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HUMAN MOVEMENT EffEcts of intErval training-basEd glycolytic capacity on

physical fitnEss in rEcrEational long-distancE runnErs

Article  in  Human Movement · August 2015

DOI: 10.1515/humo-2015-0029

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 HUMAN MOVEMENT
2015, vol. 16 (2), 71 – 77

Effects of interval training-based glycolytic capacity

on physical fitness in recreational long-distance runners

doi: 10.1515/humo-2015-0029

Marek Zatoń, Kamil Michalik *

University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland

Abstract
Purpose. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of 8-week-long interval training (targeting glycolytic capacity)
on selected markers of physical fitness in amateur long-distance runners. Methods. The study involved 17 amateur long-distance
runners randomly divided into an experimental (n = 8) and control (n = 9) group. The control group performed three or four
continuous training sessions per week whereas the experimental group performed two interval running training sessions and
one continuous running training session. A graded treadmill exercise test and the 12-min Cooper test were performed pre- and
post-training. Results. O2max and the rate of recovery increased in the experimental group. Relative oxygen uptake, minute
ventilation, and heart rate speed decreased in low- (6 km/h) and medium-intensity (12 km/h) running. Conclusions. Both
training modalities showed similar results. However, the significant differences in training volume (4–8 min interval training
vs. 40–150 min continuous training) indicates that the modalities targeting glycolytic capacity may be more efficient for ama-
teur runners prepare for long-distance events.

Key words: physical endurance, endurance training, interval training, maximal oxygen uptake, long-distance running

Introduction an important factor in effectively negating the oxygen

debt during post-exercise recovery [7]. According to
There is a growing number of recreational runners Fick [8], O2max is bound by the arteriovenous oxygen
involved in competition, such as in the world’s most difference and cardiac output, itself determined by heart
famous marathons in New York, Berlin, Chicago, or Lon- rate and stroke volume. In untrained populations, O2max
don [1, 2]. Running is a sport with no age or sex restric- is significantly lower than in elite athletes [5]. The highest
tions and unburdened by technical demands. In fact, values of O2max are achieved within 3–5 min of maxi-
the largest barrier to participation among working mal activity and steadily decrease as exercise is con-
individuals is the time needed for regular exercise [3]. tinued. In running, the 10 km distance is performed at
Of critical importance in long-distance running events approximately 90–95% O2max whereas the marathon
such as the 10 km or marathon is meeting the body’s was found to be run at approximately 75–85% O2max.
energy demands. In such prolonged exercise, energy In such prolonged efforts, of critical importance are
needed for the resynthesis of ATP is met primarily by overall running economy, the body’s ability to oxidize
aerobic processes that involve muscle glycogen and li- fat to meet the energy demands of muscle. the efficient
pids [4]. The proportion of energy derived by aerobic utilization of lactate, and removal of fatiguing metabo-
ATP production increases with running distance (and lites (H+) [5].
therefore time), amounting to 97% in 10 km runs and Regular physical exercise can increase physical fitness.
99% in marathons [4], whereas anaerobic pathways pro- Costill [9] defined physical training as a conscious and
vide the remaining energy. The main factors behind per- targeted effort in developing an attribute of physical
formance in endurance events are maximal oxygen uptake movement (whether health- or skill-related) that can be
( O2max), the level of metabolic thresholds, anaerobic measured most easily in competition. The structural
capacity, and efficiency [5]. The first three factors are de- and functional effects of physical training depend on
termined by the time in which a certain level of aerobic a myriad of factors, including the type of training stimu-
and anaerobic metabolism can be maintained during lus and its frequency, intensity, and duration [4, 10], rest
exercise. The last defines what speed (or power) can be intervals, and the duration and type of recovery between
generated at a given level of oxygen consumption. training sessions [11, 12].
Maximal oxygen uptake is an excellent marker of Among professional athletes, improving aerobic ca-
aerobic capacity, as it reflects a series of physiological pacity is mainly determined by the adopted training
responses that directly influence work rate [6]. It is also intensity [13, 14]. While recreational athletes most com-
monly use a continuous training protocol at low or
moderate intensity, Chtara et al. [15] and Friedlander
et al. [16] confirmed that continuous training, also known
* Corresponding author. as endurance exercise, contributes to increased at such

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M. Zatoń, K. Michalik, Interval training in distance running

low or moderate intensities in untrained populations. The effects of training on physical endurance capacity
The literature also shows that individuals who regularly and other ergometric and physiologic variables can be
train in endurance sports such as cycling, marathon assessed using various tests [28]. Depending on the studied
running, or cross-country skiing show improved pul- variable, exercise testing can be direct or indirect. If
monary ventilation (via higher tidal volume and lower conditions allow laboratory testing, a graded exercise
breathing frequency) in submaximal efforts [17]. test is most commonly performed to measure the con-
Developments in exercise strategy have seen interval tributions of the aerobic and glycolytic systems [29]. How-
training becoming a widely adopted training modality ever, the expense and complexity of laboratory methods
in numerous sports, as it allows individuals to train at favors field tests such as the 12-min Cooper test, which
higher intensities while reducing exercise duration. Its was found to strongly correlate (0.92) with direct meas-
defining feature is that it does not allow for full recovery, urements of O2max [30]. The Cooper test, in particular,
where subsequent repetitions of exercise are performed offers an effective and low-cost alternative to estimating
at increasingly higher levels of fatigue and lower blood maximal oxygen uptake in the absence or infeasibility
pH [18]. According to Zatoń and Bugajski [19], the pur- of other methods.
pose of interval training is to augment the body’s ability In light of the above, the aim of the present study
to tolerate exercise-induced metabolic acidosis while maxi- was to investigate the influence of interval training (im-
mizing anaerobic glycolytic mobilization. Besides im- proving glycolytic capacity) on physical fitness in am-
proved glycolytic capacity, interval training is believed to ateur long-distance runners and compare them against
more effective in improving maximal oxygen uptake individuals who exercised using traditional continu-
than continuous training [20–25]. Numerous studies ous training.
[25, 26] have confirmed increased O2max as a result
of interval training, the effect of elevated cardiac output Material and methods
in terms of heart rate and stroke volume as well as in-
creases in capillary blood flow, vascular conductance, The study recruited 17 male and female amateur long-
arteriovenous oxygen difference, and mitochondrial distance runners preparing for a marathon race who
enzyme activity. In addition to the above, research belonged to a local running association. None of the
[21, 23] has credited interval training with increasing participants had any competitive or professional ex-
muscle glycogen stores, improving blood buffering ca- perience with long-distance running and provided their
pacity and work efficiency (lower E, O2, CO2, respira- informed consent to participate in the study. The sample
tory quotient, and heart rate levels during non-maximal was randomly divided into an experimental (n = 8;
exercise), decreasing glycogen utilization in endurance 3 women, 5 men) and control (n = 9; 3 women, 6 men)
efforts, lowering blood lactate in steady-state prolonged group. The characteristics of the groups are provided
exercise, expanding chemoreceptor sensitivity to changes in Table 1.
in blood hydrogen ion and potassium concentrations Both groups were enrolled in an 8-week training pro-
as well as carbon dioxide tension, increasing minute ven- gram. Group E concentrated on glycolytic-based interval
tilation and the rate of expired carbon dioxide during training, with two sessions held per week interspaced
exercise, and also developing oxygen uptake at the lac- with a minimum of 48 hours of rest. At the end of the week
tate threshold. Improved global oxygen delivery also cor- (Sunday), this group ran with their running association
respond with changes in muscle fiber, in which type I approximately 20–30 km using continuous training. Each
fibers have greater oxidative capacity than IIