Government of Tamilnadu

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Course : TNPSC Group I Exam

Subject : Botany
Topic : Cell Biology

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 CELL BIOLOGY

THE CELL - BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

 A cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

 Organisms contain organs, organs composed of tissues, tissues are made up
of cells; and cells are formed of organelles and organelles are made up of
molecules.
 Loewy and Siekevitz defined cell as a unit of an organism delimited by a
plasma membrane in animal cells and cell wall and plasma membrane in
plant cells. Thus cell forms the basic unit of life.
 Anton van Leewenhoek (1632-1723) studied the structure of bacteria,
protozoa spermatozoa, red blood cells under the simple microscope which he
examined under a simple microscope.
 The word cell was first coined by Robert Hooke in 1665 to designate the
empty honey-comb like structures viewed in a thin section of bottle cork
which he examined.
 In 1838, the German botanist Schleiden proposed that all plants are made up
of plant cells.
 Theodore Schwann studied and concluded that all animals are also composed
of cells.
 Cell theory was again rewritten by Rudolf Virchow in 1858.
 Robert Brown in 1831 discovered the presence of nucleus in the cells of orchid
roots.
 Purkinje coined the term protoplasm for the slimy substance that is found
inside the cells.
 On the basis of the structure, the cells are classified into prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
 The smallest cells are found among bacteria (0.2 to 0.5 microns). The largest
plant cell is the ovule of Cycas.
 The DNA is constantly read out into a particular set of mRNA (transcription)
which specify a particular set of proteins (translation).
 As these proteins function they are being degraded and replaced by new ones
and the system is so balanced that the cell neither grows, shrinks, nor
changes its function.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Plant cell Animal cell

Plant cell has outer rigid cell Cellwall is absent. Plasma membrane
wall, made up of cellulose is the outermost covering.
Plant cell has a distinct, definite The shape of the animal cell is not so
shape because of the rigid cell wall. definite. It can change its shape.
So, the shape of cell in permanent.
Plant cell contains plastids. Most Plastids are absent.
important of this is the green
chloroplast.
Vacuoles are fewer and larger. Vacuoles are either absent or very
small in number and size.
Centrosome is present only in the All the animal cells have centrosomes
cells of some lower plants.
Dictyosome (Golgi complex ) is Golgi complex is organized in the
dispersed through out the cytoplasm. It appears as shallow
cytoplasm. It comprises stacks of saucer shaped body or narrow neck
single membranous lamellar discs. bowl - like form. It consists of
interconnecting tubules in distal
region.
Lysosomes are found only in the Found in all cells.
eukaryotic plant cells.
Plant cell is larger than the animal Animal cell is small in size.
cell.
Mostly, starch is the storage Glycogen is the storage material
material.
During cytoplasmic division a cell During cytoplasmic division a furrow
plate is formed in the centre of the appears from the periphery to the
cell. centre of the cell.

 In the cell cycle DNA is duplicated during synthesis (S) Phase and the copies
are distributed to daughter cells during mitotic (M) phase.
 Programmed Cell Death (PCD) plays a very important role by balancing cell
growth and multiplication. In addition, cell death also eliminates unecessary
cells.

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CELL THEORY

 In the year (1839) Schleiden and Schwann have jointly proposed the “Cell
Theory”

The important aspects of cell theory are:

1. All living organisms are made up of minute units, the cells which are the
smallest entities that can be called living.
2. Each cell is made up of protoplasm with a nucleus and bounded by plasma
membrane with or without a cell wall.
3. All cells are basically alike in their structure and metabolic activities.
4. Function of an organism is the sum total of activities and interaction of its
constituent cells.

Exception to cell Theory

1. Viruses are biologists’ puzzle. They are an exception to cell theory. They lack
protoplasm, the essential part of the cell.
2. Bacteria and cyanobacteria (Blue Green algae) lack well organized nucleus.
3. Some of the protozons are acellular.
4. The coenocytic hyphae of some fungi eg. Rhizopus have undivided mass of
protoplasm, in which many nuclei remain scattered.
5. Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) and mature sieve tubes are without nuclei.

