INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

Course Title PYTHON PROGRAMMING

Course Code ACSC01

Program B.Tech
I Semester: AERO | MECH | CIVIL
Semester II Semester: CSE | CSE (AI & ML) | CSE (DS) | CSE (CS) | CSIT |
ECE | EEE | IT
Course Type Core

Regulation UG20

Theory Practical

Course Structure Lectures Tutorials Credits Laboratory Credits

3 0 3 3 1.5

Course Coordinator Ms. B Padmaja, Assistant Professor

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

The students will try to learn:

I The fundamentals of core Python programming.

II The in-depth understanding of branching and loop control structures in Python
programming.
III The use of list, tuple, set and dictionary in problem solving.

IV Develop the ability to write modular programming using object oriented concepts.
V Enhance programming skills to choose multiple career paths and engage in lifelong
learning.
COURSE OUTCOMES:

After successful completion of the course, students will be able to:

Knowledge
N
Level (Bloom‟s
Course Outcomes
Taxonomy)
CO 1 Understand operators, precedence of operators, associativity while Understand
evaluating expressions in program statements.
CO 2 Visualize the capabilities of procedural as well as object-oriented Understand
programming in Python and demonstrate the same in real world
scenario.
CO 3 Demonstrate indexing and slicing mechanisms for extracting a portion Apply
of data in a sequence.
CO 4 Understand native data types like list, set, tuple, dictionary use them in Understand
data processing applications.
CO 5 Compare and contrast mutable and immutable objects and understand Understand
the state change of objects during runtime.
CO 6 Understand passing of parameters and arguments in functions to do Understand
modular programming.
CO 7 Understand the concepts of inheritance and polymorphism for code Understand
reusability and extensibility.
CO 8 Make use of appropriate modules for solving real-time problems. Apply
CO 9 Apply string handling mechanisms to do automated memory Apply
management and reduce out-of-bounds accesses.
CO 10 Extend the knowledge of Python programming to build successful Understand
career in software development.
At the end of the unit students are able to:

Knowledge Level
Course Outcomes (Bloom‟s
Taxonomy)
CO 1 Understand operators, precedence of operators, associativity Understand
while evaluating expressions in program statements.
CO 2 Visualize the capabilities of procedural as well as object- Understand
oriented programming in Python and demonstrate the same in
real world scenario.
 MODULE – I
INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON

Introduction to Python:
Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language.
Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as
other languages use punctuation, and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other
languages.
 Python is Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do not
need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL andPHP.
 Python is Interactive: You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the
interpreter directly to write yourprograms.
 Python is Object-Oriented: Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of
programming that encapsulates code withinobjects.
 Python is a Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the beginner-level
programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications from
simple text processing to WWW browsers togames.

Features of Python
Python's features include:
 Easy-to-learn: Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows the student to pick up the languagequickly.
 Easy-to-read: Python code is more clearly defined and visible to theeyes.
 Easy-to-maintain: Python's source code is fairlyeasy-to-maintain.
 A broad standard library: Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, andMacintosh.
 Interactive Mode: Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets ofcode.
 Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same
interface on allplatforms.
 Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules
enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be moreefficient.
 Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercialdatabases.
 GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created and ported
to many system calls, libraries, and windows systems, such as Windows MFC,
Macintosh, and the X Window system ofUNIX.
 Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell
scripting.
History of Python
 Python was developed by Guido van Rossumin the late
eighties and early nineties at the National Research Institute
for Mathematics and Computer Science in theNetherlands.
 Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC,
Modula-3, C, C++, Algol-68, SmallTalk, Unix shell, and other
scriptinglanguages.
 At the time when he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading
the published scripts from "Monty Python's Flying Circus" (a BBC comedy series
from the seventies, in the unlikely case you didn't know). It occurred to him that he
needed a name that was short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he decided to call
the language Python.
 Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although Guido
van Rossumstill holds a vital role in directing itsprogress.
 Python 1.0 was released on 20 February,1991.
 Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000 and had many major new features,
including a cycle detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode. With this
release the development process was changed and became more transparent and
community- backed.
 Python 3.0 (which early in its development was commonly referred to as Python 3000
or py3k), a major, backwards-incompatible release, was released on 3 December 2008
after a long period of testing. Many of its major features have been back ported to the
backwards-compatible Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x versionseries.
 In January 2017 Google announced work on a Python 2.7 to go transcompiler, which
The Register speculated was in response to Python 2.7's plannedend-of-life.

Need of Python Programming

 Softwarequality
Python code is designed to be readable, and hence reusable and
maintainable— much more so than traditional scripting languages. The uniformity of
Python code makes it easy to understand, even if you did not write it. In addition,
Python has deep support for more advanced software reuse mechanisms, such as
object-oriented (OO) and functionprogramming.
 Developerproductivity
Python boosts developer productivity many times beyond compiled or
statically typed languages such as C, C++, and Java. Python code is typically one-third
to less to debug, and less to maintain after the fact. Python programs also run
immediately, without the lengthy compile and link steps required by some other tools,
further boosting programmer speed. Program portability Most Python programs run
unchanged on all major computer platforms. Porting Python code between Linux and
Windows, for example, is usually just a matter of copying a script‗s code between
machines.
 Support libraries
Python comes with a large collection of prebuilt and portable functionality,
known as the standard library. This library supports an array of application-level
programming tasks, from text pattern matching to network scripting. In addition,
Python can be extended with both home grown libraries and a vast collection of third-
party application support software. Python‗s third-party domain offers tools for
website construction, numeric programming, serial port access, game development,
and much more (see ahead for asampling).
 Component integration
Python scripts can easily communicate with other parts of an application, using
a variety of integration mechanisms. Such integrations allow Python to be used as a
product customization and extension tool. Today, Python code can invoke C and C++
libraries, can be called from C and C++ programs, can integrate with Java and .NET
components, can communicate over frameworks such as COM and Silverlight, can
interface with devices over serial ports, and can interact over networks with interfaces
like SOAP, XML-RPC, and CORBA. It is not a standalonetool.
 Enjoyment
Because of Python‗s ease of use and built-in toolset, it can make the act of
programming more pleasure than chore. Although this may be an intangible benefit,
its effect on productivity is an important asset. Of these factors, the first two (quality
and productivity) are probably the most compelling benefits to most Python users, and
merit a fullerdescription.
 It's Object-Oriented
Python is an object-oriented language, from the ground up. Its class model
supports advanced notions such as polymorphism, operator overloading, and multiple
inheritance; yet in the context of Python's dynamic typing, object-oriented
programming (OOP) is remarkably easy to apply. Python's OOP nature makes it ideal
as a scripting tool for object-oriented systems languages such as C++ and Java. For
example, Python programs can subclass (specialized) classes implemented in C++ or
Java.
 It's Free
Python is freeware—something which has lately been come to be called open
source software. As with Tcl and Perl, you can get the entire system for free over the
Internet. There are no restrictions on copying it, embedding it in your systems, or
shipping it with your products. In fact, you can even sell Python, if you're so inclined.
But don't get the wrong idea: "free" doesn't mean "unsupported". On the contrary, the
Python online community responds to user queries with a speed that most commercial
software vendors would do well tonotice.
 It's Portable
Python is written in portable ANSI C, and compiles and runs on virtually every
major platform in use today. For example, it runs on UNIX systems, Linux, MS-DOS,
MS-Windows (95, 98, NT), Macintosh, Amiga, Be-OS, OS/2, VMS, QNX, and more.
 Further, Python programs are automatically compiled to portable bytecode, which runs
the same on any platform with a compatible version of Python installed (more on this
in the section "It's easy to use"). What that means is that Python programs that use the
core language run the same on UNIX, MS-Windows, and any other system with a
Python interpreter.

 It's Powerful
From a features perspective, Python is something of a hybrid. Its tool set places
it between traditional scripting languages (such as Tcl, Scheme, and Perl), and systems
languages (such as C, C++, and Java). Python provides all the simplicity and ease of
use of a scripting language, along with more advanced programming tools typically
found in systems development languages.
 Automatic memorymanagement
Python automatically allocates and reclaims ("garbage collects") objects when
no longer used, and most grow and shrink on demand; Python, not you, keeps track of
low- level memory details.
 Programming-in-the-large support
Finally, for building larger systems, Python includes tools such as modules,
classes, and exceptions; they allow you to organize systems into components, do OOP,
and handle events gracefully.
 It's Mixable
Python programs can be easily "glued" to components written in other
languages. In technical terms, by employing the Python/C integration APIs, Python
programs can be both extended by (called to) components written in C or C++, and
embedded in (called by) C or C++ programs. That means you can add functionality to
the Python system as needed and use Python programs within other environments or
systems.
 It's Easy to Use
For many, Python's combination of rapid turnaround and language simplicity
make programming more fun than work. To run a Python program, you simply type it
and run it. There are no intermediate compile and link steps (as when using languages
such as C or C++). As with other interpreted languages, Python executes programs
immediately, which makes for both an interactive programming experience and rapid
turnaround after program changes. Strictly speaking, Python programs are compiled
(translated) to an intermediate form called bytecode, which is then run by
theinterpreter.
 It's Easy to Learn
This brings us to the topic of this book: compared to other programming
languages, the core Python language is amazingly easy to learn. In fact In fact, you can
expect to be coding significant Python programs in a matter of days (and perhaps in
just hours, if you're already an experienced programmer).
 Internet Scripting
Python comes with standard Internet utility modules that allow Python
 programs to communicate over sockets, extract form information sent to a server-side
CGI script, parse HTML, transfer files by FTP, process XML files, and much more.
There are also a number of peripheral tools for doing Internet programming in Python.
For instance, the HTMLGen and pythondoc systems generate HTML files from
Python class-based descriptions, and the JPython system mentioned above provides
for seamless Python/Javaintegration.
 Database Programming
Python's standard pickle module provides a simple object-persistence system: it
allows programs to easily save and restore entire Python objects to files. For more
traditional database demands, there are Python interfaces to Sybase, Oracle, Informix,
ODBC, and more. There is even a portable SQL database API for Python that runs the
same on a variety of underlying database systems, and a system named gadfly that
implements an SQL database for Python programs.
 Image Processing, AI, Distributed Objects,Etc.
Python is commonly applied in more domains than can be mentioned here. But
in general, many are just instances of Python's component integration role in action.
By adding Python as a frontend to libraries of components written in a compiled
language such as C, Python becomes useful for scripting in a variety of domains. For
instance, image processing for Python is implemented as a set of library components
implemented in a compiled language such as C, along with a Python frontend layer on
top used to configure and launch the compiled components.

Who Uses Python Today?

1. Google makes extensive use of Python in its web searchsystems.
2. The popular YouTube video sharing service is largely written inPython.
3. The Dropbox storage service codes both its server and desktop client software
primarily in Python.
4. The Raspberry Pi single-board computer promotes Python as its educationallanguage.
5. The widespread BitTorrent peer-to-peer file sharing system began its life as a Python
program.
6. Google‗s App Engine web development framework uses Python as an application
language.
7. Maya, a powerful integrated 3D modeling and animation system, provides a Python
scriptingAPI.
8. Intel, Cisco, Hewlett-Packard, Seagate, Qualcomm, and IBM use Python for
hardware testing.
9. NASA, Los Alamos, Fermilab, JPL, and others use Python for scientific
programming tasks.
Byte code Compilation:
Python first compiles your source code (the statements in your file) into a format
known as byte code. Compilation is simply a translation step, and byte code is a lower-
level, platform independent representation of your source code. Roughly, Python translates
each of your source statements into a group of byte code instructions by decomposing
them into individual steps. This byte code translation is performed to speed execution —
byte code can be run much more quickly than the original source code statements in your
textfile.

The Python Virtual Machine:

Once your program has been compiled to byte code (or the byte code has been
loaded from existing .pycfile), it is shipped off for execution to something generally known
as the python virtual machine (PVM).

Applications of Python:

1. SystemsPro
gramming
2. GUIs
3. InternetScripting
4. ComponentIntegration
5. DatabaseProgramming
6. RapidPrototyping
7. Numeric and ScientificProgramming

What Are Python‟s Technical Strengths?

1. It‗s Object-Oriented andFunctional
2. It‗sFree
3. It‗sPortable
4. It‗sPowerful
5. It‗sMixable
6. It‗s Relatively Easy toUse
7. It‗s Relatively Easy toLearn

Working with Python:

a. Running PythonInterpreter:
Python comes with an interactive interpreter. When you type python in your shell or
command prompt, the python interpreter becomes active with a >>>prompt and waits for
yourcommands.
 Now you can type any valid python expression at the prompt. Python reads the
typed expression, evaluates it and prints the result.

b. Running Python Scripts inIDLE:

 GotoFile menu click on New File (CTRL+N) and write the code and save
add.py a=input("Enter a value")
b=input("Enter b value
") c=a+b
print "The sum is",c
 And run the program by pressing F5 or RunRunModule.
c. Running python scripts in CommandPrompt:
 Before going to run we have to check the PATH in environmentvariables.
 Open your text editor, type the following text and save it ashello.py.
print "hello"

 And run this program by calling python hello.py. Make sure you change to the directory
where you saved the file before doingit.

Identifiers and Keywords

Variables:
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that
when you create a variable you reserve some space in memory.
Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides
what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to
variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these variables.

Assigning Values to Variables

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The
declaration happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign (=)
is used to assign values tovariables.
The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the operand to
the right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable. For example –
Multiple Assignments to variables:
Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously.
For example –
a=b=c=1
Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are assigned to
the same memory location. You can also assign multiple objects to multiple variables.
For example –
a, b, c = 1, 2.5, ”mothi”
Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b respectively, and
one string object with the value "john" is assigned to the variable c.

KEYWORDS
The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved words and you
cannot use them as constant or variable or any other identifier names. All the Python keywords
contain lowercase letters only.

COMMENTS

Comments are the non-executable statements explain what the program does. For large
programs it often difficult to understand what is does. The comment can be added in the
program code with the symbol # and multiple line comment code with symbol ‗‘‘ ‗‘‘ or ―‖‖
―‖‖

Example:

print ‗Hello, World!‘ # print the message Hello, World!; comment

v=5 # creates the variable v and assign the value 5; comment
Indentation and Multi-lining
Code blocks are identified by indentation rather than using symbols like curly braces.
Without extra symbols, programs are easier to read. Also, indentation clearly identifies which
block of code a statement belongs to. Of course, code blocks can consist of single statements,
too. When one is new to Python, indentation may come as a surprise. Humans generally prefer
to avoid change, so perhaps after many years of coding with brace delimitation, the first
impression of using pure indentation may not be completely positive. However, recall that two
of Python's features are that it is simplistic in nature and easy toread.

