TRANSFORMER

A. TRANSFORMER BASIC THEORY

A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to one or more circuits. A varying current in any one coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a
varying electromotive force across any other coils wound around the same core.
Electrical energy can be transferred between the (possibly many) coils, without a
metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in
1831 described the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing magnetic flux
encircled by the coil.

Figure 1 Transformer

Transformers are used for increasing alternating voltages at low current (Step Up
Transformer) or decreasing the alternating voltages at high current (Step Down
Transformer) in electric power applications, and for coupling the stages of signal
processing circuits.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers
have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating
current electric power.[2] A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in
electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size
from RF transformers less than a cubic centi-meter in volume, to units weighing
hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power grid.

B. PARTS OF TRANSFORMER
Transformers are used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another
through electromagnetic induction. They are used either to step-up or step-down voltage
levels. A transformer is made of several different parts that function in their own
different ways to enhance the overall functioning of a transformer. These include core,
windings, insulating materials, transformer oil, tap changer, conservator, breather,
cooling tubes, Buchholz Relay and explosion vent. The core, windings, insulating
materials and transformer oil are seen in almost every transformer, while the other
components are seen in transformers that are more than 50 KVA.

Figure 2 Parts of Transformer

1. Cores
The core of the transformer is used to support the windings. It is made of soft
iron to reduce eddy current loss and Hysteresis loss, and provides low reluctance
path to the flow of magnetic flux. The diameter of a transformer’s core is directly
proportional to copper loss and inversely proportional to iron loss.
 Figure 3 Laminated Steel Core

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths

that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce
losses, but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are
generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel
laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

Figure 4 Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-
shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I
transformer'. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to
manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a
rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming
two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a
steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the
metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when
power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a
high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually
 after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices such
as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass.
On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines,
induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can
cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made
with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal
alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the
transformer by its lower losses at light load.

2. Windings
Windings consist of several copper coil turns bundled together, each bundle
connected to form a complete winding. Windings can be based either on the input-
output supply or on the voltage range. Windings that are based on supply are
classified into primary and secondary windings, meaning the windings to which the
input and output voltage is applied respectively. On the other hand, windings based
on voltage range can be classified into high voltage and low voltage windings.

Figure 5 Winding of Transformer

Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the

winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps
may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for
changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in electric power
transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for
automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used
for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow
adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used
in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation
transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.
3. Insulating Materials
Insulating materials like papers and card boards are used to isolate primary and
secondary windings from each other as well as the transformer core. These windings
are made of copper due to high conductivity and ductility. High conductivity
minimizes the amount of copper needed and minimizes losses. Moreover, high
ductility results in easy bending of conductors into tight winding around the core
that also minimizes the amount of copper and volume of winding.

Figure 6 Insulating Materials

Inter-turn insulation of small transformers may be a layer of insulating varnish

on the wire. Layer of paper or polymer films may be inserted between layers of
windings, and between primary and secondary windings. A transformer may be
coated or dipped in a polymer resin to improve the strength of windings and protect
them from moisture or corrosion. The resin may be impregnated into the winding
insulation using combinations of vacuum and pressure during the coating process,
eliminating all air voids in the winding. In the limit, the entire coil may be placed in
a mold and resin cast around it as a solid block, encapsulating the windings.
Large oil-filled power transformers use windings wrapped with insulating
paper, which is impregnated with oil during assembly of the transformer. Oil-filled
transformers use highly refined mineral oil to insulate and cool the windings and
core. Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the
windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced.
Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, by circulating externally
heated transformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent
transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. For small transformers,
resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used.

4. Transformer Oil
 The transformer oil insulates as well as cools the core and coil assembly. The
core and windings of the transformer must be completely immersed in the oil that
normally contains hydrocarbon mineral oils.