Cell Principle or Cell Doctrine

The important features of cell doctrine are:
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
2. New cells are produced from the pre-existing cells.
3. Cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
4. A cell contains hereditary information which is passed on from cell to cell
during cell division.
5. All the cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic
activities.
6. The structure and function of the cell are controlled by DNA.
7. Sometimes the dead cells may remain functional as tracheids and vessels in
plants and horny cells in animals.

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PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL (PLANT CELLS)
 These plasmids are very much used in genetic engineering where the
plasmids are separated and reincorporated, genes (specific pieces of DNA)
can be inserted into plasmids, which are then transplanted into bacteria using
the techniques of genetic engineering. peroxysomes, in which fatty acids and
amino acids are degraded.
 The cytosol of eukaryotic cells contains an array of fibrous proteins
collectively called the cytoskeleton.

The differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Size Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
General Most of them are very small. Most are large cells
Some are larger than 50 μ m. (10-100μm). Some are larger
than 1 mm.
Characteristics All are microbes. Unicellular or Some are microbes; most are
colonial. The nucleoid is not large organisms. All possess a
membrane bound. membranebound nucleus.
Cell Division No mitosis or meiosis. Mainly Mitosis and meiosis types of
by binary fission or budding. cell division occur.
Sexual system Absent in most forms, when Present in most forms, equal
present unidirectional altrans male and female
fero genetic material from donor participation in fertilization.
to recipient.
Development No multi-cellular development Haplo id forms are produced
from diploid zygotes. No by meiosis and diploid from
extensive tissue differentiation. zygotes. Multicellular
organisms show extensive
tissue differentiation.
Flagella Type Some have simple bacterial Flagella are of 9 + 2 type
flagella composed of only one
fibril.
Cell Wall Madeup of peptidoglycan Cell wall is madeup of
(mucopeptide). Cellulose is cellulose in plants and chitin
absent. in fungi.
Organelles Membrane bound organelles Membrane bound organelles
such as endoplasmic reticulum, such as endoplasmic reticu
golgi complex, mitochondria, lum, golgi complex,
chloroplasts and vacuoles are mitochondria,

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 BOTANY
absent. chloroplastsand
vacuoles are present.
Ribosomes Ribosomes are smaller made of Ribosomes are larger and
70s units (s refers to Svedberg made of 80s units.
unit, these dimentation
coefficient of a particle in the
ultra centrifuge).
DNA Genetic material (DNA) is not Genetic material is found in
found in well-organized well organized chromosomes.
chromosomes.

CELL WALL
1. The cells of all plants, bacteria and fungi have a rigid, protective covering
outside the plasma membrane called cell wall.
2. Among the vascular Plants ,only certain cells connected with the reproductive
processes, are naked, all other cells have walls.

Chemical Composition
 In bacteria the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan, in Fungi it is made up
of chitin.
 The plant cell wall is made up of cellulose. Besides cellulose certain other
chemicals such as hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, cutin, suberin, silica may also
be seen deposited on the wall.

Functions of cell wall

1. It gives definite shape to the cell.
2. It protects the internal protoplasm against injury.
3. It gives rigidity to the cell
4. It prevents the bursting of plant cells due to endosmosis.
5. The walls of xylem vessels, tracheids and sieve tubes are specialized for long
distance transport.
6. In many cases, the cell wall takes part in offense and defencse.

CELL MEMBRANE
 All the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are enclosed by an elastic thin
covering called plasma membrane.

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 BOTANY
 It is selectively permeable since it allows only certain substances to enter or
leave the cell through it.
 In addition to this eukaryotic cells possess intracellular membranes
collectively called cytoplasmic membrane system, that surround the vacuole
and cell organelles.
 Plasma membrane and the sub-cellular membranes are together known as
biological membranes.

Structure of cell Membrane

1. About 75 A thick
2. The Outer and inner layers are formed of protein molecules where as the
middle one is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules.

Fluid Mosaic Model

 It explains the molecular structure of plasma membrane.

