Ch#1:Diversity of plants,introduction

Classification system
A)Kingdom classification system
1)Monera
2)Protista
3)Fungi
4)Plantae
5)Animillia

B)Domain classification system

1)Archaea
2)Eubacteria
3)Eukarya
More closely related to archaea than Eubacteria

Concept of evolution in plant diversity

Periods of evolution
1)1ST PERIOD
Origin of plants from aquatic ancestors

• From green algae

• Mid-silurian period
• 425 years ago
• Cuticle formation
• Evolution of vascular tissue
2)2nd period
Diversification of vascular plants

• Devonian period
• 400 million years ago
• Diversification of plants
• Non seede plants

3)3rd period
Evolution of Seed

• 360 million years ago

• Evolution of gymnosperms
• End of devonian period

4)4th period
Evolution of flowering plants

• 130 million years ago

• Cretaceous period
• Angiosperms
 Chapter # 2Viruses
• Word came from venom
• Non ceellular,infectious
• Consists of DNA and protiens
• Reproduce only in living organisms
• Obligate intracellular parasite
• Lack metabolic machinary

General structure
• Complete body :virion
• Nuciec acid and capsid:nucleocapsid
• Capsid gives protection,allows attatchment,provides protiens
• Glycoprotien envelope,enveloped viruses,naked viruses
• Spikes:attatchment
• Nucliec acid can be DNA or RNA,
• Single stranded or double stranded
• Haploid or diploid
• RNA viruses can be of two types
A)plus strand B)Negative strand

Retroviruses
• RNA viruses
• Have reverse transcriptase
• Two types
• A)oncoviruses B)HIV virus

Replication in viruses
• Penetration
• Replication
• Assembly of virion
• Release of virions
Variations in reproductive cycles
A)Animal viruses
• In Viruses with envelope,envelope remains outside,
• In retroviruses,RNA is converted into DNA and then is incorporated into host DNA.then
synthesises new RNA

B)Plant viruses(mostly are RNA)

• Horizontal transmission:from external source to plant
• Vertical transmission:from plant to plant

Life cycle of phage virus

• Attacks on bacteria
• T2 and T4
• Consists of head and tail
Two types of life cycles are observed

• Lytic cycle
• Lysogenic cycle

Viral diseases in animals

A)AIDS
Attacks on T-lymphocytes,immune system is destroyed.
B)Cancer
Have oncogenes,tumor viruses
C)Hepatitus
D)Polio
Smallest viruses
E)Infuenza and cold
Enveloped RNA viruses
F)Smalll pox
Enveloped DNA virus
Viral diseases in Plants
A)TMV
RNA virus,attacks on leaves and stem,
B)Cotton leaf curl viruses
Spreads by white fly Bemisia tabaci,curling of leaves,leaves become leathery
Tobbaco Mossaic Virus
1892,Ivanovski gave idea about non bacterial infectious agent.
1935,Stanley crystallized the virus,
Structure
Rod shaped,RNA virus,consists of capsid and RNA.Thermostable virus.
Infection
Uses a protien P30 for its entry into cell.it enlarges the plasmodesmeta.
Symptoms
Light green coloration in young leaves,mosaic burns,large dead areas on leaves.
Economic losses
Affects 9 plant families,125 species
 CH#3 Kingdom Monera
prokaryotes,unicellular,colonial or filamentous
Cell Envelope
A)cell wall
Peptydoglycan,cell wall is absent in Mycoplamsa
Penicilian kills bacteria by inhibitng a step in synthesis of peptidoglycan
Cell wall of archeobacteria is composed of protiens,gllycoprotiens and polysacharides
Gram staing techniques
Christian Gram,two dyes are used.
1)crystal voilet(purple) is primary dye
2)red dye (safranine) is secondary dye
Bacteria respond differently to gram staining procedure so based on this response,bacteria are
divided into two catagories.
Gram positive Bacteria

• Stained purple,Form CV-I complex,retain primary dye,

• Have simple cell wall,higher amount of peptydoglycan
• e.g. Styphylococcus,Baciluss
• Only one membrane layer
• Flagella has two supporting rings
Gram negative bacteria

• Stained pink,retain secondary dye.

• Have complex cell wall,less amount of peptidoglycan
• Flagella has four supporting ring.
• Two membrane layers
B)Capsule

• Present outside cell wall,made of polysacharides and protiens

• 14 types of cacsule
• Helps in attatchment,it is also a virulence factor,contains water,prevents from
dessication
C)Slime

• Loose,soluble sheild of macromolecules

• Provides pathogenicity,protects from environmental danger,protects from chemical
sterilization
D)Fimbriae

• Filaments of protiens
• Help in attatchment to solid surface
• Essential for virulence
E)Pili

• Hollow,non helical,filamentous appendages,only present in gram positive bacteria,

• Made of protiens called pilin
• Involved in conjugation
FLAGELLA

• Hair like appendages

• Originate from basal body
• Made of flagellin protien
• Prokaryotic flagella are 1/10th of eukaryotic ones
Types of bacteria based on flagella

• Atrichous:no flagella
• Monotrichous:one flagella
• Lophotrichous:tuft of flagella on one side
• Amphitrichous:Tuft of flagella is present on both sides
• Peritrichous:flagella sorround whole cell
Function of flagella

• Locomotion,can detect chemical signals(chemotaxis)

Internal organization of bacterial cell
1)cell membrane

• Lacks cholestrol.forms two structures

• Mesosomes:involved in dna relpication
• Photosynthetic membranes:enzymes for photosynthesis
2)nucleoid and plasmid

• Bacteria lack nuclear membrane,only present in planctomycetes

• Bacterial chromosome is called gonophore
• Bacteria are haploid
• Nucleoid is visible when stained with feulgen stain
• Plasmid is extra chromosomal DNA
• Have disease and insect resistent genes
3)ribosomes

• Smaller (70S) than Eukaryotes(80S)

4)Granules

• Storing body
• Storage materia is glycogen,suphur or phosphate
5)Spores

• Dormant bdies with thick walled

• Exospore:produced outside vegetative cell
• Endospore:present inside vegetative cell
6)Cyst

• Thick walled dessicating structures,present in Azobactor bacteria

• Develop during reproduction of vegetative cells
• Not heat resistent
Shapes of bacteria
1)Cocci
Spherical,Diplicoccus,streptococcus,Tetrad,Sarcina,Staphylococcus
2)Bacilli
Rod shaped.e.g E.coli,Bacillus bacteria
3)Spiral
Coiled,Vibrio(comma shaped),Spirillum(thick rigid spiral),Spirochete(thin flexible spiral)
Reproduction in bacteria
1)asexual
Happens through binary fission
Endospore formmation

• Forms in gram positive bacteria,

• Hellps bacteria to pass through unfavourable conditions
• Not a source of reproduction
Phases of reproduction

• Lag
• Log
• Stationary
• Death
Sexual Reproduction

• True sexual reproduction is absent in bacteria

• Transfer of genetic material happens through cell to cell contact called conjugation
• Donor,recipient
• F-plasmid is transferred
• EPisome;plasmid having size of 100kb.
• Bacteria can be F+ or F-
• F plasmid has pilin and regulatory gene
• These genes form sex pili.
• Conjugation is initiated by protiens callled relaxosomes
Transduction

• Transfer of DNA from one bacteria to another by virus

• Lederberg in 1952
 Transformation

• Bacteria absorb naked DNA

• Experiments of fredrick griffth
• S form,R form
Cyanobacteria

• True prokaryotes,called blue green algae

• Unicellular,colonial
• Lack flagella,use gas vesicles to move in water
• Cell wall is composed of cellulose
• Have chlorophyll and photosystem 2
• Phycobillins are accessory pigments,linked with particles called phycobillisomes
• Phycocyanin is dominent blue pigment
Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction is completely absent.

