Silicon-controlled rectifier

SCR schematic symbol

A high power SCR

A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state
device that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's
trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power engineers led by
Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.
Construction of SCR
An SCR consists of four layers of alternating P and N type semiconductor materials. Silicon is
used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are
either diffused or alloyed. The planar construction is used for low power SCRs (and all the
junctions are diffused). The mesa type construction is used for high power SCRs. In this case,
junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion method and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it,
since the PNPN pellet is required to handle large currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or
molybdenum plates to provide greater mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard soldered
to a copper stud, which is threaded for attachment of heat sink. The doping of PNPN will depend
on the application of SCR, since its characteristics are similar to those of the thyratron. Today,
the term thyristor applies to the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-
change behaviour, that is, switching either ON or OFF.
Modes of operation
In the normal "off" state, the device restricts current to the leakage current. When the gate-to-
cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the device turns "on" and conducts current. The
device will remain in the "on" state even after gate current is removed so long as current through
the device remains above the holding current. Once current falls below the holding current for an
appropriate period of time, the device will switch "off". If the gate is pulsed and the current
through the device is below the holding current, the device will remain in the "off" state.
If the applied voltage increases rapidly enough, capacitive coupling may induce enough charge
into the gate to trigger the device into the "on" state; this is referred to as "dv/dt triggering." This
is usually prevented by limiting the rate of voltage rise across the device, perhaps by using a
snubber. "dv/dt triggering" may not switch the SCR into full conduction rapidly and the
partially-triggered SCR may dissipate more power than is usual, possibly harming the device.
SCRs can also be triggered by increasing the forward voltage beyond their rated breakdown
voltage (also called as break over voltage), but again, this does not rapidly switch the entire
device into conduction and so may be harmful so this mode of operation is also usually avoided.
Also, the actual breakdown voltage may be substantially higher than the rated breakdown
voltage, so the exact trigger point will vary from device to device. This device is generally used
in switching applications.
Reverse Bias
SCR are available with or without reverse blocking capability. Reverse blocking capability adds
to the forward voltage drop because of the need to have a long, low doped P1 region. Usually,
the reverse blocking voltage rating and forward blocking voltage rating are the same. The typical
application for reverse blocking SCR is in current source inverters.
SCR incapable of blocking reverse voltage are known as asymmetrical SCR, abbreviated ASCR.
They typically have a reverse breakdown rating in the 10's of volts. ASCR are used where either
a reverse conducting diode is applied in parallel (for example, in voltage source inverters) or
where reverse voltage would never occur (for example, in switching power supplies or DC
traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SCR can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package.
These are known as RCT, for reverse conducting thyristor.

Application of SCRs
SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium to high-voltage
AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators and motor control.
If an SCR's gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley diode. It may be
latched by breakover voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of voltage rise between anode and
cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout is accomplished by reducing current until one
or both internal transistors fall into cutoff mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because
the gate terminal connects directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an
alternative means to latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the
lower transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so that it no
longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current to initiate latch-up, of
course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR from cathode to anode, so the SCR
does achieve a measure of amplification.
This method of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most common
way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually chosen so that their
breakover voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to be experienced from the power
source, so that it can be turned on only by an intentional voltage pulse applied to the gate.
It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by directly shorting their gate
and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering" the gate with a negative voltage (in
reference to the cathode), so that the lower transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is
"sometimes" possible because it involves shunting all of the upper transistor's collector current
past the lower transistor's base. This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an
SCR difficult at best. A variation of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes
this task easier. But even with a GTO, the gate current required to turn it off may be as much as
20% of the anode (load) current!

The SCR is a four-layer, three-junction and a three-terminal device and is shown in fig.a. The
end P-region is the anode, the end N-region is the cathode and the inner P-region is the gate. The
anode to cathode is connected in series with the load circuit. Essentially the device is a switch.
Ideally it remains off (voltage blocking state), or appears to have an infinite impedance until both
the anode and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the cathode terminal.
The thyristor then switches on and current flows and continues to conduct without further gate
signals. Ideally the thyristor has zero impedance in conduction state. For switching off or
reverting to the blocking state, there must be no gate signal and the anode current must be
reduced to zero. Current can flow only in one direction.
In absence of external bias voltages, the majority carrier in each layer diffuses until there is a
built-in voltage that retards further diffusion. Some majority carriers have enough energy to cross
the barrier caused by the retarding electric field at each junction. These carriers then become
minority carriers and can recombine with majority carriers. Minority carriers in each layer can be
accelerated across each junction by the fixed field, but because of absence of external circuit in
this case the sum of majority and minority carrier currents must be zero.
A voltage bias, as shown in figure, and an external circuit to carry current allow internal currents
which include the following terms:
The current Ix is due to
Majority carriers (holes) crossing junction J1
Minority carriers crossing junction J1
Holes injected at junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1 and
Minority carriers from junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1.
Similarly I2 is due to six terms and I3 is due to four terms.
The two simple analogues to explain the basic action for the thyristor are those of the diode and
the two transistor models.
1. Diode Model. The thyristor is similar to three diodes in series as there are three P-N junctions.
Without gate bias, there is always at least one reverse biased junction to prevent conduction
irrespective of the polarity of an applied voltage between anode and cathode. If the anode is
made positive and the gate is also biased positively with respect to cathode, the P-layer at the
gate is flooded by the electrons from the cathode and loses its identity as a P-layer. Accordingly
the thyristor becomes equivalent to a conducting diode.

