Bacteria and Cyanobacteria

(Nostoc and Oscillatoria)

Dr Kiran Shahzadi
Assistant Professor
Department of Botany
Lahore College for Women University,
Lahore
 General Characters
• Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular, ubiquitous, microscopic organisms.
The study of Bacteria is called Bacteriology. Bacteria were first discovered
by a Dutch scientist, Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 and were called
“animalcules”.
• They are Prokaryotic organisms and lack nuclear membrane and
membrane bound organelles.
• The Genetic material is called nucleoid or incipient nucleus
• The cell wall is made up of Polysaccharides and proteins
• Most of them lack chlorophyll, hence they are heterotrophic (Vibrio
cholerae) but some are autotrophic and possess Bacteriochlorophyll
(Chromatium)
• They reproduce vegetatively by Binary fission and endospore formation.
• They exhibit variations which are due to genetic recombination and is
achieved through conjugation, transformation and transduction.
• The shape and flagellation of the bacteria varies .
 Structure of Bacterial Cell
The bacterial cell reveals three layers (i) Capsule (ii) Cell wall and (iii) Cytoplasm
Capsule
• Some bacteria are surrounded by a gelatinous substance which is composed of
polysaccharides or polypeptide or both called capsule. It protects cell from
desiccation and antibiotics. The sticky nature helps them to attach to substrates
like plant root surfaces and tissues. It helps to retain the nutrients in bacterial cell.
Cell wall
The bacterial cell wall is granular and is rigid. It provide protection and gives shape to
the cell. The chemical composition of cell wall is rather complex and is made up of
Peptidoglycan or mucopeptide . One of the most abundant polypeptide called porin is
present .
Plasma membrane
• The plasma membrane is made up of lipoprotein. It controls the entry and exit of
small molecules and ions. The enzymes involved in the oxidation of metabolites
(i.e., the respiratory chain) as well as the photosystems used in photosynthesis are
present in the plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm is thick, semitransparent and contains ribosomes and other cell inclusions.
like glycogen, poly-β-hydroxybutyrate granules, sulphur granules and gas vesicles are present.
Shapes of Bacterial cells Flagellation in bacteria Structure of bacterial cell
Bacterial chromosome
• The bacterial chromosome is a single circular DNA molecule, tightly coiled and is not
enclosed in a membrane as in Eukaryotes. This genetic material is called Nucleoid. It is
amazing to note that the DNA of E.coli which measures about 1mm long when uncoiled,
contains all the genetic information of the organism.
Plasmid
• Plasmids are extra chromosomal double stranded, circular, self-replicating, autonomous
elements. They contain genes for fertility, antibiotic resistant and heavy metals. It also help in
the production of bacteriocins and toxins which are not found in bacterial chromosome. The
size of a plasmid varies from 1 to 500 kb usually plasmids contribute to about 0.5 to 5.0% of
the total DNA of bacteria.
Mesosomes
• These are localized infoldings of plasma membrane produced into the cell in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They are clumped and folded together to maximize their
surface area and helps in respiration and in binary fission
Polyribosomes/Polysomes
• The ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. The ribosomes are 70S type and
consists of two subunits i.e. 50S and 30S formed of equal amount of RNA and
Protein. The ribosomes are held together by mRNA and form polyribosomes or
polysomes.
Flagella
• Certain motile bacteria have numerous thin hair like processes of variable length emerge
from the cell wall called flagella. It is 20–30 μm in diameter and 15 μm in length. The flagella
of Eukaryotic cells contain 9+2 microtubles but each flagellum in bacteria is made up of a
single fibril. Flagella are used for locomotion. Based on the number and position of flagella
there are different types of bacteria
Fimbriae or Pili
Pili or fimbriae are hair like appendages found on surface of cell wall of gram-negative bacteria
(Example: Enterobacterium). The pili are 0.2 to 20 µm long with a diameter of about 0.025µm. In addition
to normal pili there are special type of pili which help in conjugation called sex pili are also found.