• Reproduce asexually by binary fission,fragmentation,endospore,hormogonia,akinates
and hetrocyst.
Hormogonia
Short length filament,long filament of cyanobacteria break into many hormogonia
Akinates
Thick walled spores,formed during unfavourable condition
Heterocyst
Enlarged cell present between filment,divides into four cells and then germinate into
new colony
One of the examples of cyanobacteria is anabaena that is famous for producing
neurotoxins.
Economic importance
1)nitrogen fixation
2)Ammonifying(nitrobactor),nitrifying(Azobctor),denitrifying bacteria(psudeomonas)
3)pathogenic bacteria
4)industrial role
Prevention from bacteria
1)physical methods
2)chemical methods
3)Antibiotics(bacteriostatic,bacteriocidil)
 CH#4 Algae
• Kingdom protista,photosynthetic,have chlorophyll,
• Naked reproductive structures.
• Lack vascular tissues
• Do not have common ancestor
• May be epiphytes,endophytes,phytoplankton,sessile,thermophytes or cryophytes
• Can vary from unicellular to gaint multicellular.
• Most complex and largest group is seaweeds
Cell structure
• Cell wall composed of cellulose
• Some motile forms have an eye spot in cytoplasm that is sensitive to light.
Pigments
• Algae are classified based on presence of different pigments
• Chl A is present in all.
• B is present in chlorophyta and euglenophyta
• C is present in bacillariophyta and chrysophyta
• D is present only in rhodophyta
• Carotenes are of 5 types,each having different color
• Xanthophylls are yellow or brown,lutein is most common xanthophyll,fucoxanthin is
brown,myxoxanthin is blue green
• Phycobillins may be phycocyanin(blue) or phycoerythrin(red)
Locomotion

• Mostly have flagella

• Number may be two or four
• Flagella may be acronematic(whiplash)with smooth surface or pentonematic(tinsel)with
fine hairss
 Ch#04 Algae
Reproduction in Algae
vegetative reproduction

1. simple division(both unicellular and multicellular),occurs usually in chlorophyta

2. Fragmentation(spirogyra)

3. Propagules(special structures)

4. Tubers(outgrowths,formed on daily basis)

Asexual reproduction

⦁ Zoospores(Motile,zoosporangium,found in most algae)

⦁ Aplanospores(non motile)

⦁ Hypnospores(cell secretes a thick wall,rounded structure)

⦁ Akinates(original wall of cell becomes thick)

⦁ Endospores

⦁ Exospores

⦁ Monospore(single non motille spore)formed in batrachospermum

⦁ Tetraspore(four non motile spores are formed in a sporangium)phaeophyta

Sexual reproduction

four different forms of sexual reproduction

⦁ Isogamy(Gametes have similar structure and size)rr

⦁ Anisogamy(Gametes have similar structues but different size,smaller and active is male,larger and
inactive is female)rr

⦁ Oogamy(different forms and sizes)small motile gamete(antherozoid)non motile larger

gamete(oogonium)ro

⦁ Parthenogenesis(no fertilization,forms parthenospore)

Classification

1. Chlorophyta(green color,four pigments,chl A,B,carotene and xanthophylls,pyrenoid is present,food

material is starch,2-4 flagella,isogamy or oogamy)Spirogyra

2. Xanthophyta(yellow green in color,xanthophyll,chl A,B,carotene are also present,oil is reserve

food,pectic substances in cell wall,two flagella,isogamy)vaucheria

3. Charophyta(brnches,nodes,internodes,Chl A,B,carotene,xanthophyll,no asexual reproduction)Chara

4. Bacillariophyta(diatoms,reserve food is fat,pyrenoid is present,cell wall has pectic substances and

silica,body composed of two overlapping valves,)pinnularia

5. phaeophyta:(brown algae,Fucoxanthin,Food material is mannitol,laminarian,two unequal

flagella,isogamy or oogamy,Very large size,)Laminaria

6. Rhodophyta(red algae)Phycoerythrin,phycocyanin,pyrenoid is present,floridein starch is food

material,flaggella is absent,oogamous,polysiphonia

7. Euglenophyta:(Chl A,B,carotene,paramylon is food material.no cell wall,1-3 flagella,sexual

repoduction is absent,)euglena

Economic importance

⦁ 50% photosynthesis

⦁ edible algae(Ulva,Spirogyra,oedogonium,Kelps,Chlorella in cakes and pasteries)

⦁ antibiotic chlorelin obtain from chlorella,effective against gram positive bacteria

⦁ Agar agar obtained from gelledium

⦁ Gelatin from red algae(shoe pollish,jellies,candies)

⦁ seaweeds used as fertilizers

⦁ parasitic algae(Cephaleuros virescens causes red rust of tea)

⦁ Eutrophication,algal blooms
 Division chlorophyta
⦁ green,unicellular,multicellular,Acromenatic flagella,reserve food starch,

⦁ species may be homothalic or heterothalic

1:Chlymydomonas
⦁ unicellular,eye spot is present

⦁ flagella arises from two basel granules called belaphroplast

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction

⦁ Zoospores(formed in favourable conditions)also called swarmospores

⦁ Aplanospores(unfaavourable conditions)

⦁ Palmella stage(unfavourable condition,non motile strucrues)

Sexual reproduction
two types of gametes:A)Gymnogametes(naked)B)Calyotogametes(enclosed in cell wall)

Zygote becomes red after fertilization due to presence of Heamatochrome,differentiation of sex

appeared in chlymydomonas

Volvox
⦁ colonial,colony is coenobium.500 to 50000cells.

⦁ nucleus is connected to flagella through neuromotor

⦁ haploid plant body,only zygote is diploid

Asexual reproduction
⦁ occurs through special cells present at posterior of colony called gonidia,5-20 gonidia in each colony.

Sexual Reproduction
⦁ reproductive cells are called gametangia

⦁ male gametes are antherozoid,female gametes are oospore

Spyrogyra
⦁ filamentous,unbranched

⦁ spiral arrangement of chloroplast

⦁ commonly pond scum,pond silk

⦁ grows throughout the year.

