STATISTICS APPLIED

TO RESEARCH
 What is HYPOTHESIS?

Definition:
•A statement or claim regarding a
characteristic of one or more
populations.
•A preconceived idea, assumed to be true
but has to be tested for its truth or falsity.
 Example of Hypothesis
✦ The mean body temperature for patients
admitted to elective surgery is not equal to
37.0oC.
✦ A consumer advocate would like to know if the
mean lifetime of a bulb is less than 500 hours.
✦ A real estate broker believes that because of
changes in interest rates, as well as other
economic factors, the mean price has increased
since then.
 What is HYPOTHESIS
TESTING?

Definition:
Hypothesis testing is a procedure on
sample evidence and probability, used to
test claims regarding a characteristic of
one or more populations.
 Procedures for Testing
Hypothesis
1. State the null and alternative hypothesis.
2. Set the level of significance or alpha level (α).
3. State the decision rules.
4. Calculate a test statistic.
5. Draw conclusion.
6. Interpret the results.
1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis

Two Types of Hypothesis

1. Null Hypothesis

2. Alternative Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis
• Denoted by Ho
• The statement being tested.
• Assumed true until evidence indicates
otherwise.
• Must contain the condition of equality
and must be written with the symbol
=,≤ , or ≥ .
 Example:
✦ Students who eat and not eat breakfast will
perform the same on a math exam.
✦ Students who experience and not
experience test anxiety prior to an English
exam will get the same scores.
✦ Motorists who talk and not talk on the phone
while driving will get the same errors on a
driving course.
 Alternative Hypothesis
• Denoted by Ha
• Statement that must be true if the null
hypothesis is false
• Sometimes referred to as the research
hypothesis
• Must contain the condition of equality and
must be written with the symbol ≠ , < or >.
 Example:
✦ Students who eat breakfast will perform better
on a math exam than students who do not eat
breakfast.
✦ Students who experience test anxiety prior to an
English exam will get higher scores than students
who do not experience test anxiety.
✦ Motorists who talk on the phone while driving
will be more likely to make errors on a driving
course than those who do not talk on the phone.
Reminders:
If you are conducting a research study
and you want to use a hypothesis test
to support your claim, the claim must
be stated in such a way that it becomes
the alternative hypothesis, so it
cannot contain the condition of
equality.
Two Types of Test

1. One - tailed test

✦ Left tailed
✦ Right tailed
2. Two - tailed test
2. Set the Level of Significance
or Alpha Level (α)

Definition:
The level of significance, α , is the
probability of making a type I error.
Two Types of Error
 Example:

Ho : The defendant is innocent.

Ha : The defendant is not innocent.

What happen to the defendant if the

jury made type I and type II error?
 Answer:

A type I error is like putting an innocent

person in jail.

A type II error is like letting a guilty

person go free.
 Example:

Type I Error
BFAD allows the release of an
ineffective medicine.
Type II Error
BFAD does not allow the release of an
effective drug.
 Reminders:
It is important to note that we want to set
( α ) before we start our study because the
Type I error is the more ‘grevious’ error to
make.
The smaller ( α) is, the smaller the region
of rejection.
3. State the Decision Rules

✦ Using confidence interval

✦ Using p-value approach
✦ Using traditional method
Using Confidence Interval

Decision Rule:
Reject the null hypothesis if the test
statistic is not within the range specified
by the confidence interval.
 Using P - Value Approach

Decision Rule:
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed
p-value is less than or equal to the set
significance level , otherwise do not reject
the null hypothesis.
 Example:
If the level of significance α = 0.05,
P-value Decision
0.01 Reject
0.05 Reject
0.10 Failed to reject Ho
 Using Traditional Method

Decision Rule:
Reject Ho if the computed value of the test statistic
falls in the region of rejection.
 Definition:
Rejection of region or critical
region is the set of all values of the
test statistic which will lead to the
rejection of Ho.
Acceptance Region is the set of all
values of the test statistic that leads
the researcher to retain Ho .
4. Calculate Test Statistic

Determine the appropriate statistical test

to be used. The value computed using
different statistical test is used to
compare to the critical value.
 Definition:

Test statistic - a statistic computed

from the sample data that is
especially sensitive to the differences
between Ho and Ha.
 5. Draw Conclusion

✦ Fail to reject the null hypothesis.

✦ Reject the null hypothesis.
Reminders:
It is important to recognize that we
never accept the null hypothesis. We
are merely saying that the sample
evidence is not strong enough to
warrant rejection of the null
hypothesis.
 5. Interpret the Results

Record conclusions and

recommendations in a report, and
associate interpretations to justify your
conclusion or recommendations.
 Normal Distribution
This graph is called the normal curve, which is
bell-shaped curve and which approximately
describes many phenomena that occur in
nature, industry, and research.