Figure 7 Transformer Oil (Blue Coloured)

Transformer oil is also used to preserve the transformer’s core and windings –
as these are fully immersed inside the oil. Another important property of the
insulating oil is its ability to prevent oxidation of the cellulose-made paper
insulation. The transformer oil acts as a barrier between the atmospheric oxygen and
the cellulose – avoiding direct contact and hence minimizing oxidation. The level of
transformer oil is typically measured using a MOG (Magnetic Oil level Guage).
There are two types of oil transformer that mainly used, they are paraffin
based transformer oil and naphtha based transformer oil.
Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than paraffin oil. But the product of
oxidation – i.e. sludge – in the naphtha oil is more soluble than the sludge from the
paraffin oil. Thus sludge of naphtha-based oil is not precipitated in the bottom of the
transformer. Hence it does not obstruct convection circulation of the oil, means it
does not disturb the transformer cooling system.
Although Paraffin oil has a lower oxidation rate than Naphtha oil, the
oxidation product (sludge) is insoluble and precipitated at the bottom of the tank.
This sludge acts as an obstruction to the transformer cooling system. Another
problem with paraffin-based oil that the dissolved waxes inside of it can lead to a
high pour point. Although this is not an issue in warmer climate conditions (such as
Indonesia).

5. Conservator
The conservator is an airtight metallic cylindrical drum fitted above the
transformer that conserves the transformer oil. It is vented at the top and is filled
only half with the oil to allow expansion and contraction during temperature
variations. However the main tank of the transformer with which the conservator is
connected is completely filled with the oil through a pipeline.
 Figure 8 Conservator Tank Transformer

6. Breather
The breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel, which is used to
keep the air that enters the tank moisture-free. This is because the insulating oil
when reacts with moisture can affect the insulation and cause internal faults, which
is why it is a must to keep the air free from moisture. In the breather, when the air
passes through the silica gel, the moisture contents are absorbed by the silica
crystals.

Figure 9 Breather of Transformer

Figure 10 Silica Gel

7. Tap Changer
To balance voltage variations within the transformer, tap changers are used.
There are two types of tap changers – on load and off load. In on load tap changers,
tapping can be changed without isolating transformer from the supply, while in off
load, the transformer needs to be disconnected from the supply.

Figure 11 Tap Changer Transformer

Tap changers exist in two primary types, no load tap changers (NLTC), which
must be de-energized before the turn ratio is adjusted, and on load tap changers
(OLTC), which may adjust their turn ratio during operation. The tap selection on any
tap changer may be made via an automatic system, as is often the case for OLTC, or
a manual tap changer, which is more common for NLTC. Automatic tap changers
can be placed on a lower or higher voltage winding, but for high-power generation
and transmission applications, automatic tap changers are often placed on the higher
voltage (lower current) transformer winding for easy access and to minimize the
current load during operation
A. No-Load Tap Changer (NLTC)
No-load tap changer (NLTC), also known as Off-circuit tap changer
(OCTC) or De-energized tap changer (DETC), is a tap changer utilized in
situations in which a transformer's turn ratio does not require frequent changing
and it is permissible to de-energize the transformer system. This type of
transformer is frequently employed in low power, low voltage transformers in
which the tap point often may take the form of a transformer connection
terminal, requiring the input line to be disconnected by hand and connected to
the new terminal. Alternatively, in some systems, the process of tap changing
may be assisted by means of a rotary or slider switch.
No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage distribution-type
transformers in which the system includes a no load tap changer on the primary
winding to accommodate transmission system variations within a narrow band
around the nominal rating. In such systems, the tap changer will often be set just
 once, at the time of installation, although it may be changed later to
accommodate a long-term change in the system voltage profile.
B. On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC)
On-load tap changer (OLTC), also known as On-circuit tap changer
(OCTC), is a tap changer in applications where a supply interruption during a
tap change is unacceptable, the transformer is often fitted with a more expensive
and complex on load tap changing mechanism. On load tap changers may be
generally classified as either mechanical, electronically assisted, or fully
electronic.
These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at centre "Rated" tap and
sixteen to increase and decrease the turn ratio) and allow for ±10%
variation[3] (each step providing 0.625% variation) from the nominal transformer
rating which, in turn, allows for stepped voltage regulation of the output.
Tap changers typically use numerous tap selector switches which may not
be switched under load, broken into even and odd banks, and switch between
the banks with a heavy-duty diverter switch which can switch between them
under load. The result operates like a dual-clutch transmission, with the tap
selector switches taking the place of the gearbox and the diverter switch taking
the place of the clutch.