⦁ develops reproductive stage when temperature rises

⦁ develops vegetative stage when temperature lowers

⦁ may be attatched to some object through hepteron

Reproduction
⦁ Vegetative:fragmentation

⦁ Asexual is absent

⦁ Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
⦁ isogamous,

⦁ conjugation of non filamentous gametes

A)Sclariform conjugation

⦁ parallal strands,ladder like appearance,

⦁ fertilization occurs in two ways:

⦁ A)dioecious filaments,(sexual distinction)

⦁ B)Monoecious filaments(no sexual distinction)

B)Lateral conjugation

⦁ occurs between two adjacent cells

⦁ upper cell behaves as male gamete,lower cell behaves as female gamete

 Division Charophyta
multicellular,Chl A,B,xanhophyll,starch is food reserve

Chara
⦁ known as stone wort(mature plant is covered with calcium carbonate)

Vegetative structure

⦁ branches of limited growth

⦁ branches of unlimited growth

⦁ nodes,inter nodes

⦁ stipules(spine like appendages on leafs

Vegetative reproduction
⦁ Amylum star(star shaped on lower sides of nodes)

⦁ Bulbils(tuber like structures)on rhizoids

⦁ Protonema(on nodes,out growths)

Sexual reproduction
⦁ sex organs are enclosed in fruitifications

⦁ Globule is male fruitification

⦁ Nucule is female fruitification

⦁ both present on nodes,nucule is above the globule

 Xanthophyta
⦁ unicellular,multicellular,colonial

⦁ leucosin is reserve food,

⦁ main pigment is xanthophyll,yellow green color

⦁ have two flagella,one is acronematic,other is pentonematic

⦁ no pyrenoids

Vaucheria
⦁ filamentous thallus,attatched to substratum by hepteron

Reproduction
⦁ Vegetative is not common

⦁ Asexual:1)Zoospores 2)aplanospores

⦁ Sexual:homothalic,antheridia,archegonia

Bacilariophyta
⦁ also called diatoms

⦁ unicellular,colonial,non motile,have pectic substances in cell wall

⦁ body composed of two valves(epithica,hypothica)

⦁ joined by a band called cingulum

⦁ inner protoplast is called frustule

⦁ diatomine pigment,brown in color is present,

⦁ food material is fat and chrysolaminarian

⦁ make diatomeceous earth,economically benificial.

⦁ have 11% oil,has future prospect

Pinnularia
⦁ locomotary organs are absent,move by gliding movements

Reproduction

⦁ Vegetative:simple division

⦁ Sexual:Auxospore formation:size is restored

Phaeophyta
⦁ brown algae,multicellular,large size,25-30 meter long

⦁ have fuccoxanthin,

⦁ have sporophyte and gametophyte

⦁ Aseual reproduction:zoospores,

⦁ Unilocular sporangia;on sporophyte,haploid spores

⦁ Plurilocular sporangia:on gametophyte ,diploid spores

⦁ Alternation of generation is present

⦁ Ectocarpus is example of this.

 Rhodophyta
⦁ red algae

⦁ unicellular,filamentous structure

⦁ phycoerythrin and phycocyanin is the pigment

⦁ floridean starch is the reserve food(intermedeate between starch and dextrin)

Polysiphonia
⦁ marine algae

Vegetative structure
⦁ Attatchment disc

⦁ Vertical portion

⦁ trichoblast(tips of branches are with tapering ends,look like fine hairs,called trichoblast)

⦁ shows isomorphic alternation of generation

⦁ sexual reproduction occurs in gametophyte

⦁ asexual reproduction occurs in sporophyte

Sexual reproduction
⦁ gametes are non motile,move through water movements

⦁ male sex organs are called spermatangia

⦁ female sex organs are called carpogonia

⦁ after fertilization,carpospore is formed that develops in sporophyte

Asexual reproduction

⦁ tetraspores are produced in tetrasporangium

⦁ spores are haploid,develop into gametophyte

 Ch# 5 Fungi
⦁ Eukaryotes,hetrotrophes,

⦁ unicellular to multicellular

⦁ cell wall has chitin

⦁ can be saprophytes,parasites or symbionts

Vegetative structure
⦁ body composed of hyphae

⦁ hyphae are minute thread like structures

⦁ body of hyphae is called mycelium

⦁ yeast is unicellular non hyphal fungi.

⦁ hyphae can be septate(having cross walls) or a-septate(without cross walls)

⦁ aseptate hyphae are also called coenocytic hyphae

Structures present in mycelium

⦁ Sporophore(sometimes hyphae organize to form friuting bodies)

⦁ Plectonchyma(tissue composed of compact mass of hyphae)

⦁ Prosenchyma(tissue with distinct hyphae)

⦁ Psuedoparenchyma(tissue in which hyphae loose their shape and become isodiametric)

⦁ Stromata(sometimes fungal tissue becomes hard and fruiting bodies are formed on them)

⦁ Sclerotium(mass of hard tissue without fruitifications)

⦁ Rhizomorphs(hyphae form rope like structures)

⦁ Haustoria(knob like branched outgrowths,present in parasitic fungi)

⦁ Appresoria(arise from infecting hyphae,found in disease causing fungi)

Nutrition in fungi
⦁ saprotrophes

⦁ paasites

⦁ predators(Oyster mushroom,Arthrobotyrus)

⦁ mutualistic fungi(lichens,mycorrhyzae)

⦁ Endomycorrhyzae,ectomycorrhyzae

Reproduction
vegetative reproduction
⦁ small part of hypae can produce complete mycelium

Asexual reproduction
⦁ Endospore(inside the sporangia)

⦁ Conidia(produced on tip of hypahe)

⦁ Zoospores(motile,very rare)

⦁ Aplanospores(non motile)

⦁ Arthrospores(hyphae break into individual cells,cells behave as spores)

⦁ Clamydospores(cells become thick walled)

Sexual reproduction
⦁ three phases

⦁ plasmogamy(gametes fuse and nucei come closer)

⦁ karyogamy(nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote)

⦁ Meiosis(occurs in zygotic nucleus and produces haploid nuclei)

Details of sexual reproduction in fungi
⦁ Isogamy(isogametes)

⦁ Anisogamy(microgametes,macrogametes)

⦁ Oogamy(antheridium,archegonium)

⦁ Spermatization(In some fungi antheridia are nor formed,fungi develop conidia like
spermatia,spermatia combine with archegonium)

⦁ Direct union of vegetative hyphae

Plasmogamy and karyogamy

⦁ in lower fungi,karyogamy occurs immediately after fertilization

⦁ in higher fungi,karyogamy does not take place immediately

Classification of fungi

⦁ Phycomycetes are now called zygomycetes.

Ecomomic importance
⦁ lichens,mycorrhyzae(95% of vascular plants)

⦁ ecological succesion,

⦁ bioindicators

⦁ bioremediation

⦁ 200 species of mushrooms are edible,(morrels,truffles)

⦁ Yeast,pennicilium,Asperlillus used in food industry

⦁ citric acid is obtained from Aspergillus

⦁ Natural dyes are obtained from lichens

⦁ Yeast used in biological research,first eukaryote whose genomic sequence was completely studied.

⦁ neurospora(pink mold is also used in genetic search)

⦁ gibberelins obtained from fungi gibberella

⦁ Cause many plant diseases,rust,smut,powdery mildew,potato wilt

⦁ 15-50% friut loss every year.

Animal Diseases
⦁ Ringworm and athletes foot(caused by imperfect fungi)

⦁ Candidiasis(oral or vaginal thrush,caused by candida albicans)

⦁ Aspergillosis(lung infection,caused by aspergillus fumigatus,only in people suffering from AIDS)

⦁ Aflatoxins(carcinogenic,produced by aspergillus flavis)

⦁ Ergotism(causes nervous spasm,caused by eating ergot contaiminated bread)

 Myxomycota
⦁ commonly called smile molds

⦁ belong to kingdom protista

⦁ most important genra are plasmodiophora and spongospora

plasmodiophora
⦁ has only one specie(plasmodiophora brassicae)

⦁ a parasite of famil brassicae

⦁ causes finger and toe disease(roots are swelled and become club like)

Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction

⦁ Krankheitsherd formation:(infected host cell grows to form a gaint cell,divides to form many
cells,plasmodiophora also divides ,this group of infected cells is alled Krankheitsherds)

Asexual reproduction

⦁ spores formation(unfavourable condition)

⦁ zoospore formation(motile)

⦁ Myxamoeba formation

⦁ Mature cells are called plasmodium

Sexual reproduction

⦁ Gametes are called planogamete

Alternation of generation

⦁ present

⦁ diploid sporophyte,haploid gametophyte

 Oomycota
⦁ commonly called water molds

⦁ also called egg fungi due to presence of large oogonia

⦁ 500/800 species

⦁ water molds and downy mildew are included

⦁ Aseptate

Classification of Oomycota

Pythium
⦁ Pythium debarynum causes a disease called damping off

⦁ aseptate,branched hyphae

⦁ parasitic but with out haustoria

Disease cycle

⦁ Hyphae enter through stomata,host plant collapses,falls on ground,called damping off.