Normal Curve
 Normal Distribution

μ1 = μ2, σ1 < σ2 μ1 < μ2, σ1 < σ2

μ1 < μ2, σ1 = σ2
Properties of a Normal Curve
1. The normal curve is bell-shaped and
symmetric about the mean.
2. The mean, median and mode are equal.
3. The total area under the curve is equal to
one.
4. The normal curve approaches, but never
touches the x-axis as it extends farther and
farther away from the mean.
Testing Normality of the Data
To determine if the data is follows a normality
distribution, we can use the graphical or
numerical method.
Graphical:
Normal Q-Q Plot
Histogram
Numerical:
Shapiro Wilk Test
Kolmogorov Smirnov Test
Histogram
Normal Q - Q Plot
Hypotheses of Normality Test
The hypotheses used are:
Ho: The sample data follows a normal distribution.
Ha: The sample data does not follow a normal
distribution.

When we are testing normality:

• If P value > alpha, it means that the data are
normal.
• If P value ≤ alpha, it means that the data are NOT
normal.
 Inferential Statistics

1. Parametric Tests
2. Non Parametric Test
 Parametric Test
✦ Assume underlying statistical
distributions in the data. Therefore,
several conditions of validity must be
met so that the result of a parametric test
is reliable.
✦ Apply to data in ratio scale, and some
apply to data in interval scale.
 Non Parametric Test

✦ Refer to a statistical method in which the

data is not required to fit a normal
distribution.
✦ Most non-parametric tests apply to data
in an ordinal scale, and some apply to
data in nominal scale.
Inference About Two Means

To perform inference on the difference of

two population means, we must first
determine whether the data come from
an independent or dependent sample.
Distinguish between Independent
and Dependent Sample
A sampling method is independent
when the individuals selected for one
sample do not dictate which individuals
are to be in a second sample.
A sampling method is dependent when
the individual selected to be in one
sample are used to determine the
individuals to be in the second sample.
Exercises:
Determine whether the sample is independent
or dependent.
1. A researcher wants to know if the mean
length of stay in for-profit hospitals is different
from the mean length of stay in not-for-profit
hospitals. He randomly selected 20 individuals in
the for-profit hospital and matched them with 20
individuals in the not-for-profit by diagnosis.
Answer:
Dependent
Exercises:
Determine whether the sample is independent
or dependent.
2. An urban economist believes that commute
times to work in the South are less than
commute times to work in the Midwest. He
randomly selects 40 employed individuals in the
south and 45 employed individuals in the
Midwest and determines their commute times.
Answer:
Independent
Exercises:
Determine whether the sample is independent
or dependent.
3. In an experiment conducted in biology class,
Prof. Rhea measured the time required for 12
students to catch a failing meter stick using their
dominant hand and nondominant hand. The goal of
the study was to determine whether the reaction
time in an individual’s dominant hand is different
from the reaction time in the non dominant hand.
Answer:
Dependent
Dependent Sample t - Test
The dependent sample t-test (also called
the paired t-test or paired-samples t-test)
compares the means of two related groups
to determine whether there is a statistically
significant difference between these
means.
H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≥ 0 and Ha : μ1 − μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≤ 0 and Ha : μ1 − μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 − μ2 = 0 and Ha : μ1 − μ2 ≠ 0
 Assumptions
1. TheYour dependent variable should be
measured at the interval or ratio level
(i.e., they are continuous).
2. Your independent variable should
consist of two categorical, "related
groups" or "matched pairs”.
 Assumptions
3. There should be no significant outliers
in the differences between the two
related groups.
4. The distribution of the differences in
the dependent variable between the
two related groups should be
approximately normally distributed.
 Example:
In the show “The Pickup Artist”, Mystery (the host) wants the
artists in training to change from being plain old Average
Frustrated Chumps, into master pickup artists. He insists that
one way to help increase your confidence and your ability to
demonstrate higher value is simply to “smell the part”. He has
each contestant go out to a club and try to get as many digits
(telephone numbers) as they can without any cologne of any
kind (pre-test). Then he has them go out on the next night to the
same club after dousing themselves in ``Mystery’s Freaky Funk"
cologne, to see if the number of digits they receive increases
(post-test). The results are shown below. Although Mystery
maybe a fashion challenged, is he correct in his assertion that
cologne helps when picking up women?
1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis

Null hypothesis: The cologne does not

help when picking up women.

Alternative hypothesis: The cologne

helps when picking up women.
2. Set the Level of Significance
or Alpha Level (α)

α = 0.05
3. State the Decision Rules

Decision Rule:
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed
p-value is less than or equal to the set
significance level , otherwise do not reject
the null hypothesis.
4. Calculate Test Statistic
Click “Data”, then click “Data Analysis”
Result
Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.

