Chapter 15

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

Learning Objectives:
1. Know what a qualitative research is and describe the qualitative research approaches.
2. Identify the usage of qualitative research.
3. Know what a qualitative data analysis is and enumerate the key steps during qualitative
data analysis.
4. Enumerate and describe the various approaches during the qualitative data analysis and
interpretation.
5. Know the considerations to withstand the judgement on the issues about the validity and
reliability of a qualitative research. Describe the core ethical principles and identify the
specific ethical issues which are involved in the qualitative research.
Overview:
1. Introduction
2. The Qualitative Research and its Definition
3. The Use of Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research
4. The Qualitative Approaches
5. Analyzing Qualitative Data
6. Validity in Qualitative Research
7. Ethical Considerations

1. Introduction
This chapter will cover and will deal with the enlightenment about the qualitative data
analysis. This will explain what a qualitative research is and also its usage. The chapter will also
cover the differentiation of qualitative research and quantitative research in terms of their use.
The key steps to follow during the quantitative data analysis will also be discussed. And as part
of the research study, ethical considerations are also given emphasis on this chapter.
2. The Qualitative Research and its Definition
A scientific process and method of non-numerical data gathering is known as a
Qualitative Research. This type of research is used in describing how an issue is experienced by
the people and the society wherein this type of research allows gathering of data by getting and
knowing the side of every individual involved in the issue (Dey, I.; 2003). This research involves
qualitative methods and covers study on immaterial factors such as values, influences and
opinions.
To further discuss, enumerated below are the two core approaches of the Analysis of
Qualitative Data.
(a) Deductive Approach. This type of approach of the qualitative research involves data
analysis that is based on the evidence through predictions and predetermination. An

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 approach originated from empirical pole to the theoretical pole. This is also known to be
an easy and quick approach of the qualitative data analysis most especially when you
already have an idea about responses of the chosen sample of the population.
(b) Inductive Approach. The inductive approach of the qualitative data analysis includes data
analysis that is gathered from all information and data available in order to formulate
general concepts and ideas. This is an approach opposite to the Deductive Approach
because this approach is originated from the theoretical pole to the empirical pole.
Opposite from the previous approach, this approach is a time- consuming one for a
qualitative research especially when the researcher knows only a little about a certain
issue or phenomenon.

Figure No. 15.1

Inductive Approach and Deductive Approach

3. The Use of Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research

Presented below is the table of describing the key differences between the types of
researches: qualitative and quantitative. This would help in the determination of the appropriate
method for the research.
Table No. 15.1
Qualitative Research versus Quantitative Research
FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
The WHAT? And the WHY? The HOW MANY?
This seeks to explore, explain, and understand This seeks to confirm a hypothesis about a
a certain issue and phenomena. certain issue and phenomena.
The data provided are in narrative form, also The data provided is in numerical form and
in pictures and objects. the results are statistical.
Data are gathered through interviews, content Data are gathered through questionnaires,
analysis, observations, etc. instruments, etc.
Use of less structured methods is applied in a Use of highly structured methods is applied in
Qualitative Research. a Quantitative Research.

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Open- ended questions are asked for the Closed- ended questions are asked in order to
purpose of exploration on a certain topic and have answers and feedback to be quantified.
phenomenon.
The research design is flexible in nature. The research design is highly- structured in
This means that it can appear and grow as the nature. It focuses on the advancement of the
process of study develops and continues. study.

The presentation of results is subjective. It The results are presented and documented in
may reveal biases, experiences and values an objective approach.
which affect how the results are interpreted.

4. The Qualitative Approaches

The research questions for the analysis will give and provide the researcher the data that
is qualitative in for. And by the time that he has formulated the questions. The next thing to do is
to decide on the most apposite qualitative approach for the research study. The objective of the
research, the author’s part, the collected data, the process of data analysis, and the manner on
how the results are to be presented are considered in choosing the appropriate approach.
Some of the common types of qualitative approaches are narrative, grounded theory,
ethnography, case study and phenomenology. To help for the determination and identification of
the appropriate approach for the research, the table below is provided. The table is presented in a
way of providing comparison among the qualitative research approaches across their
characteristics which are considered for proper selection of the qualitative research approach.