⦁ fungus absorbs food of plant ,plant dies and then pythium becomes saprophytic

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction

⦁ zoospores(kidney shaped)

⦁ Conidia

⦁ aplanospores

Sexual reproduction

⦁ oogamous,antheridia,oogonia

⦁ ferilization,oospore,germination
 Zygomycota
⦁ commonly called molds

⦁ zygote forms zygospore that is a dormant thick walled structure

⦁ zygospore formation is unique chracter of zygomycota,

⦁ aseptate,hyphae are haploid,only diploid structure is zygote

⦁ 1% of described species

⦁ e.g Rhizopus,Mucor

Mucor
⦁ 3000 species

⦁ produces black spores,so converted into black mass,hence called Black molds.

Reproduction
Vegeative reproduction

⦁ Aplanospore formation

Asexual reproduction

⦁ oidia formation,at the time of oidia stage, Mucor is termed as Torula stage
Sexual Reproduction

⦁ Dioecious,Hetrothalic

⦁ morphologically identical but physiologically different

⦁ represented by + and -

⦁ Gametes are called coenogametes

⦁ zygote has two walls,Exospore and endospore,

Economic importance

⦁ Causes a disease called mucorosis.

⦁ causes a bronchial allergic reactions

 Ascomycota
⦁ Sac fungi

⦁ 60000 species,

⦁ septate hyphae

⦁ 50% are lichens and mycorhizae

⦁ produce sac like structures called asci

⦁ friuting bodies ascocarp

⦁ e.g yeast,morrels,truffles,

Sexual reproduction

⦁ Ascus is formed as a result of sexual reproduction.It distinguishes this phylem from others.asci
contains ascospores

⦁ Except candida albicans ,almost all acsomycetes are haploid

⦁ Have two mating types just like sexes in animal

Ascocarps in Ascomycota

⦁ Apothecium(open ascocarp,cup shaped structure)

⦁ Clestothecium(spherical or rounded,completely closed)

⦁ Perithicium(flask shaped,closed but have a pore called ostiole)

⦁ Ascostroma(not true fruiting body,asci are produced as a cavity within stroma)

1:Penicillium
⦁ blue green mold

⦁ found on food stuff,used for production of fumaric acid,citric,oxalic acid.

⦁ first antibiotic was obtained from penicillium notatum

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction

⦁ by conidia

⦁ formed on conidiophores

Sexual reproduction

⦁ Female organ is ascogonium,elongated,long tube shaped

⦁ Male organ is antheridia

⦁ Fruiting body is cleistothecium

2:Saccharomyces
⦁ yeast,unicellular,non hyphal fungi

⦁ yeast are saprophytes,have enzymes called invertases and zymases

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction

⦁ budding,fission

Sexual reproduction

⦁ hetrothalic,

⦁ two mating types

⦁ one type releases substances tha stimule other type,then mating occurs.
 Basidiomycota
⦁ Club fungi,club shaped(cylindrical and enlarging gradually toward the end)

⦁ septate hyphae

⦁ edible mushrooms,rust,smuts,bracket fungi

⦁ produce club shaped sexual structures called basidium

⦁ basidiospores are produced on basidium

⦁ Have three phases of life

⦁ 1:Primary mycelium(uninucleate hyphae)

⦁ 2:secondary mycelium(dikaryotic hyphae)

⦁ 3:Tertiary mycelium(basidiocarp is formed)

Clamp connection
• A clamp connection is a hook-like structure formed by growing hyphal cells of basidiomycota. It
is created to ensure each cell, or segment of hypha separated by septa, receives a set of
differing nuclei, which are obtained through mating of hyphae of differing sexual types.
 Reproduction
⦁ sex organs are absent(only present in rusts)

⦁ Basidium is chracteristic structure,karyogamy and meiosis occurs in basidium

• Typically basidia are club shaped,

• Outgrowth originate from basidia called sterigmata
• Basidiosopres are formed on tips of sterigmata

Types of Basidia

• Stichobasidia
• Chlastobasidia
• Tuning fork type
• Normal type

1:Ustilago(smut)
• Parasite of wheat,
• Ustilago tritici(attacks on wheat)
• Ustilago avenae(oat)
• Ustilago zeae(maize)
• Consists of mono karyotic and dikaryotic hyphae
Life cycle
• Attack of chlamydospores or teleutospores(in spring on mature wheat plant)
• Formation of promycelium(teleutospores germinate,develop hyphae,
• Basidiospore formation(basidia are produced on promycelium)
• Formation of secondary mycelium(hyphae become dikaryotic by conjugation,do not produce
spores,become dormant inside embryo)
• Formation of chlamydospores(seeds are sown,dormant embryo becomes active,produces
chlamydospores)

Types of smut

• Loose smut(spores are not covered by membrane,whaet,oat)

• Covered smut(spores covered by membrane,sugarcane,maize)

2:Puccinia(Rust)
• Obligatory parasite
• Puccinia graminis tritici is parasite of wheat,completes life cycle on wheat and barley

Life cycle

• Uredinal stage(march,sori appear on stem called uredosori,uredospores are produced inside

these sori.uredospores disperse and attack healthy plants,again uredospores are
produced,several crops are destroyed by this way)
• Telial stage(at end of growing season,april,may,some hypahae develop teleutosori having
teleutospores.dispersed and fall on soil,remain dormant,pass winter season,)
• Basidial stage(in next spring teleutospores germinate on soil.form promycelium,basidia is
formed having basidiospores,basidiospores disperse by wind
• Pycnial stage(Basidiospores infect barberry,hyphae develop flas shaped pycnia having
pycniosspores,dispersed by insects)
• Aecial stage(aecial spores are formed by sexual reproduction,inside aecidium.dispersed by wind,
• Attack on wheat(aeciospores attack wheat,form appresorium,appresorium produces
uredospores.