Functions of plasma membrane

 Transporting nutrients into and metabolic wastes out of the cell. Preventing
unwanted materials from entering the cell. In short, the intercellular and
intra cellular transport is regulated by plasma membrane.
 The plasma membrane maintains the proper ionic composition pH(~7.2) and
osmotic pressure of the cytosol.

Membrane Transport:
Substances are transported across the membrane either by:
1. Passive Transport or
2. Active Transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Physical processes
 Passive Transport of materials across the membrane requires no energy by
the cell and it is unaided by the transport proteins.
 The physical processes through which substances get into the cell are
1. Diffusion 2. Osmosis

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 BOTANY
Diffusion
 Diffusion is the movement of molecules of any substance from a region of it’s
higher to a region of it’s lower concentration.
 This can be described as ‘down hill transport’. Diffusion through the bio
membrane takes place in two ways.

Osmosis
 It is the special type of diffusion where the water or solvent diffuses
through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high solvent
concentration to a region of low solvent concentration.

Role of Osmosis
1. It helps in absorption of water from the soil by root hairs.
2. Osmosis helps in cell to cell movement of water.
3. Osmosis helps to develop the turgor pressure which helps in opening and
closing of stomata. (For more about Osmosis see unit 5.4)

Active transport
 It is vital process. It is the movement of molecules or ions against the
concentration gradient. i.e the molecules or ions move from the region of
lower concentration towards the region of higher concentration.
 The movement of molecules can be compared with the uphill movement of
water.

Endocytosis and exocytosis

 Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes involving bulk transport of
materials through membranes, either into cells(endocytosis) or out of cells
(exocytosis).

CELL ORGANELLES
 All eukaryotic cells contain a membrane bound nucleus and numerous other
organelles in their cytosol.
 A Typical plant cell contains the following organelles and parts:

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Mitochondria
1. They are bounded by two membranes with the inner one extensively folded.
2. Enzymes in the inner mitochondrial membrane and central matrix carry out
terminal stages of sugar and lipid oxidation coupled with ATP synthesis.
Plastids
 Plastids are the largest cytoplasmic organelles bounded by double membrane.
These are found in most of the plant cells and in some photosynthetic
protists. These are absent in prokaryotes and in animal cells. Plastids are of
three types namely chloroplasts, Chromoplasts and leucoplasts.

Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts can be as long as 10mm and are typically 0.5-0.2mm thick but
they vary in size and shape in different cells, especially among the algae.
 They are the sites of Photosynthesis. They are found only in plant cells. They
are surrounded by an inner and outer membrane, a complex system of
thylakoid membranes in their interior contains the pigments and enzymes
that absorb light and produce ATP.
 Chromoplasts are coloured plastids other than green. They are found in
coloured parts of plants such as petals of the flower, pericarp of the fruits etc.

Leucoplasts
 Leucoplasts are the colourless plastids. These colourless plastids are involved
in the storage of carbohydrates, fats and oils and proteins. The plastids which
store carbohydrates are called amyloplasts. The plastids storing fats and oils
are called elaioplasts. The plastids storing protein are called proteinoplasts.

Nucleus
 It is surrounded by an inner and outer membrane. These contain numerous
pores through which materials pass between the nucleus and cytosol.
 The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
 The nuclear membrane resembles the plasma membrane in its function. The
nucleus mainly contains DNA organized into linear structures called
chromosomes.

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Endoplasmic reticulum
 These are a network of inter connected membranes. Two types of
Endoplasmic Reticulum are recognised.
1. Rough E.R
2. Smooth E.R

Rough ER
 The endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for protein synthesis in a cell.
Ribosomes are sub organelles in which the amino acids are actually bound
together to form proteins.
 There are spaces within the folds of ER membrane and they are known as
Cisternae.

Smooth ER
 This type of ER does not have ribosomes.

Three researchers, who made the crystal structure of the ribosomes received
the Nobel Prize for chemistry in the year 2009. Venkatraman
Ramakrishnan, an Indian born U.S.A scientist. Thomas Steitz U.S.A and
Ada Yoath of Isrel.

Vaculoes
1. The vacuoles form about 75% of the plant cell. In the vacuole the plant
stores nutrients as well as toxic wastes.
2. If pressure increases within the vacuole it can increase the sing of the cell.
In this case the cell will become swollen. If the pressure increases further
the cell will get destroyed.

Diagram Structure Functions

It has an envelope Cristae are the sties of
made up of two oxidative
membranes; the inner phosphorylation and
is folded to form electron transport,
cristae. Matrix with Matrix is the site of
ribosomes is present. A Krebs’ cycle reactions.
circular DNA is also
there.

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It has an envelope Photosynthesis takes
made up of two place here. It is a
membranes. Contains process in which light
gel like stroma and a energy is converted
system of membranes into chemical energy.
called grana.
Ribosomes and a
circular DNA are
present in the stroma.
It has an envelope Nuclear division is the
made up of two basis of cell replication
membranes. They have and thus reproduction.
nuclear pores. It Chromosomes contain
contains nucleolus and DNA, the molecule
chromantin. responsible for
inheritance.
Structure: Consists of Smooth ER, (no
membrane – bounded ribosomes) is the site
sacs called cisternae. of lipid synthesis.
Rough ER (with
ribosomes) transports
proteins made by the
ribosomes through the
cisternae.
It is formed by a stack Often involved in
of flattened membrane secretion.
bound sacs, called
cisternae.
Vacuoles It is bounded by a Stores various
single membrane substances including
called the tonoplast. It waste products. It
contains cell sap. helps in the osmotic
properties of the cell.

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 BOTANY
It consists of a large They are the sites of
and a small sub unit. protein synthesis.
They are made of
protein and RNA.
Ribosome are found in
mitochondria and
chloroplasts also. They
may form polysomes
i.e. collection of
ribosomes strung along
messenger RNA.
Two layers of lipid Being a differentially
(bilayer) sandwiched permeable membrane
between two protein it controls the
layers. exchange of substances
between the cell and its
environment
Spherical organelle They are the sites of
bound by a single glyoxylate cycle in
membrane plants.
It consists of cellulose It provides mechanical
microfibrils in a matrix support and protection.
of hemicellulose and
pectic substances.
Secondary thicking
may be seen.

Golgi Apparatus
The electron microscopic observation of Golgi bodies reveals the presence of
three membranous components, namely,
1. Disc shaped group of flattened sacs or cisternae
2. Small vesicles
3. Large vacuoles.

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 BOTANY
Functions
1. It produces secretory vesicles like zymogen granules that may have enzymes
inside.
2. It forms the certain yolk substances in the developing oocytes.
3. It helps in retinal pigment formation in the retinal cells.
4. It helps in the formation of acrosome in sperm cells.

Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
 Lysosomes originate either from the Golgi apparatus or directly from the
endoplasmic reticulum. Each lysosome is a round structure. It is filled with a
dense material.

Functions
1. Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as
well as worn out cell organelles.
2. When the cell gets damaged lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest
their own cell.
3. Therefore lysosomes are also known as suicidal bags of a cell.

Mitochondria
 In the cytoplasm of most cells, large size filamentous, rounded or rodlike
structure known as mitochondria may be seen. The mitochondria are
bounded by two membranes made of proteins.
 The outer membrane forms a bag like structure around the inner membrane
which gives out many finger like folds on the lumen of the mitochondria. The
folds of inner mitochondrial membrane are known as cristae.
 Are self perpetuating semi-autonomous bodies.

Function
1. Mitochondria are considered to be the power houses of the cell because they
are the seat of cellular respiration.
2. They also synthesize the energy rich compound ATP- Adinosine Tri
Phosphate.

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Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are found in all cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic except in
mature sperm cells and RBCs.
 In eukaryotic cells they occur freely in the cytoplasm and also found attached
to the outer surface of rough ER.
 Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

Centrioles
 Centrioles were first described by Henneguy and Leuhossek in 1897.
 The Centrioles are micro tubular structures, found in two shapes-rod shaped
and granules located near the nucleus of animal cell.
 At the time of cell division, the centrioles produce the spindle fibres and
astral bodies. They also decide the plan of cell division.

Nucleus
 Nucleus is the most obvious sub cellular organelle. It is round or oval in
outline and possesses four parts. They are :
1. Nuclear Membrane
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Chromatin Reticulum
4. Nucleolus
 The nuclear membrane is the outer delicate covering of the nucleus.
 It contains pores of different dimensions.
 The nucleoplasm is the protoplasmic substance of the nucleus. It is also
known as nuclear sap.
 Chromatin Reticulum is composed of a network with highly elongated
chromatin threads which overlap one another and are embedded in the
nucleoplasm.
 At the time of the cell division, the chromosomes become clearly visible.
 The nucleolus is generally present in the nucleus of most of the cells.
 The nucleolus become enlarged during active period of cell division and are
less developed in quiescent stage. It is often called as cell organizer

Functions
1. It controls all metabolic processes and hereditary activities of the cell.
2. The nuclear membrane allows exchange of ions between nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm.

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CELL DIVISION
 A matured cell divides into two daughter cells. Unicellular animalcules like
amoeba, undergo binary fission without any change in the chromatin
reticulum by a type of cell division called Amitosis.
 Body cells of all animals and plants undergo a cell division called Mitosis,
involving changes in the structure of chromosomes, but without any change
in the chromosomal number.
 The germinal epithelial cells of animals undergo Meiosis cell division,
involving changes in the structure and number of chromosomes.

Mitosis
Mitosis is divided into the following 4 sub stages.
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

Mitosis – Equational Cell Division

Prophase
 The chromatin network begins to coil and each chromosome becomes distinct
as long thread like structure. Each chromosome at this stage has two
chromatids that lie side by side and held together by centromere. The nucleus
gradually disappears. The nuclear membrane also starts disappearing.

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Metaphase
 The disappearance of nuclear membrane and nucleolus marks the beginning
of metaphase. The chromosomes become shorter by further coiling. Finally,
the chromosomes become distinct and visible under the compound
microscope. The chromosomes orient themselves in the equator of the cell in
such a way that all the centromeres are arranged in the equator forming
metaphase plate or equatorial plate. Out of the two chromatids of each
chromosome, one faces one pole and the other one faces the opposite pole. At
the same time spindle fibres arising from the opposite poles are seen attached
to the centromeres. The fibres are made up of proteins rich in sulphur
containing amino acids.
 At late metaphase, the centromeres divide and now the chromatids of each
chromosome are ready to be separated.

Anaphase
 Division of centromere marks the beginning of anaphase. The spindle fibres
start contracting and this contraction pulls the two groups of chromosomes
towards the opposite poles. As the chromosomes move toward opposite poles
they assume V or J or I shaped configuration with the centromere
proceeding towards the poles with chromosome arms trailing behind. Such
variable shapes of the chromosomes are due to the variable position of
centromere.

Telophase
 At the end of anaphase, chromosomes reach the opposite poles and they
uncoil, elongate and become thin and invisible. The nuclear membrane and
the nucleolus reappear. Thus, two daughter nuclei are formed, one at each
pole.

Cytokinesis
 The division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis and it follows the nuclear
division by the formation of cell wall between the two daughter nuclei. The
formation of cell wall begins as a cell plate also known as phragmoplast
formed by the aggregation of vesicles produced by Golgi bodies. These
vesicles which contain cell wall materials fuse with one another to form cell
membranes and cell walls. Thus, at the end of mitosis, two identical
daughter cells are formed.

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Significance of Mitosis
1. As a result of mitosis two daughter cells which are identical to each other and
identical to the mother cell are formed.
2. Mitotic cell division ensures that the daughter cells possess a genetical
identity, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
3. Mitosis forms the basis of continuation of organisms.
4. Asexual reproduction of lower plants is possible only by mitosis.
5. Vegetative reproduction in higher plants by grafting, tissue culture method
are also a consequence of mitosis.
6. Mitosis is the common method of multiplication of cells that helps in the
growth and development of multi- cellular organism.
7. Mitosis helps in the regeneration of lost or damaged tissue and in wound
healing.
8. The chromosomal number is maintained constant by mitosis for each species.

Meiosis
 Meiosis is a kind of cell division, which occurs in the germinal epithelial cells
of the gonads to form the gametes.
 Meiosis takes place in the specialized diploid cells of gonads and produces
four haploid gametes, each having half the number of chromosomes as
compared to the parent cell.
 Meiosis is completed in two successive divisions – Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II.
In Meiosis-I, as the chromosomal number is reduced to half, it is called
Reduction division. Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis.

Meiosis - I
 The various events of Meiosis-I are studied under four substages namely
Prophase-I, Metaphase-I, Anaphase-I and Telophase-I.

Prophase - I
 The chromatin reticulum unwebs and individual chromosomes are liberated
from one another.
 The nuclear membrane dissolves. The chromosomes undergo, marked
differences in their shape and structure.
 Based on the shape of the chromosomes, this stage is studied under five sub-
divisions as Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.

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Leptotene
 The chromosomes condense and appear like threads. Each chromosome
splits up longitudinally, except at the centromere.

Zygotene
 The homologous chromosomes come closer and start pairing. (A homologous
pair of chromosomes consist of a paternal chromosome and maternal
chromosome with similar genes).
 The pairing starts from the tip or from the middle and get attached laterally
throughout the length.
 This pairing is called Synapsis, the paired chromosomes are called Bivalents.

Pachytene
 The paired chromosomes become shorter and thicker. Each bivalent appears
to have four strands called as, tetrads or quadrivalents.
 The point of contact between the homologous pair of chromosomes are
called, Chiasmata.
 At the point of chiasmata, exchange of chromosomal segment takes place,
between the chromatids of the homologous pairs.
 This exchange of segments of chromatids between homologous
chromosomes, is called crossing over.

Diplotene
 After the crossing over is completed, the homologous chromosomes separate
and this separation is called terminalization.
 Terminalization may begin in chiasmata and move to the terminal end of the
chromosomes.

Diakinesis
 The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear. The spindle apparatus is
formed in the cytoplasm.

Metaphase - I
 The chromosomes get condensed. Bivalents now appear on the equator of the
spindle with their chromatids, pointing towards the equatorial plate and the
centromere pointing towards the poles.

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Anaphase - I
 The spindle fibres contract pulling the chromosomes, towards the opposite
poles.
 The entire chromosome, with the two chromatids move to the opposite poles.
This involves, a reduction in the number of chromosomes. Now two groups of
chromosomes are produced, one at each pole with half the number of
chromosomes.

Telophase - I
 At the poles, around the group of chromosomes, a nuclear membrane
develops. Thus two daughter nuclei each with half the number of
chromosomes, are formed at the poles. The spindle fibres disappear.
 At the end of Meiosis-I at right angle to the position of the nuclei, the
cytoplasmic constriction takes place leading to the division of the cell. The
cytoplasmic division is called Cytokinesis.

Meiosis - II
 Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis and so it is called Meiotic Mitosis. The events
of Meiosis-II are studied in four sub-divisions as, Prophase-II, Metaphase-II,
Anaphase- II and Telophase-II.

Prophase - II
 The bivalent chromosomes gets shortened. The centrioles form asters and
move to the poles. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.

Metaphase - II
 Chromosomes, each consisting of two chromatids held together by a
centromere are arranged at the equator of the spindle fibres. The centromeres
are attached with the spindle fibres.

Anaphase - II
 The centromere divides into two and the two chromatids separate and now
they are called as daughter chromosomes or new chromosomes. The daughter
chromosomes move towards the opposite poles.

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Telophase - II
 The haploid set at the two poles coil to form chromatin material. The nuclear
membrane and nucleolus reappear. Thus two daughter nuclei are formed.

Cytokinesis
 The cytoplasmic division takes place at right angles to the position of the
nuclei, resulting in the formation of four gametes.

Significance of Meiosis
1. Haploid sex cells are produced, in order to maintain the constancy in the
number of chromosomes of a species.
2. Crossing over results in variation of genetic traits in the offspring.
3. Variations form the raw material for evolution.

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