Professor Rhea measured the time (in second)

required to catch a falling meter sticks for 10
randomly selected students' dominant hand and
non-dominant hand. Professor Rhea claims that
the reaction time in an individual's dominant
hand is less than the reaction time in their non-
dominant hand. Test the claim at the α = 0.10level
of significance. The data obtained are presented:
Result
Independent Sample t - Test
The independent sample t - test allows
researchers to evaluate or to compare the mean
difference between two populations using the data
from two separate samples. It is used to test
whether population means are significantly
different from each other, using the means from
randomly drawn samples.
H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≥ 0 and Ha : μ1 − μ2 < 0
H0 : μ1 − μ2 ≤ 0 and Ha : μ1 − μ2 > 0
H0 : μ1 − μ2 = 0 and Ha : μ1 − μ2 ≠ 0
 Assumptions
1. Your dependent variable should be measured
on a continuous scale (i.e., it is measured at
the interval or ratio level).
2. Your independent variable should consist of
two categorical, independent groups.
3. Yo u s h o u l d h a v e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f
observations, which means that there is no
relationship between the observations in each
group or between the groups themselves.
 Assumptions
4. There should be no significant outliers.
5. Your dependent variable should be
approximately normally distributed for
each group of the independent variable.
6. There needs to be homogeneity of
variances.
 Example:
Researchers wanted to know whether there was a
difference in comprehension among students learning a
computer program based on the style of the text. They
randomly divided 18 students into two groups of 9
each. The researchers verified that the 18 students were
similar in terms of educational level, age, and so on.
Group 1 individuals learned the software using visual
manual (multimodal instruction), while Group 2
individual learned the software using textual manual
(Unimodal instruction). The following data represent
scores the students received on an exam given to them
they studied from the manuals.
Example:
1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis: There is no difference in
comprehension of students learning a
computer program in terms of visual and
textual.
Alternative hypothesis: There is a
difference in comprehension of students
learning a computer program in terms of
visual and textual.
2. Set the Level of Significance
or Alpha Level (α)

α = 0.05
3. State the Decision Rules

Decision Rule:
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed
p-value is less than or equal to the set
significance level , otherwise do not reject
the null hypothesis.
 4. Calculate Test Statistic
Determine if the variances are equal or unequal.
Since the result of F-test conclude that the
variances of the two groups are equal, we will
apply “Assuming Equal Variances”.
Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.
Twenty participants were given a list of 20 words to
process. The 20 participants were randomly assigned
to one of two treatment conditions. Half were
instructed to count the number of vowels in each
word (shallow processing). Half were instructed to
judge whether the object described by each word
would be useful if one were stranded on a desert
island (deep processing). After a brief distractor task,
all subjects were given a surprise free recall task. The
number of words correctly recalled was recorded for
each subject. Here are the data:
Result
One - Way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA)
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
is a method of test ing the equality of
three or more population means by
analyzing sample variances.
Ho : μ1 = μ2 = . . . = μk
Ha : At least one of the population means
is different from the others.
 Assumptions
1. Your dependent variable should be measured
at the interval or ratio level (i.e., they are
continuous).
2. Your independent variable should consist of
two or more categorical, independent groups.
3. Yo u s h o u l d h a v e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f
observations, which means that there is no
relationship between the observations in each
group or between the groups themselves.
 Assumptions
4. There should be no significant outliers.
5. Your dependent variable should be
approximately normally distributed for
each category of the independent
variable.
6. There needs to be homogeneity of
variances.
 Example:

A large school district has several elementary

schools. Four schools were randomly chosen,
and 3 to 4 classes were selected. The numbers
of pupils in each class are shown below.
At α = 0.10, is there sufficient evidence that the
mean number of pupils per class differs among
schools?
Example:
1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis

Null hypothesis: There is no sufficient

evidence that the mean number of pupils
per class differs among schools.

Alternative hypothesis: There is sufficient

evidence that the mean number of pupils
per class differs among schools.
2. Set the Level of Significance
or Alpha Level (α)

α = 0.10
3. State the Decision Rules

Decision Rule:
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed
p-value is less than or equal to the set
significance level , otherwise do not reject
the null hypothesis.
4. Calculate Test Statistic
Result
Exercises:
Apply the procedure in testing the hypothesis.
A teacher is concerned about the level of
knowledge possessed by PUP students regarding
Philippine history. Students completed a high
school senior level standardized history exam.
Academic major of the students was also recorded.
Data in terms of percent correct is recorded below
for 24 students. Is there a significant difference
between the levels of knowledge possessed by PUP
students regarding Philippine history when
grouped according to their academic major?
Result
 Pearson Product Moment
Correlation
The Pearson product moment correlation
coefficient (Pearson r) is a measure of the
strength of a linear association between
two variables and is denoted by r.
Ho: There is no significant relationship
between two continuous variables.
Ha: There is significant relationship between
two continuous variables.
Pearson Product Moment
Correlation
 Assumptions
1. Your two variables should be measured at the
interval or ratio level (i.e., they are
continuous).
2. There is a linear relationship between your
two variables.
3. There should be no significant outliers.
4. Your variables should be approximately
normally distributed.
 Example:
The grades of fifty randomly selected
students from section STEM 11-25 and
11-26 and the number of hours they
studied are given. The researcher wants
to determine if there is significant
relationship between the number of
hours they studied and their final grades
in statistics.
1. State the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis: There is no significant
relationship between the number of hours
they studied and their final grades in
statistics.
Alternative hypothesis: There is
significant relationship between the
number of hours they studied and their
final grades in statistics.
2. Set the Level of Significance
or Alpha Level (α)

α = 0.05
3. State the Decision Rules

Decision Rule:
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed
p-value is less than or equal to the set
significance level , otherwise do not reject
the null hypothesis.
4. Calculate Test Statistic
Result