Python does not support braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function
definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation. All the continuous
lines indented with same number of spaces would form a block. Python strictly follow
indentation rules to indicate the blocks.
Data Types:
The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is
stored as a numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python
has various standard data types that are used to define the operations possible on them and the
storage method for each of them.
Python has five standard data types:
 Numbers
 String
 Boolean
 List
 Tuple
 Set
 Dictionary
Python Numbers:
Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when you assign
a value to them.
Python supports four different numerical types:
 int (signedintegers)
 long (long integers, they can also be represented in octal andhexadecimal)
 float (floating point real values)
 complex (complexnumbers)
Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that you use
only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays long integers
with an uppercase L.
A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers denoted
by x + yj, where x is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number.
 For example:

Program:
a=3
b = 2.65
c = 98657412345L
d = 2+5j
print "intis",a
print "float is",b
print "long is",c
print "complex is",d
Output:
int is 3
float is 2.65
long is 98657412345
complex is (2+5j)

Python Strings:
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the
quotation marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double quotes. Subsets of strings
can be taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning
of the string and working their way from -1 at theend.
The plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is the
repetition operator. For example:
Program:
str ="WELCOME"
print str # Prints complete string
print str[0] # Prints first character of the string
print str[2:5] # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th
print str[2:] # Prints string starting from 3rd character
print str * 2 # Prints string two times
print str + "CSE" # Prints concatenated string
Output:
WELCOME
W
LCO
LCOME
WELCOMEWELCOME
WELCOMECSE
Built-in String methods for Strings:

SNO Method Name Description

1 capitalize() Capitalizes first letter of string.
Returns a space-padded string with the original
2 center(width, fillchar)
string centered to a total of width columns.
Counts how many times str occurs in string or in a
count(str, beg=
3 substring of string if starting index beg and ending
0,end=len(string))
index end are given.
Decodes the string using the codec registered for
decode(encoding='UTF-
4 encoding. Encoding defaults to the default string
8',errors='strict')
encoding.
Returns encoded string version of string; on error,
encode(encoding='UTF-
5 default is to raise a Value Error unless errors is
8',errors='strict')
given with 'ignore' or 'replace'.
Determines if string or a substring of string (if
endswith(suffix, beg=0, starting index beg and ending index end are given)
6
end=len(string)) ends with suffix; returns true if so and false
otherwise.
Expands tabs in string to multiple spaces; defaults
7 expandtabs(tabsize=8)
to 8 spaces per tab if tabsize not provided.
Determine if str occurs in string or in a substring of
find(str, beg=0
8 string if starting index beg and ending index end are
end=len(string))
given returns index if found and -1 otherwise.
index(str, beg=0, Same as find(), but raises an exception if str not
9
end=len(string)) found.
Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all
10 isalnum()
characters are alphanumeric and false otherwise.
Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all
11 isalpha()
characters are alphabetic and false otherwise.
Returns true if string contains only digits and false
12 isdigit()
otherwise.
Returns true if string has at least 1 cased character
13 islower() and all cased characters are in lowercase and false
otherwise.
Returns true if a unicode string contains only
14 isnumeric()
numeric characters and false otherwise.
Returns true if string contains only whitespace
15 isspace()
characters and false otherwise.
Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and
16 istitle()
false otherwise.
Returns true if string has at least one cased
17 isupper() character and all cased characters are in uppercase
and false otherwise.
Merges (concatenates) the string representations of
18 join(seq) elements in sequence seq into a string, with
separator string.
19 len(string) Returns the length of the string.
Returns a space-padded string with theoriginal
20 ljust(width[, fillchar])
string left-justified to a total of widthcolumns.
 Converts all uppercase letters in string to
21 lower()
lowercase.
22 lstrip() Removes all leading whitespace in string.
Returns a translation table to be used in translates
23 maketrans()
function.
Returns the max alphabetical character from the
24 max(str)
string str.
Returns min alphabetical character from the string
25 min(str)
str.
Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new
26 replace(old, new [, max])
or at most max occurrences if max given.
rfind(str,
27 Same as find(), but search backwards in string.
beg=0,end=len(string))
rindex( str, beg=0,
28 Same as index(), but search backwards in string.
end=len(string))
Returns a space-padded string with the original
29 rjust(width,[, fillchar])
string right-justified to a total of width columns.
30 rstrip() Removes all trailing whitespace of string.
Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not
split(str="",
31 provided) and returns list of substrings; split into at
num=string.count(str))
most num substrings if given.
splitlines ( Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns
32
num=string.count('\n')) a list of each line with NEWLINEs removed.
Determines if string or a substring of string (if
startswith(str, starting index beg and ending index end are given)
33
beg=0,end=len(string)) starts with substring str; returns true if so and false
otherwise.
34 strip([chars]) Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string.
35 swapcase() Inverts case for all letters in string.
Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all
36 title() words begin with uppercase and the rest are
lowercase.
translate(table, Translates string according to translation table
37
deletechars="") str(256 chars), removing those in the del string.
38 upper() Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.
Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a
39 zfill (width) total of width characters; intended for numbers,
zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).
Returns true if a unicode string contains only
40 isdecimal()
decimal characters and false otherwise.

Example:
str1="welcome"
print "Capitalize function---",str1.capitalize()
print str1.center(15,"*")
print "length is",len(str1)
print "count function---",str1.count('e',0,len(str1))
print "endswith function---",str1.endswith('me',0,len(str1))
print "startswith function---",str1.startswith('me',0,len(str1))
print "find function---",str1.find('e',0,len(str1))
 str2="welcome2017"
print "isalnum function---",str2.isalnum()
print "isalpha function---",str2.isalpha()
print "islower function---",str2.islower()
print "isupper function---",str2.isupper()
str3=" welcome"
print "lstrip function---",str3.lstrip()
str4="77777777cse777777";
print "lstrip function---",str4.lstrip('7')
print "rstrip function---",str4.rstrip('7')
print "strip function---",str4.strip('7')
str5="welcome to java"
print "replace function---",str5.replace("java","python")
Output:
Capitalize function--- Welcome
****welcome****
length is 7
count function--- 2
endswith function--- True
startswith function--- False
find function--- 1
isalnum function--- True
isalpha function--- False
islower function--- True
isupper function--- False
lstrip function--- welcome
lstrip function--- cse777777
rstrip function--- 77777777cse
strip function--- cse
replace function--- welcome to python

Python Boolean:
Booleans are identified by True or False.
Example:
Program:
a = True
b = False
print a
print b
Output:
True
False
Data Type Conversion:
Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To
convert between types, you simply use the type name as a function. For example, it is not
possible to perform ―2‖+4 since one operand is integer and the other is string type. To
perform this we have convert string to integer i.e., int(“2”) + 4 =6.
There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to
another. These functions return a new object representing the converted value.

Function Description
int(x [,base]) Converts x to an integer.
long(x [,base] ) Converts x to a long integer.
float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number.
complex(real [,imag]) Creates a complex number.
str(x) Converts object x to a string representation.
repr(x) Converts object x to an expression string.
eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object.
tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple.
list(s) Converts s to a list.
set(s) Converts s to a set.
dict(d) Creates a dictionary, d must be a sequence of (key, value) tuples.
frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set.
chr(x) Converts an integer to a character.
unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.
ord(x) Converts a single character to its integer value.
hex(x) Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string.
oct(x) Converts an integer to an octal string.

Operators and Expressions

Python language supports Operators and Expressions the following types of operators.
 ArithmeticOperators +, -, *, /, %, **, //
 Comparison(Relational)Operators = =, ! =, <>, <, >, <=,>=
 AssignmentOperators =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, **=,//=
 LogicalOperators and, or, not
 BitwiseOperators &, |, ^, ~,<<, >>
 MembershipOperators in, notin
 IdentityOperators is, is not

Arithmetic Operators:
Some basic arithmetic operators are +, -, *, /, %, **, and //. You can apply these
operators on numbers as well as variables to perform corresponding operations.
 Operator Description Example
+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 30
Subtracts right hand operand from left hand
- Subtraction a – b = -10
operand.
* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 200
Divides left hand operand by right hand
/ Division b/a=2
operand
Divides left hand operand by right hand
% Modulus b%a=0
operand and returns remainder
Performs exponential (power) calculation on a**b =10 to
** Exponent
operators the power 20
The division of operands where the result is
9//2 = 4 and
// Floor Division the quotient in which the digits after the
9.0//2.0 = 4.0
decimal point are removed.
Program:
a =21
b =10
print "Addition is", a + b
print "Subtraction is ", a - b
print "Multiplication is ", a * b
print "Division is ", a / b
print "Modulus is ", a % b
a =2
b =3
print "Power value is ", a ** b
a = 10
b=4
print "Floor Division is ", a // b

Output:
Addition is 31
Subtraction is 11
Multiplication is 210
Division is2
Modulus is 1
Power value is 8
Floor Division is2
Comparison (Relational) Operators
These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation
among them. They are also called Relational operators.
Operator Description Example
If the values of two operands are equal, then the
== (a == b) is not true.
condition becomes true.
If values of two operands are not equal, then
!= (a != b) is true.
condition becomes true.
(a <> b) is true. This
If values of two operands are not equal, then
<> is similar to !=
condition becomes true.
operator.
If the value of left operand is greater than the value
> (a > b) is not true.
of right operand, then condition becomes true.
If the value of left operand is less than the value of
< (a < b) is true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
If the value of left operand is greater than or equal
>= to the value of right operand, then condition (a >= b) is not true.
becomes true.
If the value of left operand is less than or equal to
<= the value of right operand, then condition becomes (a <= b) is true.
true.

Example:
a=20
b=30
if a < b:
print "b is big"
elif a > b:
print "a is big"
else:
print "Both are equal"

Output:

b is big
Assignment Operators

Operator Description Example

Assigns values from right side operands to c = a + b assigns
=
left side operand value of a + b into c
+= It adds right operand to the left operand and c += a is equivalent
Add AND assign the result to left operand to c = c + a
-= It subtracts right operand from the left c -= a is equivalent
Subtract AND operand and assign the result to left operand to c = c - a
*= It multiplies right operand with the left c *= a is equivalent
Multiply AND operand and assign the result to left operand to c = c * a
/= It divides left operand with the right c /= a is equivalent
Divide AND operand and assign the result to left operand to c = c / a
c %= a is
%= It takes modulus using two operands and
equivalent to c = c
Modulus AND assign the result to left operand
%a
Performs exponential (power) calculation c **= a is
**=
on operators and assign value to the left equivalent to c = c
Exponent AND
operand ** a
//= It performs floor division on operators and c //= a is equivalent
Floor Division assign value to the left operand to c = c // a
Example:
a=82
b=27
a += b
print a
a=25
b=12
a -= b
print a
a=24
b=4
a *= b
print a
a=4
b=6
a **= b
print a
Output:
109
13
96
4096
Logical Operators

Operator Description Example

And If both the operands are true then condition (a and b) is
Logical AND becomes true. true.
Or If any of the two operands are non-zero then
(a or b) is true.
Logical OR condition becomes true.
not Not (a and b) is
Used to reverse the logical state of its operand.
Logical NOT false.

Example:
a=20
b=10
c=30
if a >= b and a >= c:
print "a isbig"
elif b >= a and b >= c:
print "b isbig"
else:
print "c is big"
Output:
c is big
Bitwise Operators

Operator Description Example

Operator copies a bit to the
& (a & b) = 12 (means
result if it exists in both
Binary AND 0000 1100)
operands.
| It copies a bit if it exists in either (a | b) = 61
Binary OR operand. (means 0011 1101)
^ It copies the bit if it is set in one (a ^ b) = 49 (means
Binary XOR operand but not both. 0011 0001)
(~a ) = -61 (means 1100 0011
~
It is unary and has the effect of in 2's complement form due to
Binary Ones
'flipping' bits. a signed binary number.
Complement

The left operands value is moved

<< a << 2 = 240
left by the number of bits
Binary Left Shift (means 1111 0000)
specified by the rightoperand.
The left operands value is
>> moved right by the number of a >> 2 = 15
Binary Right Shift bits specified by the right (means 0000 1111)
operand.
Membership Operators
Python‟s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings,
lists, or tuples.
Operator Description Example

Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the x in y, here in results in a 1 if

in
specified sequence and falseotherwise. x is a member of sequence y.
Evaluates to true if it does not finds a x not in y, here not in results
not in variable in the specified sequence and in a 1 if x is not a member of
false otherwise. sequence y.
Example:
a=3
list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
if ( a in list ):
print "available"
else:
print " not available"
Output:
available
Identity Operators
Identity operators compare the memory locations of two
objects.
Operator Description Example
Evaluates to true if the variables on
x is y, here is results in 1 if
is either side of the operator point to the
id(x) equals id(y).
same object and false otherwise.
Evaluates to false if the variables on x is not y, here is not results
is not either side of the operator point to the in 1 if id(x) is not equal to
same object and true otherwise. id(y).
Example:
a =20
b =20
if ( a is b ):
print "Line 1 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 1 - a and b do not have same identity"
if ( id(a) == id(b) ):
print "Line 2 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 2 - a and b do not have same identity"
Output:
Line 1 - a and b have same identity
Line 2 - a and b have same identity
Python Operators Precedence
The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest.
Operator Description
() Parenthesis
** Exponentiation (raise to the power)
~ x, +x,-x Complement, unary plus and minus
* / % // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division
+- Addition and subtraction
>><< Right and left bitwise shift
& Bitwise 'AND'
^| Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'
<= <>>= Comparison operators
<> == != Equality operators
= %= /= //= -= += *= **= Assignment operators
is is not Identity operators
in not in Membership operators
not or and Logical operators

Expression:
An expression is a combination of variables constants and operators written according
to the syntax of Python language. In Python every expression evaluates to a value i.e., every
expression results in some value of a certain type that can be assigned to a variable. Some
examples of Python expressions are shown in the table given below.

Algebraic Expression Python Expression

axb–c a*b–c
(m + n) (x + y) (m + n) * (x + y)
(ab / c) a*b/c
3x2 +2x + 1 3*x*x+2*x+1
(x / y) + c x/y+c

Evaluation of Expressions
Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the form
Variable = expression
Variable is any valid C variable name. When the statement is encountered, the
expression is evaluated first and then replaces the previous value of the variable on the left
hand side. All variables used in the expression must be assigned values before evaluation is
attempted.
Example:
a=10
b=22
c=34
 x=a*b+c
y=a-b*c
z=a+b+c*
c-a print
"x=",x
print
"y=",y
print
"z=",z
Output:
x= 254
y=-738
z= 1178

Console Input/output
To get input from the user you can use the input function. When the input function is
called the program stops running the program, prompts the user to enter something at the
keyboard by printing a string called the prompt to the screen, and then waits for the user to
press the Enter key. The user types a string of characters and presses enter. Then the input
function returns that string and Python continues running the program by executing the next
statement after the input statement.
Python provides the function input(). input has an optional parameter, which is the
prompt string.
For example,
 OUTPUT function:
We use the print() function or print keyword to output data to the standard output device
(screen). This function prints the object/string written in function.
The actual syntax of the print() function is
print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)
Here, objects is the value(s) to be printed.
The sep separator is used between the values. It defaults into a space character. After all
values are printed, end is printed. It defaults into a new line ( \n ).

FORMATTING

So far we‘ve encountered two ways of writing values: expression statements and the
print() function. Often you‘ll want more control over the formatting of your output than simply
printing space-separated values. There are several ways to format output.

To use formatted string literals, begin a string with f or F before the opening quotation
mark or triple quotation mark. Inside this string, you can write a Python expression between
{ and } characters that can refer to variables or literal values.
At the end of the unit students are able to:

Knowledge Level
Course Outcomes (Bloom‟s
Taxonomy)
CO 2 Visualize the capabilities of procedural as well as object- Understand
oriented programming in Python and demonstrate the same in
real world scenario.
CO 8 Make use of appropriate modules for solving real-time Apply
problems.
MODULE – II: DECISION CONTROL STATEMENTS
 MODULE – II:
DECISION CONTROL STATEMENTS

Decision Making
Decision making is anticipation of conditions occurring while execution of the
program and specifying actions taken according to the conditions.
Decision structures evaluate multiple expressions which produce True or False as
outcome. You need to determine which action to take and which statements to execute if
outcome is True or False otherwise.
Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in most of
the programming languages:

Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as True,
and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as Falsevalue.

Statement Description
if statements if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more
statements.
if...else statements if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which
executes when the boolean expression is FALSE.
nested if statements You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else if
statement(s).
The if Statement
It is similar to that of other languages. The if statement contains a logical expression
using which data is compared and a decision is made based on the result of the comparison.

Syntax:
if
conditi
First, the on:
condition is tested. If the condition is True, then the statements given after
stateme
colon (:) are executed. We can write one or more statements after colon (:).
nts
Example:
a=10
b=15
if a < b:
print ―B is big‖
print ―B value is‖,b
Output:
B is big
B value is 15
The if ... else statement
An else statement can be combined with an if statement. An else statement contains
the block of code that executes if the conditional expression in the if statement resolves to 0
or a FALSEvalue.
The else statement is an optional statement and there could be at most only one else
statement following if.
Syntax:
if condition:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
Example:
a=48
b=34
if a < b:
print ―B is big‖
print ―B value is‖,b
else:
print ―A is big‖
print ―A value is‖, a
print ―END‖

Output:

A is big
A value is 48
END
Q) Write a program for checking whether the given number is even or not.
Program:
a=input("Enter a value: ")
if a%2==0:
print "a is EVEN number"
else:
print "a is NOT EVEN Number"
Output-1: Output-2:
Enter avalue: 56 Enter a value:27
a isEVENNumber a is NOT EVENNumber
The elifStatement
The elifstatement allows you to check multiple expressions for True and execute a
block of code as soon as one of the conditions evaluates to True.
Similar to the else, the elifstatement is optional. However, unlike else, for which there
can be at most one statement, there can be an arbitrary number of elifstatements following
anif.
Syntax: if condition1:
statement(s)
elifcondition2:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)

Example:
a=20
b=10
c=30
if a >= b and a >= c:
print "a isbig"
elif b >= a and b >= c:
print "b isbig"
else:
print "c is big"

Output:

c is big
Decision Loops
In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is
executed first, followed by the second, and so on. There may be a situation when you need to
execute a block of code several number of times.
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple
times. The following diagram illustrates a loop statement:
Python programming language provides following types of loops to handle looping
requirements.
Loop Type Description
Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is
while loop
TRUE. It tests the condition before executing the loop body.
Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the
for loop
code that manages the loop variable.
nested loops You can use one or more loop inside any another while, for loop.

The while Loop

A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target
statement as long as a given condition is True.
Syntax
The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is:
while expression:
statement(s)

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop
iterates while the condition is true. When the condition becomes false, program control
passes to the line immediately following theloop.
In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character spaces after a
programming construct are considered to be part of a single block of code. Python uses
indentation as its method of grouping statements.
 Example-1: Example-2:
i=1 i=1
while i < 4: while i < 4:
print i print i
i+=1 i+=1
print ―END‖ print ―END‖

Output-1: Output-2:
1 1
END 2
2 3
END END
3
END

Q) Write a program to display factorial of a given number.