Scr working
2. Two Transistor Model. Imagine the SCR cut along the dotted line, as shown in fig. a. Then we
can have two devices, as shown in fig.b. These two devices can be recognized as two transistors.
The upper left one is P-N-P transistor and the lower right N-P-N type. Further it can be
recognized that the base of the P-N-P transistor is joined to the collector of the N-P-N transistor
while the collector of P-N-P is joined to the base of N-P-N transistor, as illustrated in fig. c. The
gate terminal is brought out from the base of the N-P-N material. This construction has been
conceived merely to explain the working of SCR, otherwise in physical shape the SCR has four
solid layers of P-N-P-N type only.
Now we can see that the two transistors are connected in such a manner that the collector of Q 1 is
connected to the base of Q2 i.e. the output collector current of Qt becomes the base current for Q2.
In the similar way the collector of Q2 is joined to the base of Q1 which shows that the output
collector current of Q2 is fed to Q1 as input base current. These are back to back connections of
transistors in such a way that the output of one goes into as input of other transistor and vice-
versa. This gives net gain of loop circuit as β 1 x β2 where β1 and β2 are current gains of two
transistors respectively.
When the gate current is zero or the gate terminal is open, the only current in circulation is the
leakage current, which is very small in case of silicon device specially and the total current is a
little higher than sum of individual leakage currents. Under these conditions P-N-P-N device is
said to be in its forward blocking or high impedance ‘off state. As soon as a small amount of gate
current is given to the base of transistor Q2 by applying forward bias to its base-emitter junction,
it generates the collector current as β2 times the base current. This collector current of Q2 is fed as
input base current to Q: which is further multiplied by β1 times as ICl which forms input base
current of Q2 and undergoes further amplification. In this way both transistors feedback each
other and the collector current of each goes on multiplying. This process is very quick and soon
both the transistors drive each other to saturation. Now the device is said to be in.on-state. The
current through the on-state SCR is controlled by external impedance only.

We have been reading about rectifier diodes and different rectifier configurations in our previous
articles. In this article we will study about a new device known as the Silicon Controlled
Rectifier, which is a power electronic device. It can be produced in versions that can handle
several thousand Amperes and voltages greater than 1kV. It is a silicon device used for
controlled rectification, and hence the reference or nomenclature of Silicon Controlled Rectifier.
It can convert alternating current into direct current and at the same time can control the amount
of power fed to the load. Thus it combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor.
Why not Germanium Controlled Rectifier?
Leakage current in silicon is very small compared to Germanium. As the device is to be used as a
switch, there should be minimum leakage current during the 'OFF' condition. Hence Germanium
is not popularly used for controlled rectification.
Construction
We just now read that SCR is a three terminal device. The terminals are:
Anode (A)
Cathode (K)
Gate (G)
The device consists of three pn junctions to form a p-n-p-n device. The 3 terminals are taken as
follows:
Anode - taken from the outer p-type material
Cathode - taken from the outer n-type material
Gate - taken from the inner p-type material
SCR is sometimes called 'thyristor' as it is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. The gate, anode
and cathode of SCR correspond to grid, plate and cathode of thyratron.
a) Circuit Representation of SCR
b) Structure of p-n-p-n materials
From fig.(b), it can be seen that SCR is actually the result of the addition of a pn-junction to a
junction transistor (pnp or npn).
Working of SCR
Important points to be remembered:
In SCR, load is connected in series with anode.
The anode is always kept at a potential higher than the cathode, i.e., A is always at a positive
potential with respect to K.
The working of SCR is to be studied under two different conditions:
When Gate (G) is open
When Gate (G) is positive with respect to Cathode (K)
- When Gate is Open
Here no voltage is applied to the gate. Under this condition, the junction J2 is reverse biased
while J1 & J3 are forward biased.

( For example: In junction J1, the p-type material is kept at a positive potential than the n-type
material of the pn-junction due to the voltage source connected through the RL. Hence J1 is
forward biased.)
Due to the reverse bias, no current will flow through the device => SCR is cut-off.
So can SCR never be turned ON with its gate open?
Yes it can. There is a way to turn ON the SCR with the gate remianing 'open'.
You can see that the supply voltage V apears as the reverse bias voltage across the junction J 2
since J1 & J3 are in forward bias condition (conduct current).When the supply voltage 'V' is
increased beyond a threshold, breakdown occurs at the junction J 2. The SCR now conducts
heavily and is in ON state.
This increased voltage at which the SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called
'breakover voltage'.

- When Gate is positive with respect to cathode

The device can be made to conduct heavily by applying a small positive potential to the Gate
terminal, as shown in the below fig.

In this case,
J3 is forward biased, J2 is reverse biased.
Electrons from n-type material start moving acoss J3 towards left
Similarly, holes move from p-type material towards the right.
Eventually, the electrons that moved across J3 are now attracted across J2. This initiates the Gate
current.
As the J2 is now conducting, anode current flows through the SCR as soon gate current was
initiated.
(in layman terms, J2 had been reverse biased - no charge flowed across J 2 till now. Now that
electrons move across J2, this initiates the current flow through the device)
As soon as the SCR is triggered, the Gate loses all control as the breakdown of J 2 has already
been achieved. Hence the anode current does not decrease at all on removing the positive Gate
voltage.
The only way to stop conduction is to reduce the applied voltage to zero.
What we infer from the working?
SCR has two states - either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily. There is no intermediate
state. Hence SCR behaves like a switch.
There are 2 ways to turn ON the SCR - 1. with Gate open and increasing the supply voltage, 2.
with a positive Gate trigger. (gate trigger should be >10mA)
The SCR is turned OFF only by reducing the supply voltage to zero, thereby reducing the anode
current <10mA.
This 10mA current is called as Holding current. There are other important terms such as Peak
Reverse Voltage, etc which are important to understand the VI-Characteristics of SCR.
Let us discuss about these terms, VI characteristics of SCR and therefore the basic 'controlled
rectification' application of SCR in the next article.