ECOSYSTEMS

FORM 1 FORM 2 FORM 3 FORM 4

 Components  Tropical  Biogeochemi  Soil
of ecosystem ecosyste cal cycles compone
 Micro ms  Wetlands nts
ecosystems (biomes)  Conservatio  Soil
 Interdepende  Human n of forming
nce in influence ecosystems processe
ecosystems s on  Restoration s in the
(food chains tropical of tropics.
and webs) ecosyste ecosystem  Soil
 Biodiversity ms  Benefits of properties
 Sustainable  Applicati ecosystems  Soil types
management on of the
of ecosystem systems
approac
h in
enterpris
e

A system is a set of interconnected elements or parts. These parts are formed by the interaction.

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living (biota) and non-living (abiota) components interacting
together in their physical environment. It refers to the interrelationship or link between living
organisms and non-living components in relation to the natural environment. There is self-
sustenance within this environment by the fact that the components depend on each other.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Living components (Biota) Non Living components (Abiota)
Animals (fauna) Air
Plants (flora) Water
Bacteria Sun
Fungi Soil
Humus Manure

An Ecosystem as an open system.

Ecosystems are open systems because both energy and living matter enter and leave the system. In
this case, the ecosystem has inputs, processes and outputs. Inputs are the things that go into a
system. Processes are the transfers or movements within a system. Outputs are the products of a
system. These are transferred or moved out of the system. These include mature vegetation,
animals, water vapour and leaf litter among others.

An Ecosystem as an open system

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 Inputs Processes Outputs
Water Active uptake Water vapour
Sunlight Photosynthesis Leaf litter
Oxygen Decomposition vegetation
Carbon dioxide evapotranspiration animals
Soil respiration
Precipitation

Energy flow
Energy is an input into the ecosystem which comes from the sun. An ecosystem is sustained by the
transfer of energy. Energy flow is the movement or transfer of energy through an ecosystem. Plants
convert solar energy (sunlight) into chemical energy to make carbohydrates using carbon dioxide
and water through the process of photosynthesis. In this way the plants grow and increase their
biomass. When animals feed on plants the energy is transferred into the animals. In other words
once the energy is within green plants, energy is then able to pass through the ecosystem in the
food chain or food web. The following food pyramid shown energy flow in an ecosystem.

THE FOOD PYRAMID

Producers are also called autotrophs, they are able to manufacture their own food using sunlight,
water and carbon dioxide in the presence of chlorophyll. These are the green plants.
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, these are animals which feeds on plants only.
Examples of herbivores includes impalas, buffalos, kudus, bucks, giraffes among others.
Secondary consumers are also called carnivores, these are animals which feeds on meat only. These
animals eat other animals. Examples of carnivores includes lions, hyenas, cheetahs, leopards, snakes
among others.
Tertiary consumers are apex predators which feeds on both primary and secondary consumers.
These are also omnivorous in nature. Omnivores are animals which feeds on plants and animals.
These includes vultures, hawks.

Food chain
Food chain refers to the transfer of energy through the ecosystem from producers to consumers.
Producer → primary consumer → secondary consumer → tertiary consumer
Grass → impala → lion → vulture

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Grass → buffalo → cheetah → hawk
Grass → mice→ snake → bird

Food web

Glossary of terms
Adaptation - is a way an animal's body helps it survive, or live, in its environment.
Abiotic - non-living components such as soil, sun, water and air.
Autotrophs – are organisms that
Biotic - living components such as plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.
Ecosystem - a community of living (biota) and non-living (abiota) components interacting together
in their physical environment.
Energy flow - the movement or transfer of energy through an ecosystem.
Food web - complex network of many interconnected food chains and feeding relationships.
System - a set of interconnected elements or parts. These parts are formed by the interaction.

REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice
1 A set of elements that are interconnected is called-----------
A ecosystem B system C computer D internet
2 An --------- is a community of living and non-living things interacting together in their physical
environment
A system B herbivores C ecosystem D producers
3 Animals which feed on other animals are called ----------
A herbivores B decomposers C carnivores D vultures
4--------- are organism which are also to manufacture their own food
A autotrophs B herbivores C omnivores D detritivore
5 Which of the following is living component?
A air B water C soil D Fungi
6 The following are inputs in the ecosystem except
A water B sunlight C carbon dioxide D water vapour
7 Organisms that feed on green plants are called
A primary consumers B secondary consumers C tertiary consumers D producers
8-------- is a way an animal’s body or plant’s structure help it survive in its environment
A adoption B adaption C xerophytic D adjustment
9 The movement or transfer of energy through an ecosystem is called
A base flow B through flow C energy flow D water flow

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10 Which of the following is a carnivore?
A lion B impala C rabbit D mouse

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity refers to a variety of plants and animals.
Habitat - is an area where an organism lives.
Environmental challenges
The ecosystem is facing serious environmental challenges such as veld fires, deforestation and soil
erosion.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees without replacing them.
Reasons for deforestation
-clearing land for agriculture.
-For building materials.
-fencing.
-For logging of hardwoods to export to developed countries.
- For firewood.
-clearing land for road, dam and H.E.P construction.

Consequences/Effects of deforestation
-Damage to animal habitats.
-Loss of biodiversity.
-Soil erosion.
-Loss of carbon sequestration.
-Desertification.
-Drought.
-Climate Change.
-Extinction of plant species.
Measures/Solutions to reduce deforestation and its effects
-Reforestation and afforestation.
-Environmental education.
-Rural electrification.
-Legislation.
-Using other alternative sources of energy like solar and gas.
-Heavy Fine and imprisonment of environmental offenders.

SOIL EROSION
Soil is the uppermost layer of earth’s crust, which supports growth of plants. Soil erosion is the
washing away of top soil by running water, wind or ice.

Causes of soil erosion

Natural causes
-bare grounds or soils.
-natural fires.
-droughts.
-steep slopes.
-strong winds.
-high intensity rainfall.
-fragile soils like sand soils.

Human causes

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-deforestation.
-overgrazing.
-streambank cultivation.
-ploughing down slopes.
-veld fires.
-uncontrolled gold panning.
Effects of Soil Erosion
-land degradation. For example gulleys and dongas
-land scarification.
-loss of soil fertility or soil impoverishment.
-desertification.
Measures To Reduce Soil Erosion
-afforestation and reforestation.
-terracing.
-educate people.
-gulley reclamation.
-legislation.
-paddocking.
-destocking.
-Resettlement.
-re-grassing.
-beheading the gulley.
-Fencing off of the area.
-construction of silt traps.
-contour ridges.

Challenges Faced In Implementing Measures To Reduce Soil Erosion

-lack of knowledge or ignorance.
-lack of land.
-traditional attitudes.
-lack of capital.
-Lack of technical know-how.
-lack of cooperation or resistance.
-lack of manpower or labour.
-corruption.
-political interference.
-poverty.

A biome is a large scale vegetation grouping whose major controlling factor is climate.
Biomass is the total weight of living matter in a given area including plants and animals.
Types Of Tropical Biomes
1Tropical rainforest/Equatorial
2Tropical continental/Savanna
3 Hot desert
Climatic Characteristics Of The Tropical Rainforest
-High rainfall throughout the year.
-High temperature throughout the year.
-High humidity throughout the year.
-double maxima rainfall
The tropical rainforest vegetation

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 Adaptability Of Plants In
The Tropical Rainforest

-Tall trees due to

competition for sunlight.
-Climbers due to
competition for sunlight.
-Little undergrowth due to
little sunlight penetration.
-Evergreen plants due to
high rainfall throughout
the year.
-Trees have broad leaves
to maximise water loss.
-Tress have buttress roots
for anchorage or support.
-Trees have shallow roots
to reach nutrients just
below the surface.
-Fast growth of plants due to high rainfall and temperature.
-Tree leaves have large stoma to maximise water loss.
-Dense vegetation due to high rainfall throughout the year.
-Trees are hydromorphic to survive in waterlogged area.