8. Cooling Tubes
As the name suggests, cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The
circulation of oil within the transformer may be natural or forced. In the case of
natural circulation, when the oil temperature rises, the hot oil naturally moves to the
top and cold oil moves down, while in case of forced circulation, an eternal pump is
used.

Figure 12 Transformer Cooling Tube

Cooling system in the transformer has many types, the main component is oil,
air and water. Below will be explain the difference of transformer cooling system
with oil immersed.
A. Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the
heat generated in the core and winding is transferred to the oil. According to
 the principle of convection, the heated oil flows in the upward direction and
then in the radiator.

Figure 13 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from the radiator. The heat
from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow around
the transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to
natural convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural
conduction. This method can be used for transformers up to about 30 MVA.
B. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

Figure 14 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on

the dissipating surface. Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural
air flow. In this method, fans are mounted near the radiator and may be
provided with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on when
 temperature increases beyond certain value. This transformer cooling method
is generally used for large transformers up to about 60 MVA.
C. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

Figure 15 Oil Forced Air Forced

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil
circulation is forced through the heat exchangers. Then compressed air is
forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of fans. The heat
exchangers may be mounted separately from the transformer tank and
connected through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type of
cooling is provided for higher rating transformers at substations or power
stations.
D. Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

Figure 16 Oil Forced Water Forced

This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is
used to dissipate hear from the heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow
through the heat exchanger with the help of a pump, where the heat is
dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow. The heated water is taken
away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in very large
transformers having rating of several hundred MVA.

9. Buchholz Relay
Placed over the connecting pipe that runs from the main tank to conservator
tank the Buchholz Relay senses the faults occurring within the transformer. It
 operates by the gases emitted due to decomposition of transformer oil during internal
faults. Thus, this device is used to sense and in turn protect the transformer from
internal faults.

Figure 17 Inside View from Buchholz relay

Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing

transformer. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas
produced by decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay and
forces the oil level down. A float switch in the relay is used to initiate an alarm
signal. Depending on design, a second float may also serve to detect slow oil leaks.
If an electrical arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into
the conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the
path of the moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate
the apparatus before the fault causes additional damage. Buchholz relays have a test
port to allow the accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing. Flammable gas found
in the relay indicates some internal fault such as overheating or arcing, whereas air
found in the relay may only indicate low oil level or a leak.
Through a connected gas sampling device the control can also be made from
the ground. Depending on the requirements, the Buchholz relay has a flange or
threaded connection. The classic Buchholz relay has to comply with the
requirements of the DIN EN 50216-2 standard. Depending on the requirements, it is
equipped with up to four (2 per float) switches or change-over switches, which can
either send a light signal or switch off the transformer.
The relay was first developed by Max Buchholz (1875–1956) in 1921.

10. Explosion Vent

 The boiling hot oil from the transformer is expelled during internal faults
through the explosion vent to avoid explosion of the transformer. This is generally
placed above the level of the conservatory tank.

C. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two
circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two
coils that are electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a
path of reluctance. The working principle of the transformer can be understood from the
figure below.

Figure 18 Core and Two Main Windings Transformer

As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings.
The core laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see
that there are some narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These
staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance.
A mutual electro-motive force is induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that
is set up in the laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating
voltage. Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil
and thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. If the second coil circuit is
closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred magnetically from
the first to the second coil. The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and
hence it can be called as the primary winding. The energy is drawn out from the second
coil and thus can be called as the secondary winding.

D. GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
Generator Transformer is Transformer step-up which is the primary side directly
connected from the Generator Main Circuit Breaker ((*0BAC10), and the secondary side
connected to the overhead line. Generator Transformer (*0BAT10) in PT Bhumi Jepara
 Service, has function to raise up the voltage from 26kV (Generator) to the 525kV (OHL).
This Transformer has a power of 1200MVA.

Figure 19 Generator Transformer

E. UNIT AUXILLARY TRANSFORMER

F. EXCITATION TRANSFORMER
G. 10k/3kV TRANSFORMER
H. 10k/380V TRANSFORMER
I. 3k/380V TRANSFORMER
J. NEUTRAL GROUNDING RESISTANCE TRANSFORMER