3:Agaricus
• Mushroom,edible
• Body is composed of two parts
• Vegetative mycelium(underground part)
• Sporophore(above groung,fruiting body,umbrella like shape,has a stalk called stipe and cup like
head called pileus)
• Sporophore is composed of gills.Gills are of two types.
• Primary gills:run through whole length of pileus from stipe
• Secondary gills:do not run through whole length

Structure of gills

• Central part of gill is called trama

• Hymenium:In gills basidia are arranged com-pactly called hymenium
• Paraphysis:some basidia like structures present between hymenium
Reproduction

• Asexual is rare
• Sexual reproduction present

Sexual reproduction

• Sporophore is reproductive structure.basidiospores are produced as a result of reproduction

Fairy rings
 Deuteromycota
• Imperfect fungi
• Sexual reproduction is not observed
• Members of ascomycota are present,some basidiomycota
• e.g Agaricus,Penicillium

Fungal diseases in plants

1:rust

2:smut

3:Damping off

4:Downey mildew

• Caused by plasmophara viticola,Sclerospora graminicola,attacks grapes and bajra

• Appearance of small greenish yellow oilly spots.
• Moist weather is suitable
• plasmophara viticola ia obligate parasite

5:Powdery mildew

• Uncinula necator,Erisiphe graminis,both are causitive agents

• Attacks on grapes,barley and whaet
• Malformation and discolorstion of leafs occur
• Dry weather and wind is suitable

Lichens
• Relationship between fungi and algae
• Fungus is called mycobiont
• Photosynthesizing organism is called photobiont
• Algal photobiont is called phycobiont and cyanobacterial photobiont is called cyanobiont

Forms of Lichens

1. Crustose lichens(crust like structure,attatched to substrate)

2. Foliose lichens(leaf like lobes,not attatched)
3. Fruticose lichens(cylindrical and ribbon like appearance
Classification

• Ascolichens
• Basidiolichens

Lichenometery

• In archaeology, palaeontology, and geomorphology, lichenometry is a geomorphic method of

geochronologic dating that uses lichen growth to determine the age of exposed rock, based on a
presumed specific rate of increase in radial size over time.
 CH#06 Bryophyta
Kingdom Plantae

⦁ Autotrophs

⦁ Evolved from green algae

⦁ different groups of kingdom plantae are Bryophytes,Pteridophytes,

⦁ Gymnosperms and angiosperms

Bryophytes
⦁ first land plants.

⦁ live at moist places,need moisture for reproduction

⦁ also called amphibious plants

⦁ evolved from gerrn algae,

⦁ no vascular system,transport of water occurs through diffusion

⦁ Gametophye is dominent,sporophyte is attatched to gametophyte,sporophyte is dependent

⦁ homosporous

⦁ sex organs are antheridia and archegonia

Life cycle of bryophytes

⦁ hetromorphic alternation of generation

⦁ Gametophyte is dominent,haploid,dominent,it may be thallus or may be differentiated into structures

ressembling leaves,stems and rhizoids

⦁ sporophyte is partially or fully dependent on gametophyte,diploid,

⦁ sporophyte generally consists of foot,seta and capsule.

Reproduction
Vegetative propagation
⦁ very common,by parts of vegetative plant
Sexual reproduction
⦁ oogamous

⦁ antheridia,archegonia

⦁ both sex organs are multicellular structures

⦁ have a jacket of sterile cell.

Antheridia

⦁ multicellular organ

⦁ has androgonal cells that give rise to androcytes

⦁ androcytes develop into antherozoid

Archegonia

⦁ Flasked shaped

⦁ swollen portion is called venter

⦁ upper portion is called neck

⦁ egg is present in venter

⦁ cell present upper to egg is called ventral canal cell.

⦁ neck of archegonium has cells called neck canal cells

Asexual reproduction

⦁ through spores

⦁ haploid spores

Embryo formation

⦁ zygote is retained within archegonium

Classification
⦁ Hepaticopsida(liverworts)Marchentia,porella

⦁ Bryopsida(mosses)Funaria,polytrichum

⦁ Aaanthoceropsida(Hornworts)advanced,sporophyte does not depend on gametophyte,has distinct

stomata,Anthceros

⦁ initially all three were included in one division bryophyta but latter it was realized that all are distinct

Similarities and differences between algae and bryophytes

Origin of bryophytes

⦁ Adaptation in habitates

⦁ Evolution in sex organs

⦁ Evolution of alternation of generation

Economic importance

⦁ poineers of succession

⦁ make quaking bogs,Swamps

⦁ Peat moss(spagnum),also called bog moss,can absorb water like a sponge,used in seed beds and green
houses,

⦁ Sphagnum can absorbs metals

⦁ peat is a source of coal.

⦁ A distilate of peat tar called sphagnol is used in treatment of skin diseases

⦁ Shagnum is also antiseptic

⦁ Sphagnum strictum inhibits growth of staphyllococus aureus

⦁ Sphagnum is used femine food

 Hepaticopsida
⦁ liverworts

⦁ simplest bryophyte

⦁ plant body is gametophyte

⦁ plant body is of two types,thallus like in Marchantia and plant like in Porella

⦁ sporophyte is dependent

1:Riccia
⦁ 130-200 species

⦁ terrestrial sepcie

Plant Body
Gametophyte

⦁ prostate,rossete like,dichotomously branched

⦁ Notches,Scales,Rhizoids
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction

⦁ death and decay of old plants

⦁ By gemma formation on rhizoids

⦁ By adventitious branches

⦁ By tubers

Sexual reproduction

⦁ oogamy,antheridia,archegonia

⦁ male gamete is antherozoid and female gamete is egg

⦁ Ferilization requires water

⦁ water is essential for separation of cover cells of archegoium

⦁ Embryo develops inside the archegonium

Spore formation

⦁ spore mother cell do meiosis

⦁ haploid spores are formed,

⦁ spore is three layered,exosporium(cutinized),mesosporium,endosporium(collose and pectose)

⦁ spore germinates into gametophyte

2:Porella
⦁ grows on moist rocks

⦁ forms dense mats

General structure
⦁ Stem:dorsiventral,extensively branched,bi or tri-pinnately branched,basal and older parts die but
growth continues at distal ends,Dorsal side is exposed to light,ventral side touches the substratum.

⦁ Leaves:Large dorsal leaves,leaves are bilobed,lobes are unequal,lower leave is smaller and called
lobule,upper lobe is big

⦁ Rhizoid:arise from ventral leaves

Life cycle
Reproduction
⦁ Death and decay

⦁ gemmae

⦁ Tubers
Sexual reproduction
⦁ plants are dioecious,

Male plants

⦁ smaller,leaves are adjacent to sex organs called bracts.

⦁ a long stalked antheridium is present at axile of each branch

Female plants

⦁ larger,archegonia are present at apex of branches.

⦁ female branch has fewer bracts

⦁ archegonia and bract form a structure called involucre

⦁ Campanulate perianth is present inside involucre

Sporophyte

• Oospore is the first cell

• Differentiated into three regions
• Foot:absorbs water and food from gametophyte
• Seta:conducts food from foot to developing spores
• Capsule:upper part,has two types of cells,cylindrical cells called elaters and rounded are spore
mother cells.
• Produces haploid spores.
• Spores are first cell of gametophyte
 Bryopsida
• Mosses,
• Form a special structure called protonema on the spore,protonema is not present in liverworts
Funaria
• 117 species,
• Funaria hygrometrica is most common.
Vegetative structure
• Plat body is gametophyte
• Composed of protonema and gametophore
• Protonema is prostate and gives rise to leafy shoots called gametophore
• Protonema is short lived
• Adult plant consists only of gametophore,differentiated into stem and leaves,have sex organs at
tip
• Have two types of leaves
• Colorless leaves:scale like and present on prostate branches
• Foliage leaves:present on upper branches

Structure of leaf
• Composed of midrib and lamina
• Midrib is composed of cells called sterids
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction
• Death and decay
• Gammae formation
• Fragmentation from protonema
• Apospory:sporophyte tissue is wounded,wounded part produces protonema,bud develops and
gametophyte develops from that bud
Sexual reproduction
• Monoecious
• Branches called sporophore
• Mixed with paraphysis
Male branch
• Has antheridia
• Antheridia are sorrounded by specialized leaves called perichaetal leaves
• Perichaetal leaves form an envelope called perichaetum
Female branch
• Has archegonia
• Arises from the base of male plant
Sporophyte
• Has foot,
• seta and capsule
• Capsule has three parts (apophysis,theca and operculum)
• Apophysis:swollen region,sterile
• Theca:central part of capsule,it has a sterile portion called columella,collumea is sorrounded by
spore sac.
 Anthoceropsida
• Hornworts
• Slightly advanced,
• Sporophyte is only dependent in early stages
Anthoceros
General structure
• Thallus body,lobed

Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction
• Death and decay
• Gammae
• Tubers
 Sexual reproduction
• Both monoecious and dioecious species species
• Antheridia develop earlier than achegonia in monoecious
• Male plant is smaller than female in dioeciuos
Sporophyte
• Consists of foot and capsule
• Capslue consists of columella and sporogenous tissue
• Columella develops from endothecium and sporogenous tissue is formed from amphithecium
 CH#07-Pteridiophytes
• Group of ancient plants,majority are extinct
• non seeded,vascular plants
• also called cryptograms
• plant body is sporophyte
• sporophyte is independent,differentiated into roots,stem and leaves
• terrestrial plants

General structure
• epidermis is covered by cuticle
• xylem ,phloem are present
• in ancient pteridiophytes,stem was photosynthetic structure.
• in higher pteridiophytes stem bears leaves for photosynthesis
• Two types of leaves are present in pteridiophytes
• Microphyll:small sized with single undivided vein.E.g Lycopods
• Lycopods were first plants having true leaves and stems
• Megaphyll:large leaves with divided veins and broad lamina,
• Megaphylls are present in higher pteridiophytes

Life cycle and reproduction

• both generations regurlarly alternate with each other.

Sporoophyte
• forms vegetative part of plant,it is dominent.
• there are two types of sporophyte
• Microphyllous:sporophyte with small and scale like leaves
• Megaphyllous:large and prominent leaves
• spores are produced on sporangia
• Stachyosporuos:sporangia are born in axile of leaves
• Phyllosporous:sporangia are born on leaves
• leaves which bear sporangia are called sporophylls
• sporangium has cells called archeosporial cells
• sporophyte may be homosporous or hetrosporous
Gametophyte
• small ,insignificant,short lived.
• independent in most of forms.
• may be monoecious or dioecious in homosporous species
• always dioecious in hetrosporous species
• Antherozoid is flagellated,pteridiophytes need water for fertilization.

Apospory
• formation of gametophyte without spore formation

Apogamy
• Formation of sporophyte without formation of gametes and zygote.

Classification of Pteridiophyta
• Psilopsida
• Lycopsida
• Sphenopsida(horse tails)
• Pteropsida(fenrs)

Origin of pteridiophytes
• Originated from bryophytes
• share many similarities with bryophytes.
 Psilopsida
• vascular plants without true leaves and roots
• earliest group of pteridiophytes.
• mostly are extinct now.e.g Rhynia,Cooksonia
• has two living genra(psilotum and Tmesipteris

Sporophyte
• root and leafless sporophyte
• body consists of rhizoids and aerial branches

Gametophyte
• gametophyte is thalloid
• underground,forms mycorrhizal association with fungus.fungus gives food and gametophyte
gives protection.

1-Psilotum
• small shrub,plant body is sporophyte

Sporophyte

• Rhizome:underground part
• Aerial branches:dichotomously branched,
• Sporangia:born in triads,called synangium

Gametophyte

• formed by germination of spore,

• thalliod,colorless,underground
• infested with mycorrhyzae
• antheridia and archegonia also develop underground
Reproduction
vegetative reproduction

• by death of older parts of rhizome.

• gemma formation

Sexual reproduction

• Antheridia and archegonia develop on underground sporophyte,

• fertilization produces diploid oospore and oospore develops into sporophyte
 Sphenopsida
• plants of devonian era
• mostly are extinct.only one genra Equisetum is living.
• plant body is composed of large number of joint so also called arthrophytes.
• root is found in only few species
• mostly are homosporous

Equisetum
• 25 species
• General structure
• plant body is sporophyte,composed of rhizome,aerial branches and roots
• Aerial branches may be fertile or sterile
• leaves are small scale like
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction

• from rhizome
• Spore formation(asexual)
• sporangia are formed in the form of cones or strobili.
• spores are formed inside sporangium and germinate by falling on a substratum.
• spores germinate into prothalus.this prothalus is gametophyte.

Sexual reproduction

• sex organ are produced on prothalus

• antherozoid and archegonia fuse and oospore if produced.
• this oospore develops into sporophyte,sporophyte become independent very early

Economic importance of equisetum

• A specie called equisetum arvense is a diuretic.

• some species also have some amount of gold
 Pteropsida
• 300 genra, 10000 species
• commonly called ferns
• sporophyte is differentiated into root stem and leaves
• leaves are megaphyllous,they are called fronds
• leaves have circinate venation,it is an important chracter of the group
• sporangia are present in groups called sori
• most species are hetrosporous
• Gametophyte is free living or mycorrhizal
• e.g Dryopteris,Pteridium,Adiantum,Pteris

1-Adiantum
• also called maiden hair fern
• Vegetative structure
• plant body is sporophyte
• differntiated into stem,leaves and root
• Stem is underground rhizome,rhizome is covered by scales called palea
• Leaves are compound,main axis is called rachies.
• Rachies has leaflets called pinnae or pinnules
• Pinnae arise directly from rachies,
• each has pinnae has many pinnules
 Reproduction

spore formation

• sporangia are present in the form of sori.

• when spores release,they are dispersed by wind,
• fall on soil,develop in to gametophyte(prothalus)
• gametophyte is independent

Gamete formation

• Adiantum is monoecious.
• antheridia and archegonia re produced on same prothalus.
• antheridia and archegonia of same prothalus mature at different time.so cross fertilization takes
place.
• Antherozoids are attracted chemotatically.
• after fertilization oospore is formed and develops into sporophyte.

2-Marsellia
• Marsellia minuta is commonest
• Grow partially or completely submerged in water.
• Hetrosporous,gametophyte is dioecious
General structure

• Plant body is sporophyte

• Differentiated into root,rhizome and leaves
• Rhizome:stem is in the form of rhizome
• Roots:root are adventitious.
• Leaves are compound.has a long petiole.bears four leaflets.
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction

• Tuber formation

Asexual reproduction

• Occurs by spores,two types of spores are produced

• Megaspores and microspores are produced in microsporangia and megasporangia.
• Both sporangia are produced in same sori,these are produced in hard fruiting bodies called
sporocarp.
• Sporocarp is attatched to base of petiole
• Sporocapr is dehiscenced usually after two to three years,spores are released.
• Spores germinate and develop into gametophyte

Sexual reproduction
Male gametophyte

• Develops from microspore,a mature male gametophyte has two antheridia

• Development occurs within spore wall

Female gametophyte

• Develops from megaspore

• Mature female gametophyte has one archegonia
• Development occurs within spore wall.

Fertilization

• Male sperms are attracted towards female gametophyte chemotatically,fertilization occurs and
oospore is produced.oospore develops into sporophyte.
 Lycopsida
• Plant body is sporophyte
• Leaves are microphylls,ressemble leaves of mosses,hence called club mosses
• Have reproductive leaves called sporophylls
• Sporangia form cones called strobili which are spike shaped
• Has two types of species,
• Homosporous(lycopodium)Hetrosporous(Sellaginella)
• Gametophyte is reduced,underground in some species

Selagenella
General structure
• Divided into stem,root and leaves
• Stem is prostate,branches arise from main stem,
• Rhizophore:arise from stem,leafless,intermediate between stem and root,roots arise fom
rhizophore
• Root:adventitious root develops from Rhizophore
• Leaves:two types of leaves,
• Small and large leaves,has sporophylls
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction

• Adventitious branches
• Tubers
• Resting buds,sorrounded by leaves

Asexual reproduction(spore formation)

• Hetrosporous,microspores,megaspores,
• Sporangium is stachyosporous.
• Spore is never released from sporophyte.gametophyte develops on sporophyte
• Microsporangium contains many microspores but megasporangium contains only four
megaspores
• Microspore develops into male gametophyte and megaspore develops into female gametophyte

Sexual reproduction(gamete formation)

• Gametophytes remain inside spore wall.

• Antheridia and archegonia develop,fertilization occurs and oospore is produced.
• Embryo develops inside megaspore.
• This is an approach to seed habit
Evolutionary Advancement of Selagenella
Approach to seed habit
• Production of gamete,fertilization,development of embryo,all take place on sporophyte.
• Hetrospory
• Megaspore has large amount of food stored

Failure to form seed

• Protective integument is not produced in selagenella
• It is necessary to retain megaspore permanently,but it is not permanently retained in
selagenella
• There should be a resting period after development of embryo,but it is lacking in Selaginella.
 Gymnosperms

• Vascular,naked seeded,non flowering plants

• 1/3 of world forest,one of most successful group of plants.
• Gymnosperms means naked seeded
• Ovules are naked
• Hetrosporous
• Sporophyte independent,gametophyte dependent
• Dominent during Jurrasic period
• Gametophyte is reduced,lost independence
• Plant body is sporophyte
• secondary growth is present.
• Do not have vessels in xylem except Gnetales
• Do not have companion cells in phloem

Plant body

• Plant body is sporophyte..

• Differentiated into root stem and leaves
• Root:Tap root is well developed,root cap is present
• Leaves are of two types
• Microphyllous:scale like,found in edephra
• Megaphyllous:large and well developed.thuck cuticle,sunken stomata,E.g Cycas and pinus
• Stem:woody,
 Reproduction

• Seed formation occurs

• Vegetative reproduction is absent except in Cycas(by bulbils)

Sporophyte
Strobili

• Gymnosperms are hetrosporous,spores develop unisexual cones

• Male cons:smaller in size,contain microsporangia,microsporangia has microspores
• Female cone:larger in size,has megasporophylls,megasporophylls are woody in texture,ovule is
present at base of each megasporophyll,ovule is megasporangia

Gametophyte
• Male gametophyte:microspore is the beginning,gives rise to prothalus inside sporal wall
• Female gametophyte:megaspore is the first cell of gametophyte,germinates inside sporal wall.
Pollination

• Occurs through wind or animal

• Pollination drop:Release of sticky fliud from micropyle of ovule for adharence of microspore
wall,liquid becomes dry,pulls male gametophyte down into ovule,after that micropyle is closed
• Pollen tube is formed and through this sperm enters into archegonium,

Formation of embryo and seed

• Oospore form embryo

• Wall formation around embryo occurs
• Embryo differentiates into plumule radicle and cotyledan
• Unutilized gametophyte tissue is converted into endosperm
• Integument is converted into seed coat
Polyembryony

• Formation of several embryos in one gametophyte.

• Common in gymnosperms,
• More than one archegonium is formed

Cleavage polyembrony

• Certain embryos become separated,make groups of four embryos

• Competition starts,only one survives out of four

Origin of gymnosperms

• Originated from pteridiophytes,

• Show many advancements than pteridiophytes

Economic importance

• Sago starch obtained from cycus,seeds of Pinus gerardiana,young leaves of cycus are edible
• Kaffir bread is prepared from Encephalartos
• Ephidrine extracted from Ephedra used to treat asthma
• Tuncture of Ephedra is cardiac stimulant
• Cycus gum is used as adhesive,antidot for snake biting
• Araucaria produces tannins used in leather tanning
• Paper is produced from wood pulp of pinus,picea,Abies,Gnetum
• Source of timber
• Oils extracts are obtained from various species,
Classification of Gymnosperms

• Cycadophyta
• Ginkgophyta
• Coniferophyta
• Gnetophyta
 Cycadophyta
• Consists of both extinct and living species
• Ancient group
• Has three classes
• Pteridospermopsida(extinct seed ferns)
• Cycodeiodopsida(fossils species)
• Cycacopsida(only single living order cycadales,e.g Cycus)

Cycus
• Living fossil
• Closely related to pteridophytes

General structure

• Plant body is sporophyte

• Body is differentiated into stem root and leaves
• Stem:unbranched,thick,woody,has leaf bases so rough in appearance,growth is slow
• Leaves and scales:leaves have circinate venations,scales are remain of older leaves
• Roots:produces caroloid roots,has endophytic algae in roots that fixes nitrogen
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction

• Occurs through lateral buds called bulbils.

Sexual reproduction

• Dioecious,male female plants are separate,male plants are rare.

• Both plants develop cones containing sporangia

Male cone

• Number of cones vary each year.

• Shape of cone is fusiform(tappering at both ends)
• Cone has microsporophylls,microsporophyll has microsporangia
• Spores are produced inside microsporangium and disperse by wind

Female cone

• Very large in size

• Composed of megasporophylls
• Ovules(megasporangium) are arranged around megasporophylls.
• Mega spores are formed insige megasporangium,
• Only one remains functional,all others degenerate.
Male gaetophyte

• Microspore is the start of gametophyte

• Microspore resumes its development after pollination
• Creates a pollen tube,then becomes dormant for about 4 months.
• After dormancy resumes development,
• Antherozoids develop,cilia develop on antherozoid,
• Antherozoids are motile,

Female gametophyte

• Megaspore is first stage,it enlarges

• Divisions occur,becomes multicellular
• Egg is produced inside archegonium
• Archegonium has a pore called micropyle
• pollination drop comes out of micropyle,microspore(pollen grain)is trapped and brought inside

Fertilization

• Antherozoid enters archegonia,male nucleus fuses with oosphere nucleus,

• Fertilized oosphere produces a wall and becomes oospore

Embryo and seed formation

• Oospore divides,develops in embryo,endosperm is formed

• Integument is converted into seed coat.

Cysus as a living fossil

• Ancient plant,retained most of primitive chracter,

• So commonly called living fossils.
Economic importance

• Involved nitrogen fixation as has algae in roots

• Ornamental plants,cysus circinalis is narcotic.
• Sago used as food,
 Coniferophyta
• Has three classes
• Cordiatopsida:extinct
• Taxopsida:female strobilus is absent in them,ovule is developed at end of lateral shoots.Has two
genra(Taxus and Torreya)
• Coniferopsida:50 genra,550 species,e.g Pinus

Pinus
• Almost 90 species.
• 4 species found in pakistan

General structure

• Plant body is sporophyte

• Differntiated into root stem and leafs
• Stem:main trunk is unbranched,branches form a canopy,branches are dimorphic(limited growth
and unlimited growth)
• Leaf:two types of leaves
• Scale leaves:small,brownish in color,protctive in function
• Foliage leaves:green,needle like,found on dwarf shoots
• Roots:well developed tap root.
Reproduction and life cycle
• No vegetative reproduction
• Monecious,male femal cones are on same plants
• Cones are monosporous

Male cones

• Smaller in size,produced in spring,

• Microspores have baloon like wings that help in dispersal.