Climatic Characteristics Of The Savanna Biome

-High rainfall during the summer.
-High temperature during the summer.
-Low rainfall during winter.
-Low temperature during the winter.
NB hot-wet summer and cool dry winters

The Savanna vegetation

Adaptability Of
Plants Of The
Savanna
Vegetation
-Trees are
xerophytic plants
(drought resistant)
plants to survive in
drought prone
areas.
-Trees have waxy,
spiky, small, needle
shaped leaves to
minimise water
loss.

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-Trees are umbrella shaped to protect their barks from the scotching sun.
-Trees have gnarled or crooked barks to protect themselves from fire.
-Trees are deciduous (shed off their leaves in winter) to minimize water loss.
-Trees have long tape roots to trap underground water.
-Trees are scattered due to low season rainfall.
-Trees leaves have small stoma to minimize water loss.
-Tall grass due to spaced trees.

Climatic Characteristics Of The Hot Desert

-Clear skies.
-Windy.
-Scanty, sporadic, erratic, unreliable low rainfall.
-Too high temperatures during the day.
-Too low temperatures during the night.
-Low humidity throughout the year.
The tropical desert vegetation

Adaptability Of Plants In Tropical Desert

-trees are leafless to minimise water loss.
-trees have broad trunks like baobab to store water.
-Plants have thorns to protect themselves from herbivores.
-trees have long tape root to trap underground water.
-trees are halophytic to survive in saline condition.
-trees are xerophytic to survive in drought prone areas.
-little vegetation due to little rainfall.
-trees are short lifers due to little rainfall.
-trees have sunken stoma to minimise water loss.
-Trees have waxy, spiky, small, needle shaped leaves to minimise water loss.

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 Adaptability Of Animals In Hot Desert
In the Tropical Deserts animals:
-have padded hooves to walk in dry sand.
-like camels have hums to store water and fats.
-pass dry faeces to minimise water loss.
-pass concentrated urine to minimise water loss.
-mate, hunt, walk at night (nocturnal) when temperature are low.
-burrow into the soil in search of low temperature.
-like reptiles have shiny skins to reflect the sun’s heat.

Glossary of terms
Adaptation - a way an animal's body helps it survive, or live, in its environment.
Biome - a large scale vegetation grouping whose major controlling factor is climate.
Biomass - the total weight of living matter in a given area including plants and animals.
Deforestation - the cutting down of trees without replacing them.
Soil - the uppermost layer of earth’s crust, which supports growth of plants.
Soil erosion - the washing away of top soil by running water, wind or ice.

REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice
1 A------- is large vegetation grouping whose major controlling factor is climate
A abiota B biota C biomass D biome
2 There is little underground in equatorial forest because
A there is little sunlight penetration to the ground surface B there is little rainfall C there is high
temperature D there is no space among trees
3 Xerophytic plants have adapted to conditions of
A low humidity B low rainfall C low temperature D high temperature
4 ------ is a large variety of plants and animals
A biomass B biodiversity C flora D fauna
5 Deciduous trees shed off their leaves during the
A summer B winter C autumn D El Nino
6 Which of the following biomes has the least amount of biomass
A tropical rainforest B tropical continental C savanna grassland D tropical desert
7 Animals in the tropical desert have padded hooves so that
A they cannot sink in the sand B they can hunt C they can minimise water loss D they can have lower
temperature
8 -------- are found in the tropical rainforest due to competition for sunlight
A cactus B baobab C aloe D climbers
9 -----------is the wise use of resources without compromising the weeds of the future generation
A susceptibility B sustainability C beneficiation D conservation
10 To reduce soil erosion, the following are solution except
A legislation B afforestation C deforestation D EDUCATION

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Structures questions
1a (i) Define the following terms (i) Sustainability (ii) biodiversity? [4]
(ii)What are the causes and consequences of destroying vegetation? [10]
b (i)Suggest measures to reduce forests degradation? [7]
(ii) What problems are likely to be faced in implementing measures suggested in b(i) above? [4]
2a (i) Define term soil erosion?[2]
(ii)What are the physical and human causes of soil erosion [12]
b (ii) What are the effects of soil erosion [4]
(i)Suggest measures to control soil erosion? [7]
3a (i) Define the term ‘Adaptation’? [2]
(ii) Describe and explain the adaptability of plants in the tropical rainforest? [7]
b (i) Describe and explain the adaptability of plants in the tropical continental or Savanna? [7]
(ii) Describe and explain the adaptability of plants in the tropical desert? [5]
(iii) Describe and explain the adaptability of animals in the tropical desert? [4]

BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES
The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is very important to all ecosystems, and ultimately life on earth. The carbon cycle is
critical to the food chain. Living tissue contain carbon, because they contain proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. The carbon in these (living or dead) tissues is recycled in various processes.

The Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed by green plants (producers) to make food in
photosynthesis. When animals feed on green plants, they pass on carbon compounds unto other

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animals in the upper levels of their chains. Animals give off carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
during respiration. Human activities like heating homes and cars burning fuels (combustion) give off
carbon into the atmosphere. During respiration, animals also introduce carbon into the atmosphere
in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is also given off when plants and animals die. This
occurs when decomposers (bacteria and fungi) down dead plants and animals (decomposition) and
release the carbon compounds stored in them. Very often, energy trapped in the dead materials
becomes fossil fuels which is used as combustion again at a later.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is also key in the existence of ecosystems and food chains. Nitrogen forms about 78% of
the air on earth. Plants do not use nitrogen directly from the air. This is because nitrogen itself is
unreactive, and cannot be used by plants to make protein. Nitrogen gas therefore needs to be
converted into nitrate compound in the soil by nitrogen-bacteria in soil, root nodules or lightning.
To understand the cycle better, let us consider the diagram below:

1. Nitrogen is introduced to the soil by precipitation (rain, lightling).

2. Nitrates don’t only come from Nitrogen in the air. They can also be obtained by the conversion of
ammonia, commonly used in fertilizers by nitrifying bacteria in the soil. Some root nodules can also
convert nitrogen in the soil into nitrates.
3. Plants build up proteins using nitrates absorbed from the soil.
4. When animals like cows, eat these plants, they in turn use it to build animal protein.

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5-6. When these animals (cows) poop, pee or die, the urea, excreta or carcass are broken down by
decomposers nitrogen is re-introduced into the soil in the form of ammonia.
7. Nitrates in the soil can also be broken down by denitrifying bacteria (in specific conditions) and
sent into the nitrogen. This process can help make the soil infertile, because it will lack the nitrates
needed for plant use.
Once nitrogen gets back into the air, the cycle continues.

WETLANDS
The Environmental Management Act (Cap 20; 27) define wetlands as : “Areas of marsh, fen, peat
land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including riparian land adjacent to the wetland”.
A wetland is an area which is periodically or permanently waterlogged or with water gently flowing.

Importance of wetlands
-Provide good space for growing water loving crops like rice.
-Provide important habitat for a wide variety of wildlife.
-Provide grazing pastures for animals.
-Source of water for domestic use.
-Source of water for industrial use.
-Source of for irrigation.
-Source of raw materials for craft industry.
-Source of medicinal herbs.
-Promotion of tourism.
-Recreational activities like water sports, hunting, nature appreciation, bird watching.
-Source of fish.
-Provide fishing worms.
-Education and research.
-recharges ground water.
-Slow down the rate of flooding by soaking water.
-slow down the rate of erosion.
-filter pollutants
-Trap eroded silt.
-Fire control.

Causes Of Wetland Degradation

-Over cultivation.
-Deforestation.
-Overgrazing.
-Urban development.
-Disposal of raw sewage in wetlands.
-Spraying agricultural chemicals into wetlands.
-Disposal of industrial effluent into wetlands.
-Over abstraction of water from wetlands.
-Cultivation of invasive exotic trees like lantana camara.

Measures/Solutions/ Attempts To Reduce Wetland Degradation

-Plant native species to maintain the natural balance of the wetland. T
-Direct storm water into wetlands
-Maintain a green belt around the wetland.
-Fence the wetland against animals that may destroy vegetation.
-Afforestation and reforestation.

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-Use organic manure instead of fertilizers and pesticides.
-Educate people so that they conserve wetlands.
-Enforce rules and regulations.
-Heavy fines to offenders.

CONSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEM
Benefits Of Conserving Forests
-Promotion of ecotourism.
-Increase evapotranspiration which results in increased precipitation.
-Promotes cultural heritage.
-Source of timber
-Carbon sinks
-Source of oxygen
-Source of fruits and honey
-Tree roots binds the soil thus reducing soil erosion
-Source of leaf litter producing humus
-Source of medicines
Methods Of Reducing Soil Erosion
-Education
-Legislation
-Afforestation and reforestation
-Regrassing
-Terracing
-Paddocking
-Contour ridges
-Gully reclamation
-Resettlement.
-Fencing.
-Destocking.
-Construction of silt traps.

Glossary of term

Wetland - an area which is periodically or permanently waterlogged or with water gently flowing.

REVISION EXERCISES

Multiple choice
1 Nitrogen constitutes ----- of the air in the atmosphere
A 21% B 78% C 30% D 0.4%
2With the ecosystem bacteria and fungi
A break down rocks into smaller particles B break down dead vegetation and animals C break down
insoluble molecules to soluble ones D promotes the development of tall trees
3In the nitrogen cycle nitrogen is fixed from the air to nitrates into the soil by
A fertilizers B organic matters C lightning D denitrification
4Which of the following is not a source of carbon
A coal B sun Coil D natural gas

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5When plants and animals due, they ------ and form chemical elements
A decompose B germinate C grow D salinize
6 The best way of restoring ecosystem is by
A veld fires B deforestation C overgrazing D gull reclamation
7 A degraded environment can best be remedied by the following except
A legislation B paddocking C pollution D gully reclamation
8 A----- is marsh or waterlogged area
A wetland B tropical rainforest C desert D savanna
9 The best way to conserve wetlands is by
A grow exotic trees like Lantana Camara B dispose raw sewage into wetlands C direct storm water
into wetlands D dispose industrial effluent into rivers
10Wetlands are being degraded by human
A urbanisation B deforestation C overgrazing D fencing

Structures questions

1a (i) Define the following terms (i) Ecosystem [2]

(ii)With the aid of a labelled diagram describe and explain the carbon cycle [7]

b (i) What are the reasons for conserving forests?[7]

(ii) Identify human causes of soil erosion? [5]

(iii) Suggest measures to reduce the effects of soil erosion? [4]

2a (i) Define the term ‘wetland’? [2]

(ii) Identify the benefits of conserving wetlands? [7]

b (i) Outline causes of wetland degradation in Zimbabwe? [7]

(ii) Suggest measures which can be put forward to reduce the wetland degradation in Zimbabwe?
[5]

(iii) What challenges are likely to be faced in implementing measures suggested in b(ii) above? [4]

Soil

Soil is the uppermost layer of earth’s crust, which supports growth of plants. Soils are the substances
in which plants grow. They are made of both living and non‐living material. Soils average out to be
approximately half minerals and half water and air. Only a tiny proportion of soil consists of organic
materials. The minerals that compose soil are formed by the erosion of rocks. Soil is renewable
because its productivity can be maintained with fertilizers and manures rich in humus. If the soil has
been removed from a certain place by erosion, it is practically non-renewable because formation of
new soil may take hundreds and thousands of years.

The system’s approach

Inputs, processes and outputs. Give examples on each of the three components.

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Soils Plants

Animals
Soil has matter in all the three states.
Solid- organic and inorganic
Liquid- soil water from rainfall, ground water and seepage
Gas – soil atmosphere / air within the pore spaces.

Soil composition and properties

Components of soil - mineral matter (45%), inorganic matter (5%), soil water (25%), soil air (25%).

Inorganic Matter - Provide minerals required for plant growth

Soil Water - Derived from rainfall and is important for regulating temperature, dissolving nutrients.

Soil Air - Plants and animals gain oxygen for metabolism from soil air

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TO PEOPLE

-Brick moulding.
-Pottery.
-Sand mining.
-Soil testing.
-Farming.
-Sun drying or bathing

SOIL FORMATION

Soil forming factors are climate, parent material, time, relief / topography, organisms and
anthropogenic factors.

Jenny’s State Factor Model of Soil Formation:

S=f ‘ ( Cl, R, P, T, O).