Program:

n=input("Enter the number: ")

f=1
while n>0:
f=f*n
n=n-1

Output:
print "Factorial is",f
Enter the number: 5
Factorial is 120
The for loop:
The for loop is useful to iterate over the elements of a sequence. It means, the for loop
can be used to execute a group of statements repeatedly depending upon the number of
elements in the sequence. The for loop can work with sequence like string, list, tuple, range
etc.
The syntax of the for loop is given below:
for var in sequence:
statement (s)

The first element of the sequence is assigned to the variable written after „for‟ and
then the statements are executed. Next, the second element of the sequence is assigned to the
variable and then the statements are executed second time. In this way, for each element of
the sequence, the statements are executed once. So, the for loop is executed as many times as
there are number of elements in thesequence.
Example-1: Example-2:
for i range(1,5): for i range(1,5):
print i print i
print ―END‖ print ―END‖

Output-1: Output-2:
1 1
END 2
2 3
END END
3
END

Example-3: Example-4:

name= "python" for x in range(10,0,-1):

for letter print x,
inname:
Output-3: printletter Output-4:

p 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
y
t
h
o
n

Q) Write a program to display the factorial of given number.

Program:

n=input("Enter the number: ")

f=1for i in range(1,n+1):
f=f*i

print "Factorial is",f

Output:

Enter the number: 5

Factorial is 120
Nested Loop:
It is possible to write one loop inside another loop. For example, we can write a for
loop inside a while loop or a for loop inside another for loop. Such loops are called ―nested
loops‖.
Example-1:
for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,6):
print j,

Example-2: print ""

for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,6):
print "*",

Example-3: print ""

for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,6):

if i==1 or j==1 or i==5 or j==5:

print "*",

else:

print " ",

print""
for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,6):
if i==j:

print"*",

elif i==1 or j==1 or i==5 or j==5:

print"*",

else:
Example-4: print " ",
print""
Example-5: for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,6):
if i==j:

print"$",

elif i==1 or j==1 or i==5 or j==5:

print"*",

else:

print " ",

print""
 Example-6:
for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,4):

if i==1 or j==1 or i==5:

print "*",

else:

print " ",

Example-7: print""
for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,4):
if i==2 and j==1:

print"*",

elif i==4 and j==3:

print"*",

elif i==1 or i==3 or i==5:

print"*",

else:
Example-8: print " ",
forprint""
i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,4):
if i==1 or j==1 or i==3 or i==5:
print "*",

else:

print " ",

Example-9: print""

for i in range(1,6):
for c in range(i,6):
print "",

for j in range(1,i+1):
Example-10: print "*",

forprint ""
i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print j,

print ""
 Example-11:
a=1
for i in range(1,5):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print a,

a=a+1
print ""

1) Write a program for print given number is prime number or not using for loop.
Program: n=input("Enter the n value") count=0

for i in range(2,n):
if n%i==0: count=count+1
break
if count==0:

print "Prime Number" else:

print "Not Prime Number"

Enter n value: 17
Prime Number
Output:
2) WriteaprogramprintFibonacciseriesandsumtheevennumbers.Fibonacciseries

n=input("Enter n value ")

f0=1
f1=2
sum=f1
printf0,f1,
for i inrange(1,n-1):
f2=f0+f1
print f2,
f0=f1
f1=f2
if f2%2==0:
sum+=f2
print "\nThe sum of even Fibonacci numbers is", sum
is 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55
Output:Enter n value 10
1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 The sum of even fibonacci numbers is 44
 3) Write a program to print n prime numbers and display the sum of primenumbers.
Program:
n=input("Enter the range: ")
sum=0
for num in range(1,n+1):
for i in range(2,num): if (num % i)
== 0:

break

else:

print num, sum += num

Output:

Enter the range: 21

1 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
Sum of prime numbers is 78
print "\nSum of prime numbers is",sum
4) Using a for loop, write a program that prints out the decimal equivalents of 1/2, 1/3,
1/4, . . . ,1/10
Program:
for i in range(1,11):
print "Decimal Equivalent of 1/",i,"is",1/float(i)
Output:
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 1 is 1.0
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 2 is 0.5
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 3 is 0.333333333333
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 4 is 0.25
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 5 is 0.2
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 6 is 0.166666666667
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 7 is 0.142857142857
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 8 is 0.125
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 9 is 0.111111111111
Decimal Equivalent of 1/ 10 is 0.1
5) Write a program that takes input from the user until the user enters -1. After display the
sum ofnumbers.

sum=0
while True:
n=input("Enter the number: ")
if n==-1:

break
else:

sum+=n
Program:
Output:
Enter the number: 1
print "The sum is",sum
Enter the number: 5
Enter the number: 6
Enter the number: 7
Enter the number: 8
Enter the number: 1
Enter the number: 5
Enter the number: -1
The sum is 33

6) Write a program to display the followingsequence.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Program:
ch='A'
for j in range(1,27):
print ch,
ch=chr(ord(ch)+1)

7) Write a program to display the following sequence.

A
AB

ABC

ABCD
A B C DE

Program:
 for i in range(1,6):
ch='A'
for j in range(1,i+1):
print ch,
ch=chr(ord(ch)+1)

print ""

Write a program to display the following sequence.

BC
DEF

GHIJ
KLMNO

ch='A'
for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print ch,
ch=chr(ord(ch)+1)

print ""
Program:

8) Write a program that takes input string user and display that string if string contains
at least one Uppercase character, one Lowercase character and onedigit.
Program:
 pwd=input("Enter the password:")
u=False

l=False
d=False
if pwd[i].isupper():
for i in range(0,len(pwd)):
u=True

elifpwd[i].islower():
l=True

elifpwd[i].isdigit():
d=True

Output-1:
Enter the password:"Mothi556"
******Mothi556******
if u==True and l==True and d==True:
Output-2: print pwd.center(20,"*")
Enter the password:"mothilal"
else: Password
Invalid
print "Invalid Password"
9) Write a program to print sum of digits.
Program:
n=input("Enter the number: ")
sum=0
while n>0:
r=n%10

sum+=r
n=n/10
Output:

Enter the number: 123456789

sum
printis"sum
45 is",sum

10) Write a program to print given number is Armstrong or not.

Program:
n=input("Enter the number: ")
sum=0
t=n
r=n%10
whilen>0:
sum+=r*r*r
n=n/10

Output:
ifsum==t:
Enter the number: 153
print "ARMSTRONG"
ARMSTRONG
else:a program to take input string from the user and print that string after
11) Write
removingovals.
print "NOT ARMSTRONG"

st=input("Enter the
string:") st2=""

forifi iinnot
st:in "aeiouAEIOU":
st2=st2+i

Program:
Output:
print st2
Enter the string:"Welcome to you"
Wlcm t y
 MODULE – III: CONTAINER DATA TYPES

At the end of the unit students are able to:

Knowledge Level
Course Outcomes (Bloom‟s
Taxonomy)
CO 3 Demonstrate indexing and slicing mechanisms for extracting a Apply
portion of data in a sequence.
CO 4 Understandnative data types like list, set, tuple, dictionary use Understand
them in data processing applications.
 MODULE – III:

CONTAINER DATA TYPES

Arrays:
An array is an object that stores a group of elements of same datatype.
 Arrays can store only one type of data. It means, we can store only integer type elements
or only float type elements into an array. But we cannot store one integer, one float and
one character type element into the samearray.
 Arrays can increase or decrease their size dynamically. It means, we need not declare the
size of the array. When the elements are added, it will increase its size and when the
elements are removed, it will automatically decrease its size inmemory.
Advantages:
 Arrays are similar to lists. The main difference is that arrays can store only one type of
elements; whereas, lists can store different types of elements. When dealing with a huge
number of elements, arrays use less memory than lists and they offer faster execution than
lists.
 The size of the array is not fixed in python. Hence, we need not specify how many
elements we are going to store into an array in thebeginning.
 Arrays can grow or shrink in memory dynamically (duringruntime).
 Arrays are useful to handle a collection of elements like a group of numbers orcharacters.
 Methods that are useful to process the elements of any array are available in „array‟
module.
Creating an array:
Syntax:

arrayname = array(type code, [elements])

The type code „i‟ represents integer type array where we can store integer numbers. If
the type code is „f‟ then it represents float type array where we can store numbers with
decimal point.

Type code Description Minimum size in bytes

„b‟ Signed integer 1
„B‟ Unsigned integer 1
„i‟ Signed integer 2
„I‟ Unsigned integer 2
„l‟ Signed integer 4
„L‟ Unsigned integer 4
„f‟ Floating point 4
„d‟ Double precision floating point 8
„u‟ Unicode character 2

Example:
The type code character should be written in single quotes. After that the elements
should be written in inside the square braces [ ] as
 a = array ( „i‟, [4,8,-7,1,2,5,9] )
Importing the Array Module:
There are two ways to import the array module into our program.
The first way is to import the entire array module using import statement as,
import array
when we import the array module, we are able to get the „array‟ class of that module that
helps us to create an array.
a = array.array(‘i’, [4,8,-7,1,2,5,9] )
Here the first „array‟ represents the module name and the next „array‟ represents the class
name for which the object is created. We should understand that we are creating our array as
an object of array class.

The next way of importing the array module is to write:

from array import *
Observe the „*‟ symbol that represents „all‟. The meaning of this statement is this: import all
(classes, objects, variables, etc) from the array module into our program. That means
significantlyimportingthe„array‟classof„array‟module.So,thereisnoneedtomentionthe module
name before our array name while creating it. We can create arrayas:
a = array(‘i’, [4,8,-7,1,2,5,9] )
Example:

from array import *

arr = array(„i‟, [4,8,-7,1,2,5,9])
for i in arr:
print i,
Output:
4 8 -7 1 2 5 9
Indexing and slicing of arrays:
An index represents the position number of an element in an array. For example, when
we creating following integer type array:
a = array(‘i’, [10,20,30,40,50] )
Python interpreter allocates 5 blocks of memory, each of 2 bytes size and stores the
elements 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 in these blocks.

10 20 30 40 50
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

Example:
from array import *
a=array('i', [10,20,30,40,50,60,70])
print "length is",len(a)
print " 1st position character", a[1]
print "Characters from 2 to 4", a[2:5]
print "Characters from 2 to end", a[2:]
print "Characters from start to 4",a[:5]
 print "Characters from start to end",a[:]
a[3]=45
a[4]=55
print "Characters from start to end after modifications ",a[:]
Output:
length is 7
1st position character 20
Characters from 2 to 4 array('i', [30, 40, 50])
Characters from 2 to end array('i', [30, 40, 50, 60, 70])
Characters from start to 4 array('i', [10, 20, 30, 40, 50])
Characters from start to end array('i', [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70])
Characters from start to end after modifications array('i', [10, 20, 30, 45, 55, 60, 70])

Array Methods:

Method Description
a.append(x) Adds an element x at the end of the existing array a.
a.count(x) Returns the number of occurrences of x in the array a.
a.extend(x) Appends x at the end of the array a. „x‟ can be another array or
iterable object.
a.fromfile(f,n) Reads n items from from the file object f and appends at the end of
the array a.
a.fromlist(l) Appends items from the l to the end of the array. l can be any list or
iterable object.
a.fromstring(s) Appends items from string s to end of the array a.
a.index(x) Returns the position number of the first occurrence of x in the array.
Raises „ValueError‟ if not found.
a.pop(x) Removes the item x from the array a and returns it.
a.pop( ) Removes last item from the array a
a.remove(x) Removes the first occurrence of x in the array. Raises „ValueError‟
if not found.
a.reverse( ) Reverses the order of elements in the array a.
a.tofile( f ) Writes all elements to the file f.
a.tolist( ) Converts array „a‟ into a list.
a.tostring( ) Converts the array into a string.
1) Write a program to perform stack operations using array.
Program:
import sys
from array import
* a=array('i',[])
print
while "\n1.PUSH 2.POP 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT"
True:
ch=input("Enter Your Choice: ")
if ch==1:

ele=input("Enter element:
") a.append(ele)

print
"Inserted"
elifch==2:

if len(a)==0:

print "\t STACK IS EMPTY"

else:

print "Deleted element is", a.pop(

) elifch==3:

if len(a)==0:

print "\t STACK IS EMPTY"

else:

Output: print "\tThe Elements in Stack is",

for i in a:
1. PUSH 2.POP 3.DISPLAY4.EXIT
Enter Yourprint
Choice:
i, 1
Enter element: 15
elifch==4:
Inserted
1.PUSHsys.exit()
2.POP 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter
else:Your Choice: 1
Enter element: 18
print "\tINVALID CHOICE"
Inserted
1.PUSH 2.POP 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter Your Choice: 3
The Elements in Stack is 15 18
1.PUSH 2.POP 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter Your Choice: 2
Deleted element is 18
2) Write a program to perform queue operations using array.
Program:
import sys

from array import

* a=array('i',[])
print "\n1.INSERT 2.DELETE 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT"
while True:
ch=input("Enter Your Choice: ")
if ch==1:

ele=input("Enter element:
") a.append(ele)

elifch==2:

if len(a)==0:

print "\t QUEUE IS EMPTY"

else:

print "Deleted element is”,

a[0] a.remove(a[0])

elifch==3:

if len(a)==0:

print "\t QUEUE IS EMPTY"

else:

print "\tThe Elements in Queue

is", for i in a:
Output:
print i,
1.INSERT 2.DELETE 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter Yourelifch==4:
Choice: 1
Enter element: 12
sys.exit()
1.INSERT 2.DELETE 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
else:
Enter Your Choice: 1
Enter element: 13 "\tINVALID CHOICE"
print
1.INSERT 2.DELETE 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter Your Choice: 1
Enter element: 14
1.INSERT 2.DELETE 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter Your Choice: 3
The Elements in Queue is 12 13 14
1.INSERT 2.DELETE 3.DISPLAY 4.EXIT
Enter Your Choice: 2
Deleted element is 12
A sequence is a datatype that represents a group of elements. The purpose of any
sequence is to store and process group elements. In python, strings, lists, tuples and
dictionaries are very important sequence datatypes.

LIST:
A list is similar to an array that consists of a group of elements or items. Just like an
array, a list can store elements. But, there is one major difference between an array and a list.
An array can store only one type of elements whereas a list can store different types of
elements. Hence lists are more versatile and useful than an array.
Creating a List:
Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between
square brackets.
student = [556, ―Mothi‖, 84, 96, 84, 75, 84 ]
We can create empty list without any elements by simply writing empty square
brackets as: student=[ ]
We can create a list by embedding the elements inside a pair of square braces []. The
elements in the list should be separated by a comma (,).
Accessing Values in list:
To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain value available at that index. To view the elements of a list as a whole, we
can simply pass the list name to print function.

