poor grade due to
stage fright whereas, another student who didn’t go for the training but as a result of
boldness and smartness on forging materials will be awarded a better grade.
- Laziness of works: Majority of workers sometimes sees and takes the internship students
as servants instead of students to be properly taught and shown the major activities, they
are now being instructed to carry irrelevant jobs such as washing toilets and buying lunch
and going for errands.

APPLICABLE SOLUTIONS TO SIWES CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA

- Proper SIWES Orientation: students should be taught and shown the proper ways to;
pay, collect and submit their receipts, forms and logbooks. Write and forward SIWES
application letter, fill in logbooks and write in reports.
- Adequate supervision and care.
- Firms/Employers support.
- Seriousness and dedication of students.
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