S-Soil

f-function

Cl-Climate

R-Relief

P-Parent rock

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T-Time

O-Organisms.

Climate

The two most important climatic variables influencing soil formation are temperature and moisture.
Temperature affects the rate of chemical, physical and biological weathering processes which are
the initial stage in soil formation. Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with higher
temperatures. Temperature also influences the activity of soil microorganisms, the frequency and
magnitude of soil chemical reactions, and the rate of plant growth. Moisture levels in most soils are
primarily controlled by the addition of water via precipitation minus the losses due
evapotranspiration. If additions of water from precipitation surpass losses from evapotranspiration,
moisture levels in a soil tend to be high. If the water loss due to evapotranspiration exceeds inputs
from precipitation, moisture levels in a soil tend to be low. High moisture availability in a soil
promotes the weathering of bedrock and sediments, chemical reactions, and plant growth. The
availability of moisture also has an influence on soil pH and decomposition of organic matter. In hot
and humid tropics, bacterial action is active and decomposition is fast and nutrients are leached
down the soil profile. In cool temperatures bacterial activity is reduced and a thick layer of
decomposing organic matter covers the ground. The process of leaching in soil formation is
dependent upon increased precipitation over potential evapotranspiration.

Living Organisms have a pivotal role in a number of processes involved in the formation of soil
including organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling. Under
equilibrium conditions, vegetation and soil are closely linked with each other through nutrient
cycling. The cycling of nitrogen and carbon in soils is almost completely controlled by the presence of
animals and plants. Through litter fall and the process of decomposition, organisms add humus and
nutrients to the soil which influences soil structure and fertility. Surface vegetation also protects the
upper layers of a soil from erosion by its binding effect. Burrowing of animals mixes up the top and
bottom soils. Water infiltrates easily into the soil speeding deep chemical weathering of the parent
material. Human beings influence soil formation by their varied activities which include: irrigation,
fire setting, tillage, mining, urbanization.

Parent Material refers to the rock and mineral materials from which the soils develop. Parent
material results from geological processes operating within and on the earth’s surface.
The nature of the parent material influences the development and characteristics of the soils.
For example, sandy soils originate from a course-grained, quartz-rich parent material like granite or
sandstone. The chemical and mineralogical composition of the parent material influences chemical
weathering and the natural vegetation. Limestone rocks cause the development of soils which are
acidic. Parent material influences the quantity and type of clay minerals present in the soil profile. In
Zimbabwe rocks such as igneous (granite & basalt) and metamorphic (gneiss) are found along the
high veld. Sedimentary such as sandstone are found along the Zambezi Valley and the Limpopo
Valley producing soils with free drainage and course-texture. Thus, it is the parent rock that
determines the soil texture colour and fertility.

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Topography generally modifies the development of soil on a local scale (micro-ecosystem).
Topography, according to Brady and Weil (1999), is the configuration of the land surface which is
characterised by the different elevations, slope angles, and the position of landscape.
That is the layout of the land’s surface. Soils on steep slopes have shallow and poorly developed soil
profiles. Soils on hill slopes are well drained and the valley bottoms are prone to gleying. Relief
encourages the development of a ‘soil catena’ which is the sequential variation of soils from the top
of a hill to the valley bottom (Nagle, 2000).

Time gives the relative age of the soils. It takes about 1000 years for one centimetre of soil to form.
It is stated by Nagle (2000) that it takes thousands of years for soil to develop a depth of 30cm. The
processes involved in soil formation take time in their operations. The formation of distinct soil
horizons require different time periods.
The time taken in soil formation varies from a decades to centuries. In Zimbabwe the soils are
relatively young despite the presence of some old geomorphic surfaces. Old aged and highly leached
soils can be found in the eastern Highlands. The time taken in soil formation depends upon the rock
type. For example it takes less time for sand soils to develop from sandstones than granite and
basalt (Nagle, 2000

A large number of processes are responsible for the formation of soils. These processes are
laterization, podzolization, calcification, salinization, and gleization.