Ex:
student = [556, ―Mothi‖, 84, 96, 84, 75, 84 ] print
student
print student[0] # Access 0th element
print student[0:2] # Access 0th to 1st elements
print student[2: ] # Access 2nd to end of list elements print
student[ :3] # Access starting to 2nd elements print student[ : ] #
Access starting to ending elements print student[-1] # Access last
index value
print student[-1:-7:-1] # Access elements in reverse order
Output:
[556, ―Mothi‖, 84, 96, 84, 75, 84]
Mothi
[556, ―Mothi‖]
[84, 96, 84, 75, 84]
[556, ―Mothi‖, 84]
 [556, ―Mothi‖, 84, 96, 84, 75, 84]
84
[84, 75, 84, 96, 84, ―Mothi‖]

Creating lists using range() function:

We can use range() function to generate a sequence of integers which can be stored in
a list. To store numbers from 0 to 10 in a list as follows.
numbers = list( range(0,11) )
print numbers # [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
To store even numbers from 0 to 10in a list as follows. numbers =
list( range(0,11,2) )
print numbers # [0,2,4,6,8,10]
Looping on lists:
We can also display list by using for loop (or) while loop. The len( ) function useful
to know the numbers of elements in the list. while loop retrieves starting from 0th to the last
element i.e.n-1
Ex-1:
numbers = [1,2,3,4,5]
for i in numbers:
print i,

Output:
12345

Updating and deleting lists:

Lists are mutable. It means we can modify the contents of a list. We can append,
update or delete the elements of a list depending upon our requirements.
Appending an element means adding an element at the end of the list. To, append a
new element to the list, we should use the append() method.
Example:
lst=[1,2,4,5,8,6]
printlst # [1,2,4,5,8,6]
lst.append(9)
printlst # [1,2,4,5,8,6,9]
Updating an element means changing the value of the element in the list. This can be
done by accessing the specific element using indexing or slicing and assigning a new value.
Example:
lst=[4,7,6,8,9,3]
printlst #[4,7,6,8,9,3]
lst[2]=5 # updates 2nd element in the list
printlst # [4,7,5,8,9,3]
lst[2:5]=10,11,12 # update 2nd element to 4th element in the list
printlst # [4,7,10,11,12,3]
 Deleting an element from the list can be done using ‘del’ statement. The del statement
takes the position number of the element to be deleted.
Example:
lst=[5,7,1,8,9,6]
dellst[3] # delete 3rd element from the list i.e., 8
printlst # [5,7,1,9,6]
If we want to delete entire list, we can give statement like del lst.
Concatenation of Two lists:
Wecansimplyuse„+‟operatorontwoliststojointhem.Forexample,„x‟and„y‟are two lists.
If we wrte x+y, the list „y‟ is joined at the end of the list„x‟.
Example:
x=[10,20,32,15,16]
y=[45,18,78,14,86]
print x+y # [10,20,32,15,16,45,18,78,14,86]
Repetition of Lists:
Wecanrepeattheelementsofalist„n‟numberoftimesusing„*‟operator.
x=[10,54,87,96,45]
print x*2 # [10,54,87,96,45,10,54,87,96,45]
Membership in Lists:
Wecancheckifanelementisamemberofalistbyusing„in‟and„notin‟operator.If the
element is a member of the list, then „in‟ operator returns True otherwise returns False.If the
element is not in the list, then „not in‟ operator returns True otherwise returnsFalse.
Example:
x=[10,20,30,45,55,65] a=20
print ain x # True
a=25
print ain x # False
a=45
print a not in x # False a=40
print a not in x # True
Aliasing and Cloning Lists:
Giving a new name to an existing list is called ‘aliasing’. The new name is called
‘alias name’. To provide a new name to this list, we can simply use assignment operator (=).
Example:
x = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]
y=x # x is aliased asy
printx #[10,20,30,40,50,60]
printy #[10,20,30,40,50,60]
x[1]=90 # modify 1st element in x
printx # [10,90,30,40,50,60]
printy #[10,90,30,40,50,60]
 In this case we are having only one list of elements but with two different names „x‟
and „y‟. Here, „x‟ is the original name and „y‟ is the alias name for the same list. Hence, any
modifications done to x‟ will also modify „y‟ and vice versa.
Obtaining exact copy of an existing object (or list) is called „cloning‟. To Clone a list,
we can take help of the slicing operation [:].
Example:
x = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]
y=x[:] # x is cloned asy
printx #[10,20,30,40,50,60]
printy #[10,20,30,40,50,60]
x[1]=90 # modify 1st element in x
printx # [10,90,30,40,50,60]
printy #[10,20,30,40,50,60]

When we clone a list like this, a separate copy of all the elements is stored into „y‟.
Thelists„x‟and„y‟areindependentlists.Hence,anymodificationsto„x‟willnotaffect„y‟ and
viceversa.
Methods in Lists:
Method Description
lst.index(x) Returns the first occurrence of x in the list.
lst.append(x) Appends x at the end of the list.
lst.insert(i,x) Inserts x to the list in the position specified by i.
lst.copy() Copies all the list elements into a new list and returns it.
lst.extend(lst2) Appends lst2 to list.
lst.count(x) Returns number of occurrences of x in the list.
lst.remove(x) Removes x from the list.
lst.pop() Removes the ending element from the list.
lst.sort() Sorts the elements of list into ascending order.
lst.reverse() Reverses the sequence of elements in the list.
lst.clear() Deletes all elements from the list.
max(lst) Returns biggest element in the list.
min(lst) Returns smallest element in the list.
Example:

lst=[10,25,45,51,45,51,21,65]
lst.insert(1,46)
printlst # [10,46,25,45,51,45,51,21,65]
printlst.count(45) #2

Finding Common Elements in Lists:

Sometimes, it is useful to know which elements are repeated in two lists. For
example, there is a scholarship for which a group of students enrolled in a college. There is
another scholarship for which another group of students got enrolled. Now, we wan to know
the names of the students who enrolled for both the scholarships so that we can restrict them
to take only one scholarship. That means, we are supposed to find out the common students
(or elements) both thelists.
First of all, we should convert the lists into lists into sets, using set( ) function, as:
set(list). Then we should find the common elements in the two sets using intersection()
method.
Example:
scholar1=[ „mothi‟, „sudheer‟, „vinay‟, „narendra‟, „ramakoteswararao‟ ] scholar2=[
„vinay‟, „narendra‟, „ramesh‟]
s1=set(scholar1) s2=set(scholar2)
s3=s1.intersection(s2) common
=list(s3)
printcommon # display [ „vinay‟, „narendra‟]

Nested Lists:
A list within another list is called a nested list. We know that a list contains several
elements. When we take a list as an element in another list, then that list is called a nested list.
Example:
a=[10,20,30]
b=[45,65,a]
printb # display [ 45, 65, [ 10, 20, 30 ] ]
printb[1] # display65
printb[2] # display [ 10, 20, 30 ]
printb[2][0] # display10
print b[2][1] # display 20 print b[2][2]
# display 30 for x in b[2]:
print x, # display 10 2030
 Nested Lists as Matrices:
Suppose we want to create a matrix with 3 rows 3 columns, we should create a list
with 3 other lists as:
mat = [ [ 1, 2, 3 ] , [ 4, 5, 6 ] , [ 7, 8, 9 ] ]
Here, „mat‟ is a list that contains 3 lists which are rows of the „mat‟ list. Each row
contains again 3 elements as:
[ [ 1, 2, 3], # first row
[ 4, 5, 6], # second row
[ 7, 8, 9]] # third row
Example:

mat=[[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]]

for r in mat:
print r

print ""
m=len(mat)
n=len(mat[0])

for i in range(0,m):
for j in range(0,n):

print mat[i][j],
One of the main use of nested lists is that they can be used to represent matrices. A
print ""
matrix represents a group of elements arranged in several rows and columns. In python,
matrices are created
print ""as 2D arrays or using matrix object in numpy. We can also create a
matrix using nested lists.

Q) Write a program to perform addition of two matrices.

a=[[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]] b=[[4,5,6],[7,8,9],[1,2,3]]
c=[[0,0,0],[0,0,0],[0,0,0]]
m1=len(a) n1=len(a[0])
m2=len(b) n2=len(b[0])

for i in range(0,m1):
for j in range(0,n1):
c[i][j]= a[i][j]+b[i][j]
for i in range(0,m1):
for j in range(0,n1):
print "\t",c[i][j],
print ""
 Q) Write a program to perform multiplication of two matrices.
a=[[1,2,3],[4,5,6]]
b=[[4,5],[7,8],[1,2]]
c=[[0,0],[0,0]]
m1=len(a) n1=len(a[0])
m2=len(b) n2=len(b[0])
for i in range(0,m1):
for j in range(0,n2):
for k in range(0,n1):
c[i][j] +=a[i][k]*b[k][j]
for i in range(0,m1):
for j in range(0,n2):
print "\t",c[i][j],
print ""

List Comprehensions:
List comprehensions represent creation of new lists from an iterable object (like a list,
set, tuple, dictionary or range) that satisfy a given condition. List comprehensions contain
very compact code usually a single statement that performs the task.
We want to create a list with squares of integers from 1 to 100. We can write codeas: squares=[ ]
for i in range(1,11):
squares.append(i**2)
The preceding code will create „squares‟ list with the elements as shown below:
[ 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
The previous code can rewritten in a compact way as:
squares=[x**2 for x inrange(1,11)]
This is called list comprehension. From this, we can understand that a list
comprehension consists of square braces containing an expression (i.e., x**2). After the
expression, a fro loop and then zero or more if statements can be written.
[ expression for item1 in iterable if statement1
for item1 in iterable if statement2
for item1 in iterable if statement3…..]

Example:
Even_squares = [ x**2 for x in range(1,11) ifx%2==0]
It will display the list even squares aslist.
[ 4, 16, 36, 64, 100]
 TUPLE:
A Tuple is a python sequence which stores a group of elements or items. Tuples are
similar to lists but the main difference is tuples are immutable whereas lists are mutable.
Once we create a tuple we cannot modify its elements. Hence, we cannot perform operations
like append(), extend(), insert(), remove(), pop() and clear() on tuples. Tuples are generally
used to store data which should not be modified and retrieve that data ondemand.
Creating Tuples:
We can create a tuple by writing elements separated by commas inside parentheses( ).
The elements can be same datatype or different types.
To create an empty tuple, we can simply write empty parenthesis, as: tup=( )
To create a tuple with only one element, we can, mention that element in parenthesis
and after that a comma is needed. In the absence of comma, python treats the element assign
ordinary data type.
tup = (10) tup = (10,)
print tup # display 10 print tup # display 10
print type(tup) # display <type „int‟> print type(tup) # display<type„tuple‟>
To create a tuple with different types of elements:
tup=(10, 20, 31.5, „Gudivada‟)
If we do not mention any brackets and write the elements separating them by comma,
then they are taken by default as a tuple.
tup= 10, 20, 34, 47
It is possible to create a tuple from a list. This is done by converting a list into a tuple
using tuple function.
n=[1,2,3,4]
tp=tuple(n)
printtp # display(1,2,3,4)
Another way to create a tuple by using range( ) function that returns a sequence.
t=tuple(range(2,11,2))
printt # display(2,4,6,8,10)
Accessing the tuple elements:
Accessing the elements from a tuple can be done using indexing or slicing. This is
same as that of a list. Indexing represents the position number of the element in the tuple. The
position starts from 0.
tup=(50,60,70,80,90)
printtup[0] # display50
printtup[1:4] # display(60,70,80)
print tup[-1] # display90
printtup[-1:-4:-1] # display (90,80,70)
printtup[-4:-1] # display(60,70,80)
Updating and deleting elements:
Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update, change or delete the values of
tuple elements.
Example-1:

Example-2:

However, you can always delete the entire tuple by using the statement.

Note that this exception is raised because you are trying print the deleted element.
Operations on tuple:
Operation Description
len(t) Return the length of tuple.
tup1+tup2 Concatenation of two tuples.
Tup*n Repetition of tuple values in n number of times.
x in tup Return True if x is found in tuple otherwise returns False.
cmp(tup1,tup2) Compare elements of both tuples
max(tup) Returns the maximum value in tuple.
min(tup) Returns the minimum value in tuple.
tuple(list) Convert list into tuple.
Returns how many times the element „x‟ is found in
tup.count(x)
tuple.
Returns the first occurrence of the element „x‟ in tuple.
tup.index(x)
Raises ValueError if „x‟ is not found in the tuple.
Sorts the elements of tuple into ascending order.
sorted(tup)
sorted(tup,reverse=True) will sort in reverse order.
cmp(tuple1, tuple2)The method cmp() compares elements of two tuples.

Syntax
cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
Parameters
tuple1 -- This is the first tuple to be compared
tuple2 -- This is the second tuple to be compared
Return Value
If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If elements are
different types, check to see if they are numbers.
 If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary andcompare.
 If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers are
"smallest").
 Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically byname.
If we reached the end of one of the tuples, the longer tuple is "larger." If we exhaust both
tuples and share the same data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned.
Example:
tuple1 = (123,'xyz')
tuple2 = (456,'abc') #display-1
print cmp(tuple1, tuple2) #display1
Nested Tuples:
print cmp(tuple2, tuple1)
Python allows you to define a tuple inside another tuple. This is called a nested tuple.
students=((―RAVI‖, ―CSE‖, 92.00), (―RAMU‖, ―ECE‖, 93.00), (―RAJA‖, ―EEE‖, 87.00))
for i in students:
print i
Output: (―RAVI‖, ―CSE‖, 92.00)

(―RAMU‖, ―ECE‖, 93.00)

(―RAJA‖, ―EEE‖, 87.00)
SET:
Set is another data structure supported by python. Basically, sets are same as lists but
with a difference that sets are lists with no duplicate entries. Technically a set is a mutable
and an unordered collection of items. This means that we can easily add or remove items
fromit.
Creating a Set:
A set is created by placing all the elements inside curly brackets {}. Separated by
comma or by using the built-in function set( ).
Syntax:
Set_variable_name=,var1, var2, var3, var4, …….-

s=,1, 2.5, “abc” -

print s # display set( * 1, 2.5, “abc” + )
Example:
Converting a list into set:
A set can have any number of items and they may be of different data types. set()
function is used to converting list into set.
s=set( * 1, 2.5, “abc” + )

We canprints # display
also convert tuple set(into
or string * 1, set.
2.5, “abc” +)
tup= ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
print set(tup) # set( [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ] )
str=―MOTHILAL‖
printstr # set( [ 'i', 'h', 'm', 't', 'o' ])

Operations on set:
Sno Operation Result
1 len(s) number of elements in set s (cardinality)
2 x in s test x for membership in s
3 x not in s test x for non-membership in s
s.issubset(t) (or)
4 s <= t test whether every element in s is in t

s.issuperset(t) (or)
5 s >= t test whether every element in t is in s

Returns True if two sets are equivalent and returns

6 s==t
False.
Returns True if two sets are not equivalent and
7 s!=t
returns False.
s.union(t) (or)
8 s|t new set with elements from both s and t
 s.intersection(t) (or)
9 s&t new set with elements common to s and t
 Sno Operation Result
s.difference(t) (or)
10 s-t new set with elements in s but not in t

s.symmetric_difference(t) (or)
11 s ^ t new set with elements in either s or t but not both

12 s.copy() new set with a shallow copy of s

13 s.update(t) return set s with elements added from t
14 s.intersection_update(t) return set s keeping only elements also found in t
15 s.difference_update(t) return set s after removing elements found in t
s.symmetric_difference_update(t)
16 return set s with elements from s or t but not both
17 s.add(x) add element x to set s
18 s.remove(x) remove x from set s; raises KeyError if not present
19 s.discard(x) removes x from set s if present
remove and return an arbitrary element from s;
20 s.pop()
raises KeyError if empty
21 s.clear() remove all elements from set s
22 max(s) Returns Maximum value in a set
23 min(s) Returns Minimum value in a set
Return a new sorted list from the elements in
24 sorted(s)
theset.

Note:

To create an empty set you cannot write s={}, because python will make this as a
directory. Therefore, to create an empty set use set( ) function.
s=set() s={}
printtype(s) # display<type„set‟> print type(s) # display <type„dict‟>
Updating a set:
Since sets are unordered, indexing has no meaning. Set operations do not allow users
to access or change an element using indexing or slicing.
Dictionary:
A dictionary represents a group of elements arranged in the form of key-value pairs.
The first element is considered as „key‟ and the immediate next element is taken as its
„value‟. The key and its value are separated by a colon (:). All the key-value pairs in a
dictionary are inserted in curly braces {}.
d= { „Regd.No‟: 556, „Name‟:‟Mothi‟, „Branch‟: „CSE‟ }
Here, the name of dictionary is „dict‟. The first element in the dictionary is a string
„Regd.No‟. So, this is called „key‟. The second element is 556 which is taken as its „value‟.
Example:
d=,„Regd.No‟:556,„Name‟:‟Mothi‟,„Branch‟:„CSE‟-
printd*„Regd.No‟+ # 556

printd*„Name‟+ # Mothi
To access the elements of a dictionary, we should not use indexing or slicing. For example,
printd*„Branch‟+
dict[0] or dict[1:3] etc. expressions will give #error.
CSE To access the value associated with a key,
we can mention the key name inside the square braces, as: dict[„Name‟].
If we want to know how many key-value pairs are there in a dictionary, we can use the len( )
function, as shown
d={„Regd.No‟:556,„Name‟:‟Mothi‟,„Branch‟:„CSE‟} printlen(d)
#3
We can also insert a new key-value pair into an existing dictionary. This is done by
mentioning the key and assigning a value to it.
d={'Regd.No':556,'Name':'Mothi','Branch':'CSE'}
printd #{'Branch': 'CSE', 'Name': 'Mothi', 'Regd.No': 556}
d['Gender']="Male"
printd # {'Gender': 'Male', 'Branch': 'CSE', 'Name': 'Mothi', 'Regd.No': 556}
Suppose, we want to delete a key-value pair from the dictionary, we can use del statementas:
del dict[„Regd.No‟] #{'Gender': 'Male', 'Branch': 'CSE', 'Name': 'Mothi'}
To Test whether a „key‟ is available in a dictionary or not, we can use „in‟ and „not in‟
operators. These operators return either True orFalse.
„Name‟ind #checkif„Name‟isakeyindandreturnsTrue/False
We can use any datatypes for value. For example, a value can be a number, string, list, tuple
or another dictionary. But keys should obey therules:
 Keys should be unique. It means, duplicate keys are not allowd. If we enter same key
again, the old key will be overwritten and only the new key will beavailable.
emp={'nag':10,'vishnu':20,'nag':20}
print emp # {'nag': 20, 'vishnu': 20}
 Keys should be immutable type. For example, we can use a number, string or tuples
as keys since they are immutable. We cannot use lists or dictionaries as keys. If they
are used as keys, we will get„TypeError‟.
emp={['nag']:10,'vishnu':20,'nag':20}
Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<pyshell#2>", line 1, in