Mesosome
In-foldings of cell surface membrane. Appeared to be associated with DNA during cell division and
separation during replication.
Spore or Cyst:
resistant bodies to heat, desiccation and radiation. Exospore, endospore
Growth curve of bacteria
• Lag phase
• Log phase
• Stationary phase
• Death/Decline phase
Reproduction in bacteria
Asexual
Binary fission, endospore formation
Sexual (Primitive type)/
Bacterial recombination
• Transformation
• Congugation
• Transduction
 Transfomation
Transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another is
called transformation. In 1928 the bacteriologist
Frederick Griffith demonstrated transformation in
Mice using Diplococcus pneumoniae. Two strains
of this bacterium are present in wgich One strain
produces smooth colonies and are virulent in nature
(S-type) and other strain produce rough colonies
and are avirulent (R-type). When S-type of cells
were injected into the mouse, the mouse died.
When R-type of cells were injected, the mouse
survived. He injected heat killed S-type cells into the
mouse the mouse did not die. When the mixture of
heat killed S-type cells and R-type cells were
injected into the mouse. The mouse died. The
avirulent rough strain of Diplococcus had been
transformed into S-type cells. The hereditary
material of heat killed S-type cells had transformed
R-type cell into virulent smooth strains. Thus the
phenomenon of changing the character of one
strain by transferring the DNA of another strain into
the former is called Transformation.
 Bacterial Conjugation
• J. Lederberg and Edward L. Tatum
demon-strated conjugation in E.
coli. in the year 1946. In this
method of gene transfer the donor
cell gets attached to the recipient
cell with the help of pili. The pilus
grows in size and forms the
conjugation tube. The plas-mid of
donor cell which has the F+
(fertility factor) undergoes
replication. Only one strand of
DNA is transferred to the recipient
cell through conjugation tube. The
recipient completes the structure
of double stranded DNA by
synthesizing the strand that
complements the strand acquired
from the donor.
Conjugation
 Transduction
Zinder and Lederberg (1952)
discovered Transduction in S.
typhimurum. Phage mediated DNA
transfer is called Transduction.
(i) Generalized Transduction
The ability of a bacteriophage to
carry genetic material of any region
of bacterial DNA is called
Generalised transduction.
(ii) Specialized or Restricted
Transduction
• The ability of the bacteriophage
to carry only a specific region of
the bacterial DNA is called
specialized or restricted
transduction.
 Cyanobacteria
(Gr kyanos=blue+phyta= plants
Cyanophyta
• The division was named myxophyta (Gr Myxa= slime + phyton= a plant)--- single class
cyanophyceae----characters same as bacteria----plced together in Monera
• Cyanobacteria resemble the eukaryotic algae in many ways, including morphological
characteristics, liberation of O2, and ecological niches, and were at one time treated as algae,
hence the common name of blue-green algae. Algae have since been reclassified as protists, and
the prokaryotic nature of the blue-green algae has caused them to be classified with bacteria in
the prokaryotic kingdom Monera.
Salient features
• The members of this group are prokaryotes and lack motile reproductive structures.
• The thallus imay be unicellular, Colonial or filamentous trichome as in Nostoc.
• Gliding movement is noticed in some species (Oscillatoria).
• The protoplasm is differentiated into central region called centroplasm and peripheral region
bearing chromatophore called chromoplasm.
• The photosynthetic pigments include c-phyocyanin and c-phycoerythrin along with myxoxanthin
and myxoxanthophyll.
• The reserve food material is Cyanophycean starch.
• In some forms a large colourless cell is found in the terminal or intercalary position called
Heterocysts. They are involved in N2 fixation.
• They reproduce only through vegetative methods and produce Akinetes (thick wall dormant cell
formed from vegetative cell), Hormogonia (a portion of filament get detached and reproduce by
cell division), fission, Endospores.
• The presence of mucilage around the thallus is characteristic feature of this group. Therefore, this
group is also called Myxophyceae
• Sexual reproduction is absent.
 Nostoc
Nostoc, genus of blue green algae with cells arranged
in beadlike chains that are grouped together in a
gelatinous mass. Ranging from microscopic to walnut-
sized, masses of Nostoc may be found on soil and
floating in quiet water.
• Like most blue-green algae, Nostoc contains two
pigments, blue phycocyanin and red
phycoerythrin, as well as chlorophyll,
• the ability to fix N2 in specialized cells called
heterocysts. A terrestrial species has been used as
a supplementary food source in Asia.
Reproduction
• Fragmentation, akinete special thick-walled cell
(akinete) has the ability to withstand desiccation
for long periods of time. After 70 years of dry
storage, the akinete of one spp. germinates into a
filament when moistened.
• Hormogonia most common, filament of short
length piecesdue to death decay of heterocyst or
veg cells
• Arthrospore akinetes which are resting spores
• Endospore heterocyst contents divide to produce
 Oscillatoria
Filamentous cyanobacteria which is named
after its oscillating movement. Filaments
in the colonies can slide back and forth
against each other until the whole mass is
reoriented to its light source. It uses
photosynthesis to survive and reproduce.
Each filament consists of trichome which is
made up of rows of cells. The tip of the
trichome oscillates like a pendulum.
Habitat: It is commonly found in watering-
troughs waters, and is mainly blue-green
or brown-green. It occur in fresh water
ponds.
Reproduction: takes place vegetatively
fragmentation, Hormogonia the filament
breaks into a number of fragments called
homogonia. Each consist of one or more
cells and grow into a filament by cell
division in one direction. Necridia Breaks
in the filament usually occur where dead
cells (necridia) are present..
 Economic Importance of Bacteria and Cyanobacteria
Bio fertilizer and soil fertility
• Bacteria as Biofertilizers • Cultures of improved strains of beneficial bacteria which when applied to
the seed or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plants and stimulate plant growth by
increasing the availability of nutrients. • Improve cycling of nutrients and increase soil fertility . •
Increase porosity and water holding capacity of the soil and provide protection against drought. •
Enhance seed germination. • Increase crop yield to 20 – 30 % • Cheap, convenient and ecofriendly •
Application of biofertilizers have considerable importance in sustainable agriculture. e.g. Species of R.
leguminosarum.
Certain bacteria play an important role N2 fixation, ammonification , nitrification and thus help to
increase the fertility of the soil. N2 fixing bacteria • Plants can absorb N2 only in the form of nitrates.
N2 fixing bacteria can fix the free N2 of the atmosphere into absorbable form of nitrates. • N2 fixing
bacteria are of two types viz. symbiotic N2 fixers and free living (asymbiotic ) N2 fixers.
Symbiotic N2 fixing bacteria • Establish symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants and fix free N2
of the atmosphere into absorbable form of nitrates and increase the fertility of the soil. Infection of
the roots of a leguminous plant with suitable species of these bacteria leads to the formation of root
nodules. e.g. Bacteria like R. leguminosarum, etc.
N2 fixation by Cyanobacteria • Cyanobacteria like Nostoc punctiforme, etc. can also fix free N2 of the
atmosphere by means of heterocysts and thus increase fertility of the soil. Ammonification • Species
of bacteria like B. subtilis, B. macerans, Proteus terrae etc. degrade dead organic matter of plants,
animals into simple compounds NH3 to enhance the fertility of the soil. Nitrification • Nitrifying
bacteria like Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus etc. oxidise ammonia to nitrites and Nitrobacter species
oxidise nitrites to nitrates and increase the fertility of the soil.