Table No. 15.2

Qualitative Research Approaches vs. Focus

QUALITATIVE
FOCUS
RESEARCH APPROACH
This approach is in the form of telling a story. An example of
NARRATIVE
this is the exploration on the life of an individual.
This approach aims and seeks to understand or provide an
PHENOMENOLOGY
explanation about life experiences, situations, and phenomena.
This approach aims to conduct an investigation on a particular
situation, process, or action and interaction. The main goal of
GROUNDED THEORY
this approach is to build up a theory that is based on the collected
data through observations.
This approach is focused on the description and interpretation of
ETHNOGRAPHY
social groups (such as ethnic or cultural groups).
CASE STUDY This qualitative research approach is on the explanation of how.
This is focused on the examination of situations and events in a
defined diagram or framework.
The approach is also focused in the development of depth

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 analysis of multiple studies and cases.

Table No. 15.3

Qualitative Research Approaches vs. Data Collection

QUALITATIVE
DATA COLLECTION
RESEARCH APPROACH
NARRATIVE This approach is in the form of interviews and documents.
This approach includes the data collection primarily through
PHENOMENOLOGY
interviews and keen observations.
This approach gathers data through formal interviews that would
GROUNDED THEORY take twenty minutes to thirty minutes talk with the involved
individuals and personalities.
The approach for the data collection on this includes immersion.
ETHNOGRAPHY The approach is to conduct interviews and observations of an
active particular cultural group.
The data collection for this approach includes documentation of
CASE STUDY the cases, interviews, archives, observations and artifacts
(physical).

Table No. 15.4

Qualitative Research Approaches vs. Data Collection

QUALITATIVE
DATA ANALYSIS
RESEARCH APPROACH
This approach analyzes stories and reviews of contents such as
NARRATIVE historical one. An example of this is development of topics and
themes.
This approach’s analysis includes the study and description of
PHENOMENOLOGY experiences. Examination of meaning and the topic’s content,
location of the theme and the classification of a particular theme.
The data analysis for this particular approach involves coding
(such as open, axial and selective).The coding will be used for
GROUNDED THEORY
the classification of the category of the data. It also includes the
description on the category’s implications.
The data analysis and theme development for this particular
ETHNOGRAPHY
approach involves the description and interpretation of findings.
The highlight for this approach is the development of detailed
CASE STUDY analysis. Identification of themes and making assertions are also
involved in this approach.
Table No. 15.5

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 Qualitative Research Approaches vs. Written Report Forms

QUALITATIVE
WRITTEN REPORT FORMS
RESEARCH APPROACH
This approach includes the detailed visualization of the life of
NARRATIVE the person. It is often in the form of chronological order and the
form of biography.
This approach includes the report of the importance and essence
of the situation and experience. Also the description of the
PHENOMENOLOGY
context and content of the experience and a particular
phenomenon.
The approach includes the report of presenting results in a
GROUNDED THEORY theory, a theoretical model, a diagram or a figure wherein the
phenomena is represented.
The approach includes the report of presenting results in the
ETHNOGRAPHY
description of a cultural behaviour of a certain cultural group.
The case study approach includes the in- depth discussion on the
study of a case. This includes description of the case, description
CASE STUDY
of the themes and also the possible lessons that are learned
during the conduct of the study.

5. Analyzing Qualitative Data

The process wherein the qualitative data gathered are analyzed is called as Qualitative
Data Analysis. To have a thick account of the investigation about the phenomena or certain
situation is considered as one of the main tasks of qualitative data analysis. This thick description
(as discussed and stated by Clifford Geertz in the year 1973) is to explain the in-depth version
that the qualitative researchers attempt to accomplish when discussing their research projects
(Silva, D. A., 2016).

Data Category Pattern Data

Data Analysis and Identification Interpretation
Familiarity Focus Framework and Making and Findings
Creation Connection Explanation