<module>emp={['nag']:10,'vishnu':2
0,'nag':20}

TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Dictionary Methods:
Method Description
d.clear() Removes all key-value pairs from dictionary„d‟.
d2=d.copy() Copies all elements from„d‟ into a new dictionary d2.
Create a new dictionary with keys from sequence„s‟ and
d.fromkeys(s [,v] ) values all set to „v‟.
Returns the value associated with key „k‟. If key is not
d.get(k [,v] ) found, it returns „v‟.
Returns an object that contains key-value pairs of„d‟. The
d.items() pairs are stored as tuples in the object.
d.keys() Returns a sequence of keys from the dictionary„d‟.
d.values() Returns a sequence of values from the dictionary„d‟.
d.update(x) Adds all elements from dictionary „x‟ to„d‟.
Removesthekey„k‟anditsvaluefrom„d‟andreturnsthe
value.Ifkeyisnotfound,thenthevalue„v‟isreturned.If
d.pop(k [,v] )
keyisnotfoundand„v‟isnotmentionedthen„KeyError‟
is raised.
If key „k‟ is found, its value is returned. If key is not
d.setdefault(k [,v] ) found, then the k, v pair is stored into the dictionary„d‟.
Using for loop with Dictionaries:

for loop is very convenient to retrieve the elements of a dictionary. Let‟s take asimple
dictionary that contains color code and its nameas:
colors = { 'r':"RED", 'g':"GREEN", 'b':"BLUE", 'w':"WHITE" }
Here, „r‟, „g‟, „b‟ represents keys and „RED‟, „GREEN‟, „BLUE‟ and „WHITE‟
indicate values.
colors = { 'r':"RED", 'g':"GREEN", 'b':"BLUE", 'w':"WHITE" }
for k incolors:
print k # displays only keys for k
incolors:
print colors[k] # keys to to dictionary and display the values
Converting Lists into Dictionary:
When we have two lists, it is possible to convert them into a dictionary. For example,
we have two lists containing names of countries and names of their capital cities.
There are two steps involved to convert the lists into a dictionary. The first step is to
create a „zip‟ class object by passing the two lists to zip( ) function. The zip( ) function is
useful to convert the sequences into a zip class object. The second step is to convert the zip
object into a dictionary by using dict( ) function.
Example:
countries = [ 'USA', 'INDIA', 'GERMANY', 'FRANCE' ]

cities = [ 'Washington', 'New Delhi', 'Berlin', 'Paris' ]

z=zip(countries, cities)

d=dict(z)
Output:print d
{'GERMANY': 'Berlin', 'INDIA': 'New Delhi', 'USA': 'Washington', 'FRANCE': 'Paris'}
Converting Strings into Dictionary:
When a string is given with key and value pairs separated by some delimiter like
a comma ( , ) we can convert the string into a dictionary and use it as dictionary.
s="Vijay=23,Ganesh=20,Lakshmi=19,Nikhi
l=22" s1=s.split(',')
s2=[]
d={}
for i in s1:
s2.append(i.spli
t('='))
print d
{'Ganesh': '20', 'Lakshmi': '19', 'Nikhil': '22', 'Vijay': '23'}
Q) A Python program to create a dictionary and find the sum of values.
d={'m1':85,'m3':84,'eng':86,'c':91}

sum=0

for i in d.values():

Q) A Python sum+=i
program to create a dictionary with cricket player‟s names and scores in a
match. Also we are retrieving runs by entering the player‟s name.
printsum # 346
n=input("Enter How many players? ")
d={}

for i in range(0,n):
k=input("Enter Player name: ")
v=input("Enter score: ") d[k]=v

print d

name=input("Enter name of player for score:

") print "The Score is",d[name]
Enter How many
players? 3 Enter Player
name: "Sachin" Enter
score:98
Enter Player name:
"Sehwag" Enter
score:91
Enter Player name:
"Dhoni" Enter score:95
{'Sehwag': 91, 'Sachin': 98, 'Dhoni':
95} Enter name of player for score:
"Sehwag" The Score is 91
 MODULE – IV: STRINGS AND FUNCTIONS

At the end of the unit students are able to:

Knowledge Level
Course Outcomes (Bloom‟s
Taxonomy)
CO 5 Compare and contrast mutable and immutable objects and Understand
understand the state change of objects during runtime.
CO 6 Understand passing of parameters and arguments in functions Understand
to do modular programming.
 MODULE – IV

What is String in Python?

A string is a sequence of characters.

A character is simply a symbol. For example, the English language has 26 characters.

Computers do not deal with characters, they deal with numbers (binary). Even though you
may see characters on your screen, internally it is stored and manipulated as a combination of
0s and 1s.

This conversion of character to a number is called encoding, and the reverse process is
decoding. ASCII and Unicode are some of the popular encodings used.

In Python, a string is a sequence of Unicode characters. Unicode was introduced to include

every character in all languages and bring uniformity in encoding. You can learn about
Unicode from Python Unicode.

How to create a string in Python?

Strings can be created by enclosing characters inside a single quote or double-quotes. Even
triple quotes can be used in Python but generally used to represent multiline strings and
docstrings.

# defining strings in Python

# all of the following are equivalent
my_string = 'Hello'
print(my_string)

my_string = "Hello"
print(my_string)

my_string = '''Hello'''
print(my_string)

# triple quotes string can extend multiple lines

my_string = """Hello, welcome to
the world of Python"""
print(my_string)
When you run the program, the output will be:

Hello
Hello
Hello
Hello, welcome to the world of Python
How to access characters in a string?
We can access individual characters using indexing and a range of characters using slicing.
Index starts from 0. Trying to access a character out of index range will raise an IndexError.
The index must be an integer. We can't use floats or other types, this will result into
TypeError.

Python allows negative indexing for its sequences.

The index of -1 refers to the last item, -2 to the second last item and so on. We can access a
range of items in a string by using the slicing operator :(colon).

#Accessing string characters in Python

str = 'programiz'
print('str = ', str)

#first character
print('str[0] = ', str[0])

#last character
print('str[-1] = ', str[-1])

#slicing 2nd to 5th character

print('str[1:5] = ', str[1:5])

#slicing 6th to 2nd last character

print('str[5:-2] = ', str[5:-2])
When we run the above program, we get the following output:

str = programiz
str[0] = p
str[-1] = z
str[1:5] = rogr
str[5:-2] = am
If we try to access an index out of the range or use numbers other than an integer, we will get
errors.

# index must be in range

>>> my_string[15]
...
IndexError: string index out of range

# index must be an integer

>>> my_string[1.5]
...
TypeError: string indices must be integers
Slicing can be best visualized by considering the index to be between the elements as shown
below.

If we want to access a range, we need the index that will slice the portion from the string.

Element Slicing in Python

String Slicing in Python
How to change or delete a string?
Strings are immutable. This means that elements of a string cannot be changed once they have
been assigned. We can simply reassign different strings to the same name.

>>> my_string = 'programiz'

>>> my_string[5] = 'a'
...
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
>>> my_string = 'Python'
>>> my_string
'Python'
We cannot delete or remove characters from a string. But deleting the string entirely is
possible using the del keyword.

>>> del my_string[1]

...
TypeError: 'str' object doesn't support item deletion
>>> del my_string
>>> my_string
...
NameError: name 'my_string' is not defined
Python String Operations
There are many operations that can be performed with strings which makes it one of the most
used data types in Python.

To learn more about the data types available in Python visit: Python Data Types

Concatenation of Two or More Strings

Joining of two or more strings into a single one is called concatenation.

The + operator does this in Python. Simply writing two string literals together also
concatenates them.

The * operator can be used to repeat the string for a given number of times.

# Python String Operations

str1 = 'Hello'
str2 ='World!'

# using +
print('str1 + str2 = ', str1 + str2)

# using *
print('str1 * 3 =', str1 * 3)
When we run the above program, we get the following output:

str1 + str2 = Hello World!

str1 * 3 = HelloHelloHello
Writing two string literals together also concatenates them like + operator.

If we want to concatenate strings in different lines, we can use parentheses.

>>> # two string literals together
>>> 'Hello ''World!'
'Hello World!'

>>> # using parentheses

>>> s = ('Hello '
... 'World')
>>> s
'Hello World'
Iterating Through a string
We can iterate through a string using a for loop. Here is an example to count the number of 'l's
in a string.

# Iterating through a string

count = 0
for letter in 'Hello World':
if(letter == 'l'):
count += 1
print(count,'letters found')
When we run the above program, we get the following output:

3 letters found
String Membership Test
We can test if a substring exists within a string or not, using the keyword in.

>>> 'a' in 'program'

True
>>> 'at' not in 'battle'
False
Built-in functions to Work with Python
Various built-in functions that work with sequence work with strings as well.

Some of the commonly used ones are enumerate() and len(). The enumerate() function returns
an enumerate object. It contains the index and value of all the items in the string as pairs. This
can be useful for iteration.

Similarly, len() returns the length (number of characters) of the string.

str = 'cold'

# enumerate()
list_enumerate = list(enumerate(str))
print('list(enumerate(str) = ', list_enumerate)

#character count
print('len(str) = ', len(str))
When we run the above program, we get the following output:

list(enumerate(str) = [(0, 'c'), (1, 'o'), (2, 'l'), (3, 'd')]

len(str) = 4
Python String Formatting
Escape Sequence
If we want to print a text like He said, "What's there?", we can neither use single quotes nor
double quotes. This will result in a SyntaxError as the text itself contains both single and
double quotes.

>>> print("He said, "What's there?"")

...
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
>>> print('He said, "What's there?"')
...
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
One way to get around this problem is to use triple quotes. Alternatively, we can use escape
sequences.

An escape sequence starts with a backslash and is interpreted differently. If we use a single
quote to represent a string, all the single quotes inside the string must be escaped. Similar is
the case with double quotes. Here is how it can be done to represent the above text.

# using triple quotes

print('''He said, "What's there?"''')

# escaping single quotes

print('He said, "What\'s there?"')

# escaping double quotes

print("He said, \"What's there?\"")
When we run the above program, we get the following output:

He said, "What's there?"

He said, "What's there?"
He said, "What's there?"
Here is a list of all the escape sequences supported by Python.

Escape Sequence Description

\newline Backslash and newline ignored
\\ Backslash
\' Single quote
\" Double quote
\a ASCII Bell
\b ASCII Backspace
\f ASCII Formfeed
\n ASCII Linefeed
\r ASCII Carriage Return
\t ASCII Horizontal Tab
\v ASCII Vertical Tab
\ooo Character with octal value ooo
\xHH Character with hexadecimal value HH
Here are some examples

>>> print("C:\\Python32\\Lib")
C:\Python32\Lib
>>> print("This is printed\nin two lines")
This is printed
in two lines

>>> print("This is \x48\x45\x58 representation")

This is HEX representation
Raw String to ignore escape sequence
Sometimes we may wish to ignore the escape sequences inside a string. To do this we can
place r or R in front of the string. This will imply that it is a raw string and any escape
sequence inside it will be ignored.

>>> print("This is \x61 \ngood example")

This is a
good example
>>> print(r"This is \x61 \ngood example")
This is \x61 \ngood example
The format() Method for Formatting Strings
The format() method that is available with the string object is very versatile and powerful in
formatting strings. Format strings contain curly braces {} as placeholders or replacement
fields which get replaced.

We can use positional arguments or keyword arguments to specify the order.

# Python string format() method

# default(implicit) order
default_order = "{}, {} and {}".format('John','Bill','Sean')
print('\n--- Default Order ---')
print(default_order)

# order using positional argument

positional_order = "{1}, {0} and {2}".format('John','Bill','Sean')
print('\n--- Positional Order ---')
print(positional_order)

# order using keyword argument

keyword_order = "{s}, {b} and {j}".format(j='John',b='Bill',s='Sean')
print('\n--- Keyword Order ---')
print(keyword_order)
When we run the above program, we get the following output:

--- Default Order ---

John, Bill and Sean

--- Positional Order ---

Bill, John and Sean

--- Keyword Order ---

Sean, Bill and John
The format() method can have optional format specifications. They are separated from the
field name using colon. For example, we can left-justify <, right-justify > or center ^ a string
in the given space.

We can also format integers as binary, hexadecimal, etc. and floats can be rounded or
displayed in the exponent format. There are tons of formatting you can use. Visit here for all
the string formatting available with the format() method.

>>> # formatting integers

>>> "Binary representation of {0} is {0:b}".format(12)
'Binary representation of 12 is 1100'

>>> # formatting floats

>>> "Exponent representation: {0:e}".format(1566.345)
'Exponent representation: 1.566345e+03'

>>> # round off

>>> "One third is: {0:.3f}".format(1/3)
'One third is: 0.333'

>>> # string alignment

>>> "|{:<10}|{:^10}|{:>10}|".format('butter','bread','ham')
'|butter | bread | ham|'
Old style formatting
We can even format strings like the old sprintf() style used in C programming language. We
use the % operator to accomplish this.

>>> x = 12.3456789
>>> print('The value of x is %3.2f' %x)
The value of x is 12.35
>>> print('The value of x is %3.4f' %x)
The value of x is 12.3457
Common Python String Methods
There are numerous methods available with the string object. The format() method that we
mentioned above is one of them. Some of the commonly used methods are lower(), upper(),
join(), split(), find(), replace() etc. Here is a complete list of all the built-in methods to work
with strings in Python.

>>> "PrOgRaMiZ".lower()
'programiz'
>>> "PrOgRaMiZ".upper()
'PROGRAMIZ'
>>> "This will split all words into a list".split()
['This', 'will', 'split', 'all', 'words', 'into', 'a', 'list']
>>> ' '.join(['This', 'will', 'join', 'all', 'words', 'into', 'a', 'string'])
'This will join all words into a string'
>>> 'Happy New Year'.find('ew')
7
>>> 'Happy New Year'.replace('Happy','Brilliant')
'Brilliant New Year'STRINGS AND FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS:
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single,
related action.
 Once a function is written, it can be reused as and when required. So, functions are also
called reusablecode.
 Functions provide modularity for programming. A module represents a part of the
program. Usually, a programmer divides the main task into smaller sub tasks called
modules.
 Code maintenance will become easy because of functions. When a new feature has to be
added to the existing software, a new function can be written and integrated into the
software.
 When there is an error in the software, the corresponding function can be modified
without disturbing the other functions in thesoftware.
 The use of functions in a program will reduce the length of theprogram.
As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions like sqrt( ), etc. but you can
also create your own functions. These functions are called user-definedfunctions.

Difference between a function and a method:

A function can be written individually in a python program. A function is called
using its name. When a function is written inside a class, it becomes a „method‟. A method
is called using object name or class name. A method is called using one of the following
ways:
Objectname.methodname()
Classname.methodname()
Defining a Function
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to
define a function inPython.
 Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and
parentheses ().
 Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. You
can also define parameters inside theseparentheses.
 The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation
string of the function ordocstring.
 The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and isindented.
 The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an
expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return
none.
Syntax:
deffunctionname (parameters):
"""function_docstring"""
function_suite

return [expression]
By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in the same
order that they were defined.
Example:
def add(a,b):
"""This function sum thenumbers"""
c=a+b
print c
return
Here, „def’ represents starting of function. „add’ is function name. After this name,
parentheses ( ) are compulsory as they denote that it is a function and not a variable or
something else. In the parentheses we wrote two variables „a‟ and „b‟ these variables are
called „parameters‟. A parameter is a variable that receives data from outside a function. So,
this function receives two values from outside and those are stored in the variables „a‟ and
„b‟. After parentheses, we put colon (:) that represents the beginning of the function body.
The function body contains a group of statements called „suite‟.
Calling Function:
A function cannot run by its own. It runs only when we call it. So, the next step is to
call function using its name. While calling the function, we should pass the necessary values
to the function in the parentheses as:
add(5,12)
Here, we are calling „add‟ function and passing two values 5 and 12 to that function.
When this statement is executed, the python interpreter jumps to the function definition and
copies the values 5 and 12 into the parameters „a‟ and „b‟ respectively.
Example:
def add(a,b):

"""This function sum the numbers"""

c=a+b

print c
add(5,12)
Returning Results # 17 a function:
from

We can return the result or output from the function using a „return‟ statement in the
function body. When a function does not return any result, we need not write the return
statement in the body of the function.