N2 fixation by Filamentous bacteria (Actinomycetes ) • Form nodules in the roots of non –leguminous
plants like Casuarina. e.g. Frankia Phosphorous solubilizers or Phosphobacteria • Solubilize different
forms of insoluble phosphates by producing citric acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid etc. e.g. B. polymyxa
 Industrial application
Role of Bacteria in food production Production of Curd , Butter, Cheese •Milk is inoculated with the starter culture
and kept for a few hours. • Lactic acid bacteria like L. acidophilus grow in milk and ferment lactose in milk into lactic
acid results in coagulation of casein to the curd and also in the production of butter, cheese etc. Production of
Yoghurt • The main (starter) cultures in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus. Production of Vinegar • Ethyl alcohol is
oxidized into acetic acid by acetic acid bacteria, Acetobacter aceti, etc. Probiotics • Live microorganisms when
administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host . The most commonly used probiotic
bacteria belong to the heterogeneous group of Lactic Acid Bacteria e.g. yoghurt and other fermented milk products
include L. acidophillus.
Production of Fermented foods : • They are serving as process organisms and transform the chemical constituents of
raw materials of plant/animal sources during fermentation. Bacteria for the production of medically useful enzymes
• Streptokinase - a thrombolytic enzyme used to dissolve blood clots - produced by Streptococci bacteria , vitamin
B12
Role of Bacteria in Bioremediation • Disposal of sewage and agrowastes - The bacterium Sphaerotilus natans ,
popularly known as sewage fungus , play an important role in the degradation of organic matter in sewage. Bacteria
for Pesticide degradation: Klebsiella and B. subtilis. Oil-degrading microorganisms include Pseudomonas etc. •
genetically engineered super bug, Pseudomonas putida capable of degrading Petroleum Bacterium as a biocontrol
agent • The bacterium B. thuringiensis can be used as a biocontrol agent. 8. Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer
technique • The soil bacterium , A. tumefaciens, known as natural plant genetic engineer is used to produce many
genetically modified plants Bt crops • Bt gene (cry gene Bt crops - e.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, Bt brinjal etc. which are
resistant to insects. Production of biogas • Several bacteria are involved in the production of bio gas (methane –
biofuel ) from cow dung, animal wastes, etc. Biodegradable plastics • Poly β-hydroxybutyrate is used for the
production of biodegradable plastic. Uses of genetically engineered bacteria: E. coli • Used for the production of
human insulin .e.g. ‘Humulin’ and human growth hormone Somatotropin to treat dwarfism ; production of biofuels
e.g. Bioethanol.
 Pathogenecity
Harmful aspects of Bacteria :Reduction in soil fertility by denitrifying bacteria.
Denitrifying bacteria like Thiobacillus denitrificans convert the nitrates of the soil into
free Nitrogen of the atmosphere and thus reduce the fertility of the soil.
Parasitic bacteria are pathogens cause various diseases in plants and animals including
man. e.g. Blight disease of Paddy caused by Xanthomonas oryzae
Citrus canker • caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis
Bacterial diseases in man Diphtheria - Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Cholera - Vibrio
cholerae Pneumonia - Streptococcus pneumoniae etc.
food spoilage : Food spoilage is the undesirable change in the food. • Spoilage causes
changes in the appearance of food, formation of unpleasant odour and unpalatable
taste. A large number of bacteria cause spoilage of • Vegetables and fruits Bacillus
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus etc. • Cereals Micrococcus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas etc.
• Meat – Bacillus, Clostridium, Escherichia, Pseudomonas etc. • Egg Salmonella ,
Micrococcus, Pseudomonas etc. Poultry: Bacillus, Enterobacter , Escherichia,
Salmonella etc. • Fish – Alcaligenes, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas etc. • Processed
foods – B. subtilis, B. licheniformis etc. Bacteria causes food poisoning - Botulism • An
anaerobic bacterium, Clostridium botulinum produces a neurotoxin botulin (an
exotoxin) which produces food poisoning called botulism.
Biowar/Bioterrorism: The improved variety of infective agents (bioweapons) are
widely been used as an agent of effective weapon of bioterrorism. e.g. Bacillus
anthracis - causes Anthrax, Clostridium botulinum (botulism) etc.