Female cone

• Produced in winter
• Become ready for pollination in next spring
• Bears scales on it,scales are of two types,
• Bract scales:thin membraneous and directly attatched to central axis.
• Ovuliferous scales:present on bract scales,bears two ovules
• Inside ovule megaspore mother develops into megaspore,
• Lower most microspore remains functional,others disintegrate.
• Polination takes place at this place

Male gametophyte

• Microspore disperses.
• Furthur development occurs on its arrival at female gametophyte.
• Antheridial cell and two prothalial cells are produced inside pollen grain(microspore)
• Pollen tube is produced

Female gametophyte
• Megaspore divides many times to form gametophyte
• Archegonia is produced inside gametophyte,

Pollination and fertilization

• Pollen grain travels through wind,adheres through pollination drop.

• Pollengrain resumes its activity in spring
• Pollen tube and sperm is produced annd egg cell is fertilized.
• Oospore divides,become embryo,
• Polyembryony occurs in pinus
• Testa is produced,seed formation occurs.

Gnetophyta
• Has single class Gnetopsida

Ephedra

• Arid plant
• Source of a drug Ephedrine(used for treatment of asthma)

General structure

• Plant body is Sporophyte

• Height is ranging from 1 to 25 feet.
• Divided into root,stem and root.
• Stem:slender,green in color,has ridges and furrows,stem is woody,some times underground
rhizome is present,
• Leaves:scale like,opposite and arrnaged in pairs,
• Root:tap root
Reproduction and life cycle

• Dioecious plant
• Cone of Ephedra is similar to inflorescence of angiosperms

Male cone

• Male cones are small.

• Has 2-12 pairs of bracts,
• Male cone has microsporophylls
• On microsporophylls,sporangia are attached

Female cone

• Has 2-3 pairs of bracts

• Female cones are slightly large
• Bracts has megasporangia,
• Megasporangia has ovule
• Megaspore is produced
Male Gametophyte

• Germination of pollen grain starts before release of pollen grains

• Two male sprems are produced from pollen grain
• Pollen grain is released at this stage.tube nucleus is produced
• Gametophyte consists of tube nucleus and two sperms

Female gametophyte

• Megaspore divides many times to form female gametophyte

• Archegonia develop inside gametophyte
• One to three archegonia are developed inside each female gametophyte
• Archegonia has egg cell.

Pollination

• Takes place by wind

• Pollination drop is produced
• Pollen chamber is formed through which pollen grains enter each ovule
Fertilization

• Two sperms enter

• One fertilizes egg and other fertilizes ventral canal nucleus to form a layer of endosperm
• This is an approach to double feritilization

Formation of embryo and seed

• Oospore divides many times,plumule,radical and cotyledans are produced,

• Inner integument forms seed coat and seed is formed
 Angiosperms
• Flowering plants
• Seeds covered by fruit
• Have fertile leaves having ovules
• Fertile leaves are folded into overies
• 235000 species of angiosperms out of 360000 plants
• Most successful plant group.
Plant Body
• Plant body is sporophyte
• Composed of roo,stem,leaves and reproductive part called flower.
• Root:used for anchoring and water absorption.
• Stem:can be woody or non woody,
• Leaves:lamina and petiole,have stomata,
• Flower is the reproductive part.composed of sepals,petals,stamens and carpels.
Life Cycle
• Adult plant is diploid sporophyte,hetrosporous.
• Produces flower at maturity.
• Flower is basically modified shoot.
• Flower consists of pedicle,sepals,petals,stamens and carpel.
• Sepals and petals are non reproductive part of flower.
• Sepals protect the stamen and carpel,Petals attract insects for pollination.
• Sepals and petals are collectively called Perianth.
• Stamens and carpel are reproductive part.
Stamens
• As flower is a modified shoot,Stamen is basically microsporophyll
• Male part of flower.
• Consists of anther and filament.
• Anther has two lobes.
• Anther consists of four pollen sacs.
• These pollen sacs are actually microsporangia
• In side pollen sacs,Pollen grain(microspore) are present.
• Microspore produces male gametophyte

Carpels
• Female reproductive part of flower.
• Composed of stigma,Style and Ovary
• Carpel can be free (apocarpous) or fused(syncarpous)
• Ovary contains ovules
• Ovule is the megasporangium
• Ovule has a short stalk called funicle.
• Place of attatchment of Funicle to main body of ovule is called hilum.
• End part of ovule is called Chalaza.
• Sporogenous tissue of ovule is called nucellus tissue and wall of ovule is called integument.
• Four mega spores are produced inside each ovule,
• Three degenerate,one remains functional,
• Functional one gives rise to Female gametophyte
Male gametophyte
• Microspore is the first cell.
• Microspore divides to form generative nucleus and Vegetative nucleus,pollen tube is formed
from intine,This semigerminated male gametophyte is called pollen grain
• Pollen grains are transferred to stigma by pollination,here pollen tube furthur grows,generative
nuclei divides to form two sperms,
• At this stage,pollen grain is called male gametophyte.
• Pollen tube elongates and takes two sperms to the ovule.
Female gametophyte
• Megaspore is the first cell.
• Megaspore develops into female gametophyte,
• Female gametophyte consists of seven cells.
• Three cells are present toward chalazal end,called antipodal cells.
• Group of three cells called egg apparatuss is present towards micropyle end,Upper two of them
are called synerdids,Lower one is egg.
• Secondary(fusion) nucleus is present in centre.
Double fertilization
• Fusion of two male gametes with two cells simultaneously.
• Only found in angiosperms.
• One sperm fuses with egg and becomes zygote
• Second sperm fuses with fusion nucleus to form endosperm tissue(3n)
• Double fertilization is also called triple fusion.

Significane of double fertilization

• Storage food is made after fertilization,so it helps plant in economizing the food resources,
• Double fertilization stimulates the phenomenon of Xenia and metaxenia
• Xenia is a process in which pollens stimulate the tissue to sorround the embryo.
• Metaxenia is a process in which pollen stimulates formation of seed cost.
The endosperm tissue
• Endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly and becomes polyploid nutritive tissue called endosperm
tissue.
• There are two types of seeds on the basis of food storage
• Endospermic seeds(albuminous seeds):endosperm provides food to developing
embryo,Endosperm tissue is present at the time of seed germination.e.g corn,wheat.
• Non endospermic(Ex albuminous seed):Endosperm is completely utilized by developing
emryo,Developing embryo completely digests the endospermic tissue and stored in cotyledons.
Embryo
• Embryo is octant type,
• Composed of an embryonal axis.
• Embryonal axis has two types
• Epicotyl:Part of axis bove cotyledon.It bears a bud called plumule from which shoot is formed.
• Hypocotyl:Part of axis below the cotyledon.It has a meristem at its tip called radicle.Radicle
develops into root.
Germination of seed
• It may be hypogeal germination or Epigeal germination

Seed
• Seed is mature ovule protected by seed coat Enclosing a resting embryo
Monocot seed
• Have one cotyledon,seed cotyledon is terminal.
Dicot seed
• Have two cotyledons.Cotyledons are attached to central axis.
Fruit
• Ripened ovary is called fruit.
• Seed In enclosed in inside fruit in Angiosperms.
• Ovary wall changes into fruit wall and called pericarp.
Monocots
• One of Major groups of Angiosperms.
• Have one cotyledon,
• 59300 species.
• Largest family is Orchidaceae,has more than 20000 species.
• Most economically important family is Poaceae
• Four most important foods ,Corn,rice,wheat and barley,all are monocots

Dicots
• Have to cotyledons
• 199350 species,
• 50% species are woody.
Difference between monocots and dicots