Q) Write a program to find the sum of two numbers and return the result from the
function.
def add(a,b):

"""This function sum the numbers"""

c=a+b

return c
print add(5,12) #17

print add(1.5,6)#6.5
 Returning multiple values from a function:
A function can returns a single value in the programming languages like C, C++ and
JAVA. But, in python, a function can return multiple values. When a function calculates
multiple results and wants to return the results, we can use return statement as:
return a, b, c
Here, three values which are in „a‟, „b‟ and „c‟ are returned. These values are returned bythe
function as a tuple. To grab these values, we can three variables at the time of calling the
functionas:
x, y, z = functionName( )
Here, „x‟, „y‟ and „z‟ are receiving the three values returned by the function.
Example:
def calc(a,b):
c=a+b
d=a-b
e=a*b
return
c,d,ex,y,z=calc(5,8
) print
"Addition=",x
print "Subtraction=",y
print "Multiplication=",z
Functions are First Class Objects:

In Python, functions are considered as first class objects. It means we can use functions as
perfect objects. In fact when we create a function, the Python interpreter internally creates an
object. Since functions are objects, we can pass a function to another function just like we
pass an object (or value) to a function. The following possibilities are:
 It is possible to assign a function to avariable.
 It is possible to define one function inside anotherfunction.
 It is possible to pass a function as parameter to anotherfunction.
 It is possible that a function can return another function.
To understand these points, we will take a few simpleprograms.
Q) A python program to see how to assign a function to a variable. def
display(st):
return "hai"+st
x=display("cse")
printx Output:haicse
Q) A python program to know how to define a function inside another function. def
display(st):
def message():
return "how r u?"
res=message()+st
return res
x=display("cse")
printx Output: how r u?cse
Q) A python program to know how to pass a function as parameter to another function. def
display(f):
return "hai"+f def
message():
return "how r u?"
fun=display(message())
printfun Output: haihow ru?
Q) A python program to know how a function can return anotherfunction.
defdisplay():
def message():
return "how r u?"
return message fun=display()
printfun() Output: how ru?

Pass by Value:
Pass by value represents that a copy of the variable value is passed to the function and
any modifications to that value will not reflect outside the function. In python, the values are
sent to functions by means of object references. We know everything is considered as an
object in python. All numbers, strings, tuples, lists and dictionaries are objects.
If we store a value into a variable as:
x=10
In python, everything is an object. An object can be imagined as a memory block
where we can store some value. In this case, an object with the value „10‟ is created in
memoryforwhichaname„x‟isattached.So,10 istheobject and„x‟isthenameortaggiven to that
object. Also, objects are created on heap memory which is a very huge memory that depends
on the RAM of our computer system.
Example: A Python program to pass an integer to a function and modifyit.
defmodify(x):
x=15
print "inside",x,id(x)
x=10
modify(x)
print "outside",x,id(x)
Output:
inside 15 6356456
outside 10 6356516
From the output, we can understand that the value of „x‟ in the function is 15 and that is not
available outside the function. When we call the modify( ) function and pass „x‟ as:
modify(x)
We should remember that we are passing the object references to the modify( ) function. The
object is 10 and its references name is „x‟. This is being passed to the modify( ) function.
Inside the function, we are using:
x=15
 This means another object 15 is created in memory and that object is referenced by
the name „x‟. The reason why another object is created in the memory is that the integer
objects are immutable (not modifiable). So in the function, when we display „x‟ value, it will
display 15. Once we come outside the function and display „x‟ value, it will display numbers
of „x‟ inside and outside the function, and we see different numbers since they are different
objects.
In python, integers, floats, strings and tuples are immutable. That means their data
cannot be modified. When we try to change their value, a new object is created with the
modified value.

Fig. Passing Integer to a Function

Pass by Reference:
Pass by reference represents sending the reference or memory address of the variable
to the function. The variable value is modified by the function through memory address and
hence the modified value will reflect outside the function also.
In python, lists and dictionaries are mutable. That means, when we change their data,
the same object gets modified and new object is not created. In the below program, we are
passing a list of numbers to modify ( ) function. When we append a new element to the list,
the same list is modified and hence the modified list is available outside the function also.
Example: A Python program to pass a list to a function and modify it.
defmodify(a):
a.append(5)
print "inside",a,id(a)
a=[1,2,3,4]
modify(a)
print "outside",a,id(a)
Output:
inside [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] 45355616
outside [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] 45355616
In the above program the list „a‟ is the name or tag that represents the list object.
Before calling the modify( ) function, the list contains 4 elements as: a=[1,2,3,4]
Inside the function, we are appending a new element „5‟ to the list. Since, lists are
mutable, adding a new element to the same object is possible. Hence, append( ) method
modifies the same object.
 Fig. Passing a list to the function
Formal and Actual Arguments:
When a function is defined, it may have some parameters. These parameters are
useful to receive values from outside of the function. They are called „formal arguments‟.
When we call the function, we should pass data or values to the function. These values are
called„actualarguments‟.Inthefollowingcode,„a‟and„b‟areformalargumentsand„x‟and
„y‟ are actual arguments.
Example:
def add(a,b): # a, b are formal arguments
c=a+b
print c
x,y=10,15
add(x,y) # x, y are actualarguments

The actual arguments used in a function call are of 4 types:

a) Positionalarguments
b) Keywordarguments
c) Defaultarguments
d) Variable lengtharguments
a) PositionalArguments:
These are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order. Here, the
number of arguments and their position in the function definition should match exactly with
the number and position of argument in the function call.
def attach(s1,s2):
s3=s1+s2
prints3
attach("New","Delhi") #Positional arguments
This function expects two strings that too in that order only. Let‟s assume that this function
attaches the two strings as s1+s2. So, while calling this function, we are supposed to pass
only two strings as:attach("New","Delhi")
The preceding statements displays the following output NewDelhi
Suppose, we passed "Delhi" first and then "New", then the result will be: "DelhiNew". Also,
if we try to pass more than or less than 2 strings, there will be anerror.

b) KeywordArguments:
Keyword arguments are arguments that identify the parameters by their names. For
example, the definition of a function that displays grocery item and its price can be written
as:
def grocery(item, price):
At the time of calling this function, we have to pass two values and we can mention which
value is for what. For example,
grocery(item=‟sugar‟, price=50.75)
Here,wearementioningakeyword„item‟anditsvalueandthenanotherkeyword„price‟and its
value. Please observe these keywords are nothing but the parameter names which receive
these values. We can change the order of the argumentsas:
grocery(price=88.00, item=‟oil‟)
In this way, even though we change the order of the arguments, there will not be any problem
as the parameter names will guide where to store that value.

def grocery(item,price):
print "item=",item
print "price=",price
grocery(item="sugar",price=50.75) # keyword arguments
grocery(price=88.00,item="oil") # keyword arguments
Output:
item= sugar
price= 50.75
item= oil price=
88.0
c) DefaultArguments:
We can mention some defaultvalue for the function parameters in the definition.
Let‟s take the definition of grocery( ) function as:
def grocery(item, price=40.00)
Here, the first argument is „item‟ whose default value is not mentioned. But the second
argument is „price‟ and its default value is mentioned to be 40.00. at the time of calling this
function, if we do not pass „price‟ value, then the default value of 40.00 is taken. If we
mention the „price‟ value, then that mentioned value is utilized. So, a default argument is an
argument that assumes a default value if a value is not provided in the function call for that
argument.
Example: def grocery(item,price=40.00):
print "item=",item
print "price=",price
grocery(item="sugar",price=50.75)
grocery(item="oil")
Output:
item= sugar
price= 50.75
item= oil
price= 40.0
d) Variable LengthArguments:
Sometimes, the programmer does not know how many values a function may receive. In that
case, the programmer cannot decide how many arguments to be given in the function
definition. for example, if the programmer is writing a function to add two numbers, he/she
can write:
add(a,b)
But, the user who is using this function may want to use this function to find sum of three
numbers. In that case, there is a chance that the user may provide 3 arguments to this function
as:
add(10,15,20)
Then the add( ) function will fail and error will be displayed. If the programmer want to
develop a function that can accept „n‟ arguments, that is also possible in python. For this
purpose, a variable length argument is used in the function definition. a variable length
argument is an argument that can accept any number of values. The variable length argument
is written with a „*‟ symbol before it in the function definition as:
def add(farg, *args):
here, „farg‟ is the formal; argument and „*args‟ represents variable length argument. We can
pass 1 or more values to this „*args‟ and it will store them all in a tuple.
Example:
def add(farg,*args):
sum=0
for i in args:
sum=sum+i
print "sum is",sum+farg
add(5,10)
add(5,10,20)
add(5,10,20,30)

Output:
sum is15
sum is35
sum is65

Local and Global Variables:

When we declare a variable inside a function, it becomes a local variable. A local
variable is a variable whose scope is limited only to that function where it is created. That
means the local variable value is available only in that function and not outside of that
function.
When the variable „a‟ is declared inside myfunction() and hence it is available inside that
function. Once we come out of the function, the variable „a‟ is removed from memory and it
is not available.
Example-1:
def myfunction():
a=10
print "Inside function",a #display 10 myfunction()
print "outside function",a # Error, not available
Output:
Inside function 10 outside
function
NameError: name 'a' is not defined
When a variable is declared above a function, it becomes global variable. Such variables are
available to all the functions which are written after it.
Example-2:
a=11
def myfunction():
b=10
print "Inside function",a #display global var
print "Inside function",b #display local var
myfunction()
print "outside function",a # available print
"outside function",b # error
Output:
Inside function11
Inside function10
outside function 11
outsidefunction
NameError: name 'b' is not
defined The GlobalKeyword:
Sometimes, the global variable and the local variable may have the same name. In that case,
the function, by default, refers to the local variable and ignores the global variable. So, the
global variable is not accessible inside the function but outside of it, it is accessible.
Example-1:
a=11
def myfunction():
a=10
print "Inside function",a # display local variable
myfunction()
print "outside function",a # display global variable
Output:
Inside function 10
outside function 11
When the programmer wants to use the global variable inside a function, he can use the
keyword „global‟ before the variable in the beginning of the function body as:
glob
al
aExample-
2:
a=11
def myfunction():
global a
a=10
print "Inside function",a # display global variable myfunction()
print "outside function",a # display global variable
Output:
Inside function 10
outside function 10
Recursive Functions:
A function that calls itself is known as „recursive function‟. For example, we can write the
factorial of 3 as:
factorial(3) = 3 * factorial(2) Here,
factorial(2) = 2 *factorial(1) And,
factorial(1) = 1 *factorial(0)
Now, if we know that the factorial(0) value is 1, all the preceding statements will evaluate
and give the resultas:
factorial(3) = 3 * factorial(2)
= 3 * 2 * factorial(1)
= 3 * 2 * 1 * factorial(0)
=3*2*1*1
=6
From the above statements, we can write the formula to calculate factorial of any number „n‟
as: factorial(n) = n *factorial(n-1)
Example-1:
def factorial(n):
if n==0:
result=1
else:
result=n*factorial(n-1)
return result
for i in range(1,5):
print "factorial of ",i,"is",factorial(i)
Output:
factorial of 1 is1
factorial of 2 is2
factorial of 3 is6
factorial of 4 is 24
Anonymous Function or Lambdas:
These functions are called anonymous because they are not declared in the standard
manner by using the def keyword. You can use the lambda keyword to create small
anonymous functions.
 Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value in the form of
an expression. They cannot contain commands or multipleexpressions.
 An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda requires an
expression.
 Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access variables other than
those in their parameter list and those in the globalnamespace.
 Although it appears that lambda's are a one-line version of a function, they are not
equivalent to inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is by passing function stack
allocation during invocation for performancereasons.
Let‟s take a normal function that returns square of given value:
def square(x):
return x*x
the same function can be written as anonymous function as:
lambda x: x*x
The colon (:) represents the beginning of the function that contains an expression x*x. The
syntax is:
lambda
argument_list:expression Example:
f=lambda x:x*x
value = f(5) print
value
The map() Function
The advantage of the lambda operator can be seen when it is used in combination with
the map() function. map() is a function with two arguments:
r = map(func, seq)
The first argument func is the name of a function and the second a sequence (e.g. a list) seq.
map() applies the function func to all the elements of the sequence seq. It returns a new list
with the elements changed by func
def fahrenheit(T):
return ((float(9)/5)*T + 32) def
celsius(T):
return (float(5)/9)*(T-32)
temp = (36.5, 37, 37.5,39)
F = map(fahrenheit, temp) C =
map(celsius, F)
In the example above we haven't used lambda. By using lambda, we wouldn't have had to
define and name the functions fahrenheit() and celsius(). You can see this in the following
interactive session:
>>> Celsius = [39.2, 36.5, 37.3, 37.8]
>>> Fahrenheit = map(lambda x: (float(9)/5)*x + 32, Celsius)
>>> print Fahrenheit
[102.56, 97.700000000000003, 99.140000000000001, 100.03999999999999]
>>> C = map(lambda x: (float(5)/9)*(x-32), Fahrenheit)
 >>> print C
[39.200000000000003, 36.5, 37.300000000000004, 37.799999999999997]
map() can be applied to more than one list. The lists have to have the same length. map() will
apply its lambda function to the elements of the argument lists, i.e. it first applies to the
elements with the 0th index, then to the elements with the 1st index until the n-th index is
reached:
>>> a = [1,2,3,4]
>>> b = [17,12,11,10]
>>> c = [-1,-4,5,9]
>>> map(lambda x,y:x+y, a,b)
[18, 14, 14,14]
>>> map(lambda x,y,z:x+y+z,a,b,c) [17,
10, 19,23]
>>> map(lambda x,y,z:x+y-z, a,b,c)
[19, 18, 9, 5]
We can see in the example above that the parameter x gets its values from the list a, while y
gets its values from b and z from list c.
Filtering
The function filter(function, list) offers an elegant way to filter out all the elements of a list,
for which the functionreturns True. The function filter(f,l) needs a function f as its first
argument. f returns a Boolean value, i.e. either True or False. This function will be applied to
every element of the list l. Only if f returns True will the element of the list be included in the
result list.
>>> fib = [0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55]
>>> result = filter(lambda x: x % 2, fib)
>>> print result
[1, 1, 3, 5, 13, 21, 55]
>>> result = filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, fib)
>>> print result [0, 2,
8, 34]
Reducing a List
The function reduce(func, seq) continually applies the function func() to the sequence seq. It
returns a single value.
If seq = [ s1, s2, s3, ... , sn ], calling reduce(func, seq) works like this:
 At first the first two elements of seq will be applied to func, i.e. func(s1,s2) The list on
which reduce() works looks now like this: [ func(s1, s2), s3, ... , sn]
 In the next step func will be applied on the previous result and the third element of the
list, i.e. func(func(s1, s2),s3). The list looks like this now: [ func(func(s1, s2),s3), ... , sn]
 Continue like this until just one element is left and return this element as the result of
reduce()
We illustrate this process in the following example:
>>> reduce(lambda x,y: x+y, [47,11,42,13])
113
The following diagram shows the intermediate steps of the calculation:

Examples of reduce ( )
Determining the maximum of a list of numerical values by using reduce:
>>> f = lambda a,b: a if (a > b) else b
>>> reduce(f, [47,11,42,102,13])
102
>>>
Calculating the sum of the numbers from 1 to 100:
>>> reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, range(1,101)) 5050
Function Decorators:
A decorator is a function that accepts a function as parameter and returns a function.
A decorator takes the result of a function, modifies the result and returns it. Thus decorators
are useful to perform some additional processing required by afunction.
The following steps are generally involved in creation of decorators:
 We should define a decorator function with another function name asparameter.
 We should define a function inside the decorator function. This function actually modifies
or decorates the value of the function passed to the decoratorfunction.
 Return the inner function that has processed or decorated thevalue.
Example-1:
def decor(fun):
def inner():
value=fun()
return value+2
return inner def
num():
return 10
result=decor(num) print
result()
Output:
12
To apply the decorator to any function, we can use „@‟ symbol and decorator name just
above the functiondefinition.
Example-2: A python program to create two decorators.
def decor1(fun):
def inner():
value=fun()
return value+2
return inner
def decor2(fun):
def inner():
value=fun()
return value*2
return inner
def num():
return 10

result=decor1(decor2(num))
print result()
Output:
22
Example-3: A python program to create two decorators to the same function using „@‟
symbol.
def decor1(fun):
def inner():
value=fun()
return value+2
return inner
def decor2(fun):
def inner():
value=fun()
return value*2
return inner
@decor1
@decor2
def num():
return 10

print num()
Output:
22
 Function Generators:
A generator is a function that produces a sequence of results instead of a single value.
„yield‟ statement is used to return the value. def
mygen(n):
i=0
while i <n:
yieldi
i +=1
g=mygen(6) for
i in g:
print i,
Output:
012345
Note: „yield‟ statement can be used to hold the sequence of results and return it.

Modules:
A module is a file containing Python definitions and statements. The file name is the
module name with the suffix.py appended. Within a module, the module‟s name (as a string)
is available as the value of the global variable __name. For instance, use your favourite text
editor to create a file called fibo.py in the current directory with the followingcontents:
# Fibonacci numbers module
def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series up to n
a, b = 0,1
while b <n:
printb,
a, b = b, a+b
def fib2(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n
result =[]
a, b = 0,1
while b < n:
result.append(b)
a, b = b, a+b
return result
Now enter the Python interpreter and import this module with the following command:
>>>import fibo
This does not enter the names of the functions defined in fibodirectly in the current symbol
table; it only enters the module name fibothere. Using the module name you can access the
functions:
>>>fibo.fib(1000)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
>>> fibo.fib2(100)
[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55,89]
>>>fibo.name
'fibo'
from statement:
 A module can contain executable statements as well as function definitions. These
statements are intended to initialize the module. They are executed only the first time the
module name is encountered in an import statement. (They are also run if the file is
executed as ascript.)
 Each module has its own private symbol table, which is used as the global symbol table by
all functions defined in the module. Thus, the author of a module can use global variables
in the module without worrying about accidental clashes with a user‟s global variables. On
the other hand, if you know what you are doing you can touch a module‟s global variables
with the same notation used to refer to its functions,modname.itemname.
 Modules can import other modules. It is customary but not required to place all import
statements at the beginning of a module (or script, for that matter). The imported module
names are placed in the importing module‟s global symbol table.
 There is a variant of the import statement that imports names from a module directly into
the importing module‟s symbol table. Forexample:
>>> from fibo import fib, fib2
>>>fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
This does not introduce the module name from which the imports are taken in the local
symbol table (so in the example, fibo is not defined).