Laterization is a pedogenic process common to soils found in tropical and subtropical environments.
High temperatures and heavy precipitation result in the rapid weathering of and minerals.
Movements of large amounts of water through the soil cause eluviation and leaching to occur.
Almost all of the by-products of weathering, very simple small compounds nutrient ions, are
translocated out of the soil profile by leaching if not taken up by plants for nutrition. The two
exceptions to this process are iron and aluminum compounds. Iron oxides give tropical soils their
unique reddish coloring. Heavy leaching also causes these soils to an acidic pH because of the net
loss of basecations.

Calcification occurs when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation causing the upward movement
of dissolved alkaline salts from the groundwater. At the same time, the movement rain water causes
a downward movement of the salts. The net result is the deposition of the translocated cations in
the B horizon. In some cases, these deposits can form a hard layer caliche. The most common
substance involved in this process is calcium carbonate. Calcification is common in the prairie
grasslands.

Salinization is a process that functions in the similar way to calcification. It differs from calcification
in that the salt deposits occur at or very near the soil surface. Salinization also place in much drier
climates.

Gleization is a pedogenic process associated with poor drainage. This process involves the
accumulations of organic matter in the upper layers of the soil. In lower horizons, mineral layers are
stained blue-grey because of the chemical reduction of iron.

The soil profile

Soil profile is the vertical cross section through the soil showing its horizons from the humus layer to
the parent rock. It shows different layers of material that are called horizons.

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Humus layer ‐ The top layer of soil, composed primarily of organic matter, fine texture and it is dark
in colour.

Top soil ‐ comprise of microorganisms, nutrients, moisture for plant growth, plant roots. It is dark in
colour and well aerated. It is where plants grow, leached layer and have fine particles.

Sub soil ‐ contains mineral deposits that have settled down from upper layers. It have plant
nutrients. There are few tree roots. It have large particles and lighter in colour.

Partially weathered rock ‐ have large particles and broken rock pieces.

Parent rock- refers to the unconsolidated rock or solid bedrock of this layer.

HUMUS LAYER

TOP SOIL

SUBSOIL

PARTIALLY WEATHERED ROCK

PARENT ROCK

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Soil types and examples

Zonal soils

These are classified on a global scale and have climate as the major determining factor. They are
mature, have distinct profiles and clear horizons.

Azonal soils

Far more recent, and soil forming processes have not been in operation for long. Horizons are
unclear and they are not linked with climate and vegetation. Their immaturity is a result of high
altitudes, low temperatures and slow decay of organic matter. Examples include scree, till and
volcanic soil.

Intrazonal soils

Soils found within the climate belt are different from normal, they are a result of a dominant local
factor, for example, parent rock. Three types exist:

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 Glossary of terms

Humus-organic matter that has reached a point of stability.

Leaching-removal of nutrients from the top soil to deeper horizon.

Soil-the uppermost layer of earth’s crust, which supports growth of plants.

Soil profile is the vertical cross section through the soil showing its horizons from the humus layer
to the parent rock.

Soil texture-coarseness or fineness of a soil.

Soil porosity –volume pores or empty spaces between particles of soil material.

Soil structure -the arrangement of soil particles.

Topography-layout or configuration of the land surface.

REVISION EXERCISES

Multiple choice

1------ is the upper moist layer of the earth that supports plants and animal life

A air B vulcanicity C water D soil

2 The following are components of the soil except

A water B air C coal D organic matter

3 Soil is in three states of matter: These are

A liquid, solid, gas B air, water, oxygen C tropical rainforest, tropical continental and tropical desert D
texture, structure and colour

4 ------ is one of the factors that lead to the development of soil

A eluviation B climate C leaching D electro-magnetic spectrum

5Which of the following soils compromise of finer particles

A clay B sand C loam D red

6 ------ soil has course grains

A clay B sand C dark D red

7------- is the vertical section through the soil

A soil texture B soil structure C soil profile D soil porosity

8 The accumulation of organic matter in the upper layers of the soil is called

A gleyzation B latosolisation C podsolization D leaching

9 ------ soils are mature soil with distinct profiles

A intrazonal B azonal C zonal D skeleton

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10 The conservation or fines of the roll particles is called

A soil structure B soil texture C soil pedogenesis

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