Figure No. 15.2

Common Key Steps: Qualitative Data Analysis

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 Observations, symbols and words comprise the qualitative data. And in order to analyze
these data, listed here are the summary of the common key steps to follow during qualitative data
analysis.
a. Data familiarity. The researcher must become familiar with the data. Every researcher
must know how to read and read and read the data in order to familiarize himself more
about it. While reading, the researcher can jot down notes, or write down any pieces of
idea and concept to come up with the meaning.
b. Analysis focus. The researcher, during this step, identifies different key questions which
would be answered during the analysis. So the approach in here is to focus on the
analysis in order to come up with the answers to a particular question or objective.
Another way is to relate it to certain situation.
c. Data category and framework creation. This involves the coding wherein the
researcher starts to identify the themes which are consisted of various concepts and ideas.
Coding is used to tag the data and to make it more organized and more easy when it
comes to data retrieval. The examples of popular coding are Descriptive coding (wherein
the themes are summarized), In- Vivo coding (which is the language of the participants
are used as reference for coding), and Pattern coding (it is where the basis of coding is
through looking for themes and patterns). This coding system helps in order to create a
framework that would define the data. The framework to be created can be explanatory in
nature or an explanatory one.
d. Pattern Identification and Making Connection. In this particular key step, the
researcher must know the identification of themes and describe its importance and
relationships based on the data received.
e. Data Interpretation and Findings Explanation. After identifying the data, themes,
importance and relationships, the researcher’s task now is to know its definition and
connotation to the data. On this key step, it is advisable to develop new knowledge and
ideas, data diagrams, or different types of models in order to further clarify the findings
on the research.
During the process of qualitative data analysis, enumerated and explained below is the
list of various approaches that are commonly used.
a. Analysis of Content. This involves the analysis and interpretation of data (it can be
verbal or behavioural). The data are analyzed through descriptive and interpretative
manner.
b. Narrative Analysis. This analysis approach often includes reformulation of accounts
stated and written by other people in a different content and in a different experience they
had (Rich, M., 1999). Various sources that are used for this analysis are written forms
like surveys, diaries, notes, and listings during interviews.
c. Discourse Analysis. This analysis includes the way people are expressing themselves
through the language they are using in everyday situation. It is a method of analysis
wherein communication is the main source. Examples are interactions and written texts.
d. Grounded Theory. This is an approach wherein the development of explanations for a
given situation of the cases being studied. It is where the researcher comes up to a
concept in which all the studied cases are fit into it (Rich, M., and Ginsburg, K. R ,1999).
e. Conversation Analysis. This analysis takes into account the principle of people in
conversation. It is where examination of languages is a key concept.

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 It must be noted that in engaging in qualitative data analysis, the core and main concern is the
key concepts and ideas in the data for the research study. Knowing that key concepts and phrases
serve as guides, they are considered as the building blocks of the theories and principles.

6. Validity in Qualitative Research

Being subjective and contextual, qualitative researches are more questioned and assessed
(compare with the quantitative researches). Due to this reason, every researcher is taking
processes to have it sure that the research findings they will get are suitable and trustworthy. It is
also very important to have valid and credible findings for these findings are intended to be a
useful tool to readers. And this can serve as a new reference for other researchers who are also
doing a research study about the matter.
Reliability is referred to how the results are consistent that the findings will still be the
same even if the procedure is repeated. While validity is the term used to refer with the level of
accuracy of the results and findings during the research study (Rich, M., and Ginsburg, K. R ,
1999).
It has been said in the above statement that the qualitative researches are being judged in
terms of its validity and credibility. So, serious considerations are given to the following to
withstand the judgement.
a. Credibility. This questions the data if it is trustworthy enough. It is more on the content
of the data and not about the number of data gathered. This can involve cross checking in
order to test its validity wherein the respondents involved in the research can tell and
decide if the findings are those that actually reflected in a given situation (Bryman, A.,
2012).
b. Transferability. This is about the ability for the research to get transferred into other
content. The results reflected are generalized in order to be applied even with the similar
situation or phenomenon (Bryman, A., 2012).
c. Dependability. This characteristic of the findings direct to legitimacy wherein the
consistency of the results is given attention (Bryman, A., 2012).
d. Confirmability. It is an objective approach wherein the findings are supported well even
if examined by other researchers (Bryman, A., 2012).

7. Ethical Considerations
Ethics is also defined as moral philosophy. Wherein what is good for the community is
being considered. This usually involves the good way of living, sets of our responsibilities, and
other matters concerning about what is good and right or what is bad and wrong. In the case of
the qualitative research, the protection of research respondents involved is the core of ethical
principles. Ethical principles that are significant for the qualitative research are respect for
persons involved, beneficence, honesty and also the value for communities.

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End Chapter Questions:
The following guide questions are to determine the knowledge of the researcher about
qualitative research which is emphasized and elaborated in this chapter.
 Describe and explain the qualitative research.
 Differentiate the two main approaches of the qualitative data analysis.
 Differentiate the qualitative and quantitative types of research.
 Identify the usage of qualitative research.
 Describe and explain the qualitative data analysis.
 Enumerate and describe the key steps during qualitative data analysis.
 Enumerate and describe the various approaches during the qualitative data analysis and
interpretation.
 Give at least two considerations in order to withstand judgement regarding issues on the
validity of the qualitative research.
 What is the core ethical principle in the qualitative research?
 Identify the specific ethical issues which are involved in the qualitative research.

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Rich, M., & Ginsburg, K. R. (1999). The reason and rhyme of qualitative research: why, when,
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Silva, D. A. (2016). Research Methods: Structuring Inquiries and Empirical Investigations.
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