There is even a variant to import all names that a module defines:

>>> from fibo import *
>>>fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
Namespaces and Scoping
 Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a dictionary of
variable names (keys) and their corresponding objects(values).
 A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in the global
namespace. If a local and a global variable have the same name, the local variable
shadows the globalvariable.
 Each function has its own local namespace. Class methods follow the same scoping
rule as ordinaryfunctions.
 Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It assumes
that any variable assigned a value in a function islocal.
 Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function, you must
first use the global statement.
 The statement global VarNametells Python that VarNameis a global variable. Python
stops searching the local namespace for thevariable.
 For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the
functionMoney, we assign Money a value, therefore Python assumes Money as a local
variable. However, we accessed the value of the local variable Money before setting
it, so an UnboundLocalErroris the result. Uncommenting the global statement fixes
the problem.
Packages in Python
A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python
application environment that consists of modules and subpackages and subsubpackages, and
so on.
Third Party Packages:
The Python has got the greatest community for creating great python packages. There
are more tha 1,00,000 Packages available at https://pypi.python.org/pypi.
Python Package is a collection of all modules connected properly into one form and
distributed PyPI, the Python Package Index maintains the list of Python packages available.
Now when you are done with pip setup Go to command prompt / terminal and say
pip install <package_name>
Note: In windows, pip file is in ―Python27\Scripts‖ folder. To install package you have goto
the path C:\Python27\Scripts in command prompt and install.

The requests and flask Packages are downloaded from internet. To download install the
packages follow the commands
 Installation of requestsPackage:
 Command: cd C:\Python27\Scripts

 Command: pip install requests

 Installation of flaskPackage:
 Command: cd C:\Python27\Scripts

 Command: pip install flask

Example: Write a script that imports requests and fetch content from the page.
import requests
r = requests.get('https://www.google.com/')
print r.status_code
print r.headers['content-type']
print r.text
There are some libraries in python:
 Requests: The most famous HTTP Library. It is a must and an essential criterion for
every PythonDeveloper.
 Scrapy: If you are involved in webscripting then this is a must have library for you.
After using this library you won‟t use anyother.
 Pillow: A friendly fork of PIL (Python Imaging Library). It is more user-friendly than
PIL and is a must have for anyone who works withimages.
 SQLAchemy: It is a databaselibrary.
 BeautifulSoup: This xml and html parsinglibrary.
 Twisted: The most important tool for any network application developer.
 NumPy: It provides some advanced math functionalities topython.
 SciPy: It is a library of algorithms and mathematical tools for python and has caused
many scientists to switch from ruby topython.
 Matplotlib: It is a numerical plotting library. It is very useful for any data scientist or
any data analyzer.
At the end of the unit students are able to:

Knowledge Level
Course Outcomes (Bloom‟s
Taxonomy)
CO 2 Visualize the capabilities of procedural as well as object- Understand
oriented programming in Python and demonstrate the same in
real world scenario.
CO 7 Understand the concepts of inheritance and polymorphism for Understand
code reusability and extensibility.
CO 8 Make use of appropriate modules for solving real-time Apply
problems.
CO 9 Apply string handling mechanisms to do automated memory Apply
management and reduce out-of-bounds accesses.
CO 10 Extend the knowledge of Python programming to build Understand
successful career in software development.
MODULE – V: CLASSES AND OBJECTS
 MODULE – V
CLASSES AND OBJECTS
Python has been an object-oriented language since it existed. Because of this, creating
and using classes and objects are downright easy. This chapter helps you become an expert in
using Python's object-oriented programming support.
If you do not have any previous experience with object-oriented (OO) programming,
you may want to consult an introductory course on it or at least a tutorial of some sort so that
you have a grasp of the basic concepts.
However, here is small introduction of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) to bring
you at speed:
Overview of OOP Terminology
 Class: A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes that
characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data members (class variables
and instance variables) and methods, accessed via dotnotation.
 Class variable: A variable that is shared by all instances of a class. Class variables are
defined within a class but outside any of the class's methods. Class variables are not
used as frequently as instance variablesare.
 Data member: A class variable or instance variable that holds data associated with a
class and itsobjects.
 Function overloading: The assignment of more than one behaviourto a particular
function. The operation performed varies by the types of objects or argumentsinvolved.
 Instance variable: A variable that is defined inside a method and belongs only to the
current instance of aclass.
 Inheritance: The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes that are
derived fromit.
 Instance: An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs to a class
Circle, for example, is an instance of the classCircle.
 Instantiation: The creation of an instance of aclass.
 Method: A special kind of function that is defined in a classdefinition.
 Object: A unique instance of a data structure that's defined by its class. An object
comprises both data members (class variables and instance variables) andmethods.
 Operator overloading: The assignment of more than one function to a particular
operator.
Creation of Class:
A class is created with the keyword class and then writing the classname. The simplest form
of class definition looks like this:
class ClassName:
<statement-1>
.
.
<statement-N>
Class definitions, like function definitions (def statements) must be executed before
they have any effect. (You could conceivably place a class definition in a branch of an if
statement, or inside a function.)
Example: class Student:
definit(self):
 self.name="hari"
self.branch="CSE"
def display(self):
print self.name
print self.branch
 For example, If we „Student‟ class, we can write code in the class that specifies the
attributes and actions performed by anystudent.
 Observer that the keyword class is used to declare a class. After this, we should write
the class name. So, „Student‟ is our class name. Generally, a class name should start
with a capital letter, hence „S‟ is a capital in„Student‟.
 In the class, we have written the variables and methods. Since in python, we cannot
declare variables, we have written the variables inside a special method, i.e. init (). This
method is used to initialize the variables. Hence the name„init‟.
 The method name has two underscores before and after. This indicates that this method
is internally defined and we cannot call this methodexplicitly.
 Observe the parameter „self‟ written after the method name in the parentheses. „self‟ is
a variable that refers to current classinstance.
 When we create an instance for the Student class, a separate memory block is allocated
on the heap and that memory location is default stored in„self‟.
 The instance contains the variables „name‟ and „branch‟ which are called instance
variables. To refer to instance variables, we can use the dot operator notation along
with self as „self.name‟ and„self.branch‟.
 The method display ( ) also takes the „self‟ variable as parameter. This method displays
the values of variables by referring them using„self‟.
 The methods that act on instances (or objects) of a class are called instance methods.
Instance methods use „self‟ as the first parameter that refers to the location of the
instance in thememory.
 Writing a class like this is not sufficient. It should be used. To use a class, we should
create an instance to the class. Instance creation represents allotting memory necessary
to store the actual data of the variables, i.e., „hari‟,„CSE‟.
 To create an instance, the following syntax is used:
instancename = Classname()
 So, to create an instance to the Student class, we can write as:
s1 = Student ()
 Here „s1‟ represents the instance name. When we create an instance like this, the
following steps will take placeinternally:
1. First of all, a block of memory is allocated on heap. How much memory is to be
allocated is decided from the attributes and methods available in the Studentclass.
2. After allocating the memory block, the special method by the name „init(self)‟ is
called internally. This method stores the initial data into the variables. Since this
method is useful to construct the instance, it is called„constructor‟.
3. Finally, the allocated memory location address of the instance is returned into „s1‟
variable. To see this memory location in decimal number format, we can use id( )
function as id(s1).
 Self variable:
„self‟ is a default variable that contains the memory address of the instance of the
current class. When an instance to the class is created, the instance name cotains the memory
locatin of the instance. This memory location is internally passed to „self‟.
For example, we create an instance to student class as:
s1 = Student( )
Here, „s1‟ contains the memory address of the instance. This memory address is
internally and by default passed to „self‟ variable. Since „self‟ knows the memory address of
the instance, it can refer to all the members of the instance.
We use „self‟ in two eays:
 The self variableis used as first parameter in the constructoras:
definit(self):
In this case, „self‟ can be used to refer to the instance variables inside the
constructor.
 „self‟ can be used as first parameter in the instance methodsas:
def display(self):
Here, display( ) is instance method as it acts on the instance variables. If this
method wants to act on the instance variables, it should know the memory location
of the instance variables. That memory location is by default available to the
display( ) method through „self‟.

Constructor:
A constructor is a special method that is used to initialize the instance variables of a
class. In the constructor, we create the instance variables and initialize them with some
starting values. The first parameter of the constructor will be „self‟ variable that contains the
memory address of the instance.
definit( self ): self.name
= "hari" self.branch
="CSE"
Here, the constructor has only one parameter, i.e. „self‟ using „self.name‟and
„self.branch‟, we can access the instance variables of the class. A constructor is called at the
time of creating an instance. So, the above constructor will be called when we create an
instance as:
s1 = Student()
Let‟s take another example, we can write a constructor with some parameters in
additionto„self‟as:
definit( self , n = „ ‟ , b = „ ‟ ):
self.name = n
self.branch = b
 Here, the formal arguments are „n‟ and „b‟ whose default values are given as „‟
(None) and „‟ (None). Hence, if we do not pass any values to constructor at the time of
creating an instance, the default values of those formal arguments are stored into name and
branch variables. For example,
s1 = Student( )
Since we are not passing any values to the instance, None and None are stored into
name and branch. Suppose, we can create an instance as:
s1 = Student( “mothi”, “CSE”)
In this case, we are passing two actual arguments: ―mothi‖ and ―CSE‖ to the Studentinstance.
Example:
class Student:
definit(self,n='',b=''):
self.name=n
self.branch=b
def display(self):
print "Hi",self.name
print "Branch", self.branch
s1=Student()
s1.display()
print― ------------------------------ ‖
s2=Student("mothi","CSE")
s2.display()
print― ------------------------------ ‖
Output:
Hi
Branch
------------------------------
Hi mothi
Branch CSE
------------------------------

Types of Variables:

The variables which are written inside a class are of 2 types:

a) Instance Variables
b) Class Variables or StaticVariables
a) Instance Variables
Instance variables are the variables whose separate copy is created in every instance.
For example, if „x‟ is an instance variable and if we create 3 instances, there will be 3
copies of „x‟ in these 3 instances. When we modify the copy of „x‟ in any instance, it will
not modify the other two copies.
Example: A Python Program to understand instancevariables.
classSample:
definit(self):
self.x = 10
def modify(self):
self.x = self.x + 1
s1=Sample()
s2=Sample()
 print "x in s1=",s1.x
print "x in s2=",s2.x
print" ---------------- "
s1.modify()
print "x in s1=",s1.x
print "x in s2=",s2.x
print" ---------------- "
Output:
x in s1= 10
x in s2= 10
----------------
x in s1= 11
x in s2= 10
----------------
Instance variables are defined and initialized using a constructor with „self‟ parameter.
Also, to access instance variables, we need instance methods with „self‟ as first parameter. It
is possible that the instance methods may have other parameters in addition to the „self‟
parameter. To access the instance variables, we can use self.variable as shown in program. It
is also possible to access the instance variables from outside the class, as:
instancename.variable, e.g. s1.x
b) Class Variables or StaticVariables
Class variables are the variables whose single copy is available to all the instances of
the class. If we modify the copy of class variable in an instance, it will modify all the
copies in the other instances. For example, if „x‟ is a class variable and if we create 3
instances,thesamecopyof„x‟ispassedtothese3instances.Whenwemodifythecopyof
„x‟ in any instance using a class method, the modified copy is sent to the other two
instances.
Example: A Python program to understand class variables or staticvariables.
classSample:
x=10
@classmethod
def modify(cls):
cls.x = cls.x + 1
s1=Sample()
s2=Sample()
print "x in s1=",s1.x
print "x in s2=",s2.x
print" ---------------- "
s1.modify()
print "x in s1=",s1.x
print "x in s2=",s2.x
print" ---------------- "
Output:
x in s1= 10
x in s2= 10
----------------
x in s1= 11
x in s2= 11
----------------
 Namespaces:
A namespace represents a memory block where names are mapped to objects.
Supposewewrite: n =10
Here, ― n‟ is the name given to the integer object 10. Please recollect that numbers,
strings, lists etc. Are all considered as objects in python. The name ―n‟ is linked to 10 in the
namespace.
a) ClassNamespace:
A class maintains its own namespace, called „class namespace‟. In the class
namespace, the names are mapped to class variables. In the following code, „n‟ is a class
variable in the student class. So, in the class namespace, the name „n‟ is mapped or linked to
10 as shown in figure. We can access it in the class namespace, using classname.variable, as:
Student.n which gives10.
Example:
classStudent:
n =10
printStudent.n # displays 10
Student.n +=1
printStudent.n # displays 11
s1 = Student()
prints1.n # displays 11
s2 = Student()
prints2.n # displays11
Before modifying the classvariable„n‟ After modifying the class variable„n‟

We know that a single copy of class variable is shared by all the instances. So, if the class
variable is modified in the class namespace, since same copy of the variable is modified, the
modified copy is available to all the instances.
b) Instance namespace:
Every instance will have its own name space, called „instance namespace‟. In the
instance namespace, the names are mapped to instance variables. Every instance will have its
own namespace, if the class variable is modified in one instance namespace, it will not affect
the variables in the other instance namespaces. To access the class variable at the instance
level, we have to create instance first and then refer to the variable as instancename.variable.
Example:
classStudent:
n =10
s1 = Student( )
prints1.n # displays 10
s1.n +=1
prints1.n # displays11
 s2 = Student( )
prints2.n # displays11
Before modifying the classvariable„n‟ After modifying the class variable„n‟

Types of methods:
We can classify the methods in the following 3 types:
a) Instancemethods
 Accessormethods
 Mutatormethods
b) Classmethods
c) Staticmethods
a) Instance Methods:
Instance methods are the methods which act upon the instance variables of the
class.instance methods are bound to instances and hence called as:
instancename.method(). Since instance variables are available in the instance, instance
methods need to know the memory address of instance. This is provided through „self‟
variable by default as first parameter for the instance method. While calling the instance
methods, we need not pass any value to the „self‟ variable.
Example:
class Student:
definit(self,n='',b=''):
self.name=n
self.branch=b
def display(self):
print "Hi",self.name
print "Branch", self.branch
s1=Student()
s1.display()
print― ------------------------------ ‖
s2=Student("mothi","CSE")
s2.display()
print― ------------------------------ ‖
 Instance methods are of two types: accessor methods and mutatormethods.
 Accessor methods simply access of read data of the variables. They do not modify
the data in the variables. Accessor methods are generally written in the form of
getXXXX( ) and hence they are also called gettermethods.
 Mutator methods are the methods which not only read the data but also modify
them. They are written in the form of setXXXX( ) and hence they are also called
settermethods.
Example:
class Student:
def setName(self,n):
self.name = n
def setBranch(self,b):
self.branch = b
def getName(self):
return self.name
def getBranch(self):
return self.branch
s=Student()
name=input("Enter Name: ")
branch=input("Enter Branch:")
s.setName(name)
s.setBranch(branch)
print s.getName()
print s.getBranch()

b) Classmethods:
These methods act on class level. Class methods are the methods which act on
the class variables or static variables. These methods are written using
@classmethoddecorator above them. By default, the first parameter for class methods
is „cls‟ which refers to the class itself.
For example, „cls.var‟ is the format to the class variable. These methods are
generally called using classname.method( ). The processing which is commonly
needed by all the instances of class is handled by the class methods.
Example:
class Bird:
wings = 2

@classmethod
def fly(cls,name):
print name,"flieswith",cls.wings,"wings"

Bird.fly("parrot") #display "parrot flies with 2 wings"

Bird.fly("sparrow") #display "sparow flies with 2 wings"

c) Static methods:
We need static methods when the processing is at the class level but we need
not involve the class or instances. Static methods are used when some processing is
related to the class but does not need the class or its instances to perform any work.
For example, setting environmental variables, counting the number of
instances of the class or changing an attribute in another class, etc. are the tasks
related to aclass.
Such tasks are handled by static methods. Static methods are written with
decorator @staticmethod above them. Static methods are called in the form of
classname.method ( ).
 Example: class MyClass: n = 0
definit(self):
MyClass.n = Myclass.n + 1
def noObjects():
print "No. of instances created: ", MyClass.n
m1=MyClass()
m2=MyClass()
m3=MyClass()
MyClass.noObjects()
Inheritance:

 Software development is a team effort. Several programmers will work as a team to

developsoftware.
 When a programmer develops a class, he will use its features by creating an instance to
it. When another programmer wants to create another class which is similar to the class
already created, then he need not create the class from the scratch. He can simply use the
features of the existing class in creating his ownclass.
 Deriving new class from the super class is calledinheritance.
 The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can use those attributes
as if they were defined in the childclass.
 A child class can also override data members and methods from theparent.
Syntax:
class Subclass(BaseClass):
<class body>
 When an object is to SubClassis created, it contains a copy of BaseClass within it. This
means there is a relation between the BaseClass and SubClassobjects.
 We do not create BaseClassobject,but still a copy of it is available to SubClassobject.
 By using inheritance, a programmer can develop classes very easilt. Hence
programmer‟s productivity is increased. Productivity is a term that refers to the code
developed by the programmer in a given span oftime.
 If the programmer used inheritance, he will be able to develop more code in lesstime.
 In inheritance, we always create only the sub class object. Generally, we do not create
super class object. The reason is clear. Since all the members of the super class are
available to sub class, when we crate an object, we can access the members of both the
super and subclasses.
The super( ) method:
 super( ) is a built-in method which is useful to call the super class constructor or methods
from the subclass.
 Any constructor written in the super class is not available to the sub class if the sub class
has a constructor.
 Then how can we initialize the super class instance variables and use them in the sub
class? This is done by calling super class constructor using super( ) method from inside
the sub classconstructor.
 super( ) is a built-in method which contains the history of super classmethods.
 Hence, we can use super( ) to refer to super class constructor and methods from a
aubclass. So, super( ) can be usedas:
super().init() # call super classconstructor

super().init(arguments) # call super class constructor and pass arguments super().method() #

call super classmethod
Example: Write a python program to call the super class constructor in the sub class using super( ).
class Father:

definit(self, p = 0): self.property =

p

def display(self):

print "Father Property",self.property

class Son(Father):

definit(self,p1 = 0, p = 0):
Output: super().init(p1) self.property1
=p

def display(self):

print "Son Property",self.property+self.property1 s=Son(200000,500000)

isplay()

Son Property 700000

Example: Write a python program to access base class constructor and method in the sub class using
super( ).
class Square:

definit(self, x = 0):
self.x = x

def area(self):

print "Area of square", self.x * self.x

classRectangle(Square):

definit(self, x = 0, y = 0):
super().init(x)

self.y = y def
area(self):

super().area()

print "Area of Rectangle", self.x * self.y r =

Rectangle(5,16)

r.area()

Output:
Area of square 25 Area
of Rectangle 80
Types of Inheritance:
There are mainly 2 types of inheritance.
a) Singleinheritance
b) Multipleinheritance
a) Single inheritance
Deriving one or more sub classes from a single base class is called „single
inheritance‟. In single inheritance, we always have only one base class, but there can
be n number of sub classes derived from it. For example, „Bank‟ is a single base clas
from where we derive „AndhraBank‟ and „StateBank‟ as sub classes. This is called
single inheritance.
Example:
class Bank:
cash = 100

@classmethoddefb
alance(cls):

printcls.cash

class AndhraBank(Bank):
cash = 500
@classmethod

def balance(cls):

print "AndhraBank",cls.cash + Bank.cash class

StateBank(Bank):

cash = 300
@classmethoddef
balance(cls):

print "StateBank",cls.cash + Bank.cash

a=AndhraBank()

a.balance() # displays AndhraBank 600

s=StateBank()

s.balance() #displays StateBank400

b) Multiple inheritance
Deriving sub classes from multiple (or more than one)base classes is called
„multiple inheritance‟. All the members of super classes are by default available to sub
classes and the sub classes in turn can have their own members.
The best example for multiple inheritance is that parents are producing the children and
the children inheriting the qualities of the parents.

Example:
class Father:

def height(self):

print "Height is 5.8 incehs" class

Mother:

defcolor(self):

print "Color is brown" class

Child(Father, Mother):
 p ()
a
s c.height() # displays Height is 5.8 incehsc.color() #
s displays Color is brown

c
=
C
h
i
l
d

Problem in Multiple inheritance:

 If the sub class has a constructor, it overrides the super class constructor and
hence the super class constructor is not available to the subclass.
 But writing constructor is very common to initialize the instancevariables.
 In multiple inheritance, let‟s assume that a sub class „C‟ is derived from two
super classes „A‟ and „B‟ having their own constructors. Even the sub class „C‟
also has itsconstructor.
 Example-1:
class A(object):

definit(self):

print"ClassA" Output:

classB(object): Class A

definit(self): ClassC

print "Class B"

classC(A,B,object):

definit(self): super().init()
print "ClassC"

c1= C()

Example-2:
class A(object):

definit(self): super().init()

print"ClassA" Output:

classB(object): Class B

definit(self): Class A

super().init() ClassC

print "Class B"

classC(A,B,object):

definit(self): super().init()
print "ClassC"

c1= C()

Method Overriding:
When there is a method in the super class, writing the same method in the sub class so
that it replaces the super class method is called „method overriding‟. The programmer
overrides the super class methods when he does not want to use them in sub class.
Example:
import math
class square:

def area(slef, r):

print "Square area=",r * r class

Circle(Square):

def area(self, r):

print "Circle area=", math.pi * r * r c=Circle()

c.area(15) # displays Circle area= 706.85834

Data hiding:
 An object's attributes may or may not be visible outside the class definition. You need
to name attributes with a double underscore prefix, and those attributes then are not be
directly visible tooutsiders.
Example:
classJustCounter:

secretCount = 0
defcount(self):

self.secretCount += 1
print self.secretCount

counter = JustCounter()
counter.count()
counter.count()

print counter.secretCount
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
1
2

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "C:/Python27/JustCounter.py", line 9, in <module>
print counter.secretCount
AttributeError: JustCounter instance has no attribute 'secretCount'
Python protects those members by internally changing the name to include the class
name. You can access such attributes as object._classNameattrName. If you would replace
your last line as following, then it works for you:
.........................
print counter._JustCountersecretCount
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:
1
2
2

Errors and Exceptions:

As human beings, we commit several errors. A software developer is also a human
being and hence prone to commit errors wither in the design of the software or in writing the
code.Theerrorsinthesoftwarearecalled„bugs‟andtheprocessofremovingthemarecalled
„debugging‟. In general, we can classify errors in a program into one of these three types:
a) Compile-time errors
b) Runtime errors
c) Logicalerrors
a) Compile-time errors
These are syntactical errors found in the code, due to which a program fails to
compile. For example, forgetting a colon in the statements like if, while, for, def, etc.
will result in compile-time error. Such errors are detected by python compiler and the
line number along with error description is displayed by the python compiler.

Example: A Python program to understand the compile-time error.

a=1
if a == 1
print ―hello‖
Output:
File ex.py, line 3
If a == 1
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

b) Runtime errors
When PVM cannot execute the byte code, it flags runtime error. For example,
insufficient memory to store something or inability of PVM to execute some
statement come under runtime errors. Runtime errors are not detected by the python
compiler. They are detected by the PVM, Only atruntime.

Example: A Python program to understand the compile-time error.

print "hai"+25
 Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#0>", line 1, in <module>
print "hai"+25
TypeError: cannot concatenate 'str' and 'int' objects
c) Logicalerrors
These errors depict flaws in the logic of the program. The programmer might
be using a wrong formula of the design of the program itself is wrong. Logical errors
are not detected either by Python compiler of PVM. The programme is solely
responsible for them. In the following program, the programmer wants to calculate
incremented salary of an employee, but he gets wrong output, since he uses wrong
formula.
Example: A Python program to increment the salary of an employee by 15%.
def increment(sal):

sal = sal * 15/100

return sal

sal = increment(5000)

print ―Salary after Increment is‖, sal

Output:
Salary after Increment is 750

From the above program the formula for salary is wrong, because only the
increment but it is not adding it to the original salary. So, the correct formula would
be:
sal = sal + sal * 15/100

 Compile time errors and runtime errors can be eliminated by the programmer by
modifying the program sourcecode.
 In case of runtime errors, when the programmer knows which type of error occurs, he
has to handle them using exception handlingmechanism.
Exceptions:
 An exception is a runtime error which can be handled by the programmer.
 That means if the programmer can guess an error in the program and he can do
somethingtoeliminatetheharmcaused bythaterror,thenitiscalledan„exception‟.
 If the programmer cannot do anything in case of an error, then it is called an „error‟
and not anexception.
 All exceptions are represented as classes in python. The exceptions which are already
available in python are called „built-in‟ exceptions. The base class for all built-in
exceptions is „BaseException‟class.
 From BaseException class, the sub class „Exception‟ is derived. From Exception
class, the sub classes „StandardError‟ and „Warning‟ arederived.
 All errors (or exceptions) are defined as sub classes of StandardError. An error should
be compulsory handled otherwise the program will notexecute.
 Similarly, all warnings are derived as sub classes from „Warning‟ class. A warning
represents a caution and even though it is not handled, the program will execute. So,
warnings can be neglected but errors cannotneglect.
 Just like the exceptions which are already available in python language, a programmer
can also create his own exceptions, called „user-defined‟exceptions.
Exception Handling:
 Thepurposeofhandlingerrorsistomaketheprogramrobust.Theword„robust‟means
„strong‟. A robust program does not terminate in the middle.
 Also, when there is an error in the program, it will display an appropriate message to the
user and continueexecution.
 Designing such programs is needed in any softwaredevelopment.
 For that purpose, the programmer should handle the errors. When the errors can be
handled, they are calledexceptions.
To handle exceptions, the programmer should perform the following four steps:
Step 1: The programmer should observe the statements in his program where there may be a
possibility of exceptions. Such statements should be written inside a „try‟ block. A try block
looks like as follows:
try:
statements
The greatness of try block is that even if some exception arises inside it, the program
will not be terminated. When PVM understands that there is an exception, it jumps into an
„except‟ block.
Step 2: The programmer should write the „except‟ block where he should display the
exception details to the user. This helps the user to understand that there is some error in the
program. The programmer should also display a message regarding what can be done to
avoid this error. Except block looks like asfollows:
except exceptionname:
statements
The statements written inside an except block are called „handlers‟ since they handle the
situation when the exception occurs.
Step 3: If no exception is raised, the statements inside the „else‟ block is executed. Else block
looks like as follows:
else:
statements
Step 4: Lastly, the programmer should perform clean up actions like closing the files and
 terminating any other processes which are running. The programmer should write this code in
the finally block. Finally block looks like as follows:
finally:

statements

The speciality of finally block is that the statements inside the finally block are
executed irrespective of whether there is an exception or not. This ensures that all the opened
files are properly closed and all the running processes are properly terminated. So, the data in
the files will not be corrupted and the user is at the safe-side.
Here, the complete exception handling syntax will be in the following format:
try:

statements
exceptException1:

statements
exceptException2:

statements
else:

statements
finally:

statements

The following points are followed in exception handling:

 A single try block can be followed by several exceptblocks.
 Multiple except blocks can be used to handle multipleexceptions.
 We cannot write except blocks without a tryblock.
 We can write a try block without any exceptblocks.
 Else block and finally blocks are notcompulsory.
 When there is no exception, else block is executed after tryblock.
 Finally block is alwaysexecuted.
Example: A python program to handle IOError produced by open() function.
import sys
try:

f = open('myfile.txt','r') s =
f.readline()

print s
f.close()

except IOError as e:

print "I/O error", e.strerror

except:

print "Unexpected error:"

Output:I/O error No such file or directory

In the if the file is not found, then IOErroris raised. Then „except‟ block will display a
message: „I/O error‟. if the file is found, then all the lines of the file are read using
readline()method.
List of Standard Exceptions
Exception Name Description
Exception Base class for all exceptions
Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not point to
StopIteration
any object.
SystemExit Raised by the sys.exit() function.
Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration and
StandardError
SystemExit.
ArithmeticError Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation.
Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a
OverflowError
numeric type.
FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails.
Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all
ZeroDivisionError
numeric types.
AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement.
AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or assignment.
Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input() or
EOFError
input() function and the end of file is reached.
ImportError Raised when an import statement fails.
Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually by
KeyboardInterrupt
pressing Ctrl+c.
LookupError Base class for all lookup errors.
IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a sequence.
KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary.
Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global
NameError
namespace.
Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or
UnboundLocalError
method but no value has been assigned to it.
Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python
EnvironmentError
environment.
Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the print
IOError statement or the open() function when trying to open a file that
does not exist.
OSError Raised for operating system-related errors.
SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.
IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly.
Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but when
SystemError
this error is encountered the Python interpreter does not exit.
Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the sys.exit()
SystemExit function. If not handled in the code, causes the interpreter to
exit.
Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is
TypeError
invalid for the specified data type.
Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid
ValueError type of arguments, but the arguments have invalid values
specified.
RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category.
Raised when an abstract method that needs to be implemented
NotImplementedError
in an inherited class is not actually implemented.
 The Except Block:
The „except‟ block is useful to catch an exception that is raised in the try block. When
there is an exception in the try block, then only the except block is executed. it is written in
various formats.
1. To catch the exception which is raised in the try block, we can write except block with
the Exceptionclass nameas:
except Exceptionclass:
2. We can catch the exception as an object that contains some description about the
exception.
except Exceptionclass as obj:
3. To catch multiple exceptions, we can write multiple catch blocks. The other way is to
use a single except block and write all the exceptions as a tuple inside paranthesesas:
except (Exceptionclass1, Exceptionclass2, ):
4. To catch any type of exception where we are not bothered about which type of
exception it is, we can write except block without mentioning any Exceptionclass name
as:
except:
Example:
try:

f = open('myfile.txt','w')
a=input("Enter a value ")
b=input("Enter a value ")
c=a/float(b)

s = f.write(str(c))

print ―Result is stored‖

except ZeroDivisionError:

print "Division is not possible" except:

Output:
print "Unexpected error:"
finally:

f.close()

Enter a value 1
Enter a value 5
Result is stored
 Raising an Exception
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general
syntax for the raise statement is as follows.
raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]
Here, Exception is the type of exception (For example, NameError) and argument is a
value for the exception argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the exception
argument is None.
For Example, If you need to determine whether an exception was raised but don‟t
intend to handle it, a simpler form of the raise statement allows you to re-raise the exception:
try:
raise NameError('HiThere')
except NameError:
print 'An exception flew by!'
raise

User-Defined Exceptions:
 Like the built-in exceptions of python, the programmer can also create his own
exceptionswhicharecalled„User-definedexceptions‟or„Customexceptions‟. Weknow
Python offers many exceptions which will raise in different contexts.
 But, there may be some situations where none of the exceptions in Python are useful for
the programmer. In that case, the programme has to create his/her own exception and
raiseit.
 For example, let‟s take a bank where customers have accounts. Each account is
characterized should by customer name and balanceamount.
 The rule of the bank is that every customer should keep minimum Rs. 2000.00 as balance
amount in hisaccount.
 The programmer now is given a task to check the accounts to know every customer is
maintaining minimum balance of Rs. 2000.00 ornot.
 If the balance amount is below Rs. 2000.00, then the programmer wants to raise an
exception saying „Balance amount is less in the account of so and so person.‟ This will
be helpful to the bank authorities to find out thecustomer.
 So, the programmer wants an exception that is raised when the balance amount in an
account is less than Rs. 2000.00. Since there is no such exception available in python, the
programme has to create his/her ownexception.
 For this purpose, he/she has to follow thesesteps:

1. Since all exceptions are classes, the programmeis supposed to create his own
exceptionasaclass.Also,heshouldmakehisclassasasubclasstothein-built
„Exception‟ class.
class MyException(Exception):
definit(self, arg):
self.msg = arg
Here, MyException class is the sub class for „Exception‟ class. This class has a
constructor where a variable „msg‟ is defined. This „msg‟ receives a message passed
from outside through „arg‟.

2. The programmer can write his code; maybe it represents a group of statements or a
 function. When the programmer suspects the possibility of exception, he should raise
his own exception using „raise‟ statementas:
raise MyException(‘message’)
Here, raise statement is raising MyException class object that contains the given
„message‟.

3. The programmer can insert the code inside a „try‟ block and catch the exceptionusing
„except‟ block as:
try:
code
except MyException as me:
print me

Here, the object „me‟ contains the message given in the raise statement. All these
steps are shown in below program.
Example:
class MyException(Exception): definit(self, arg):
self.msg = arg def check(dict):
for k,v in dict.items():
print "Name=",k,"Balance=",v if v<2000.00:
raise MyException("Balance amount is less in the account of "+k)

bank={"ravi":5000.00,"ramu":8500.00,"raju":1990.00} try:
check(bank)
except MyException as me: print me.msg

Output:

Name= ramu Balance= 8500.0 Name= ravi

Balance= 5000.0 Name= raju Balance= 1990.0
Balance amount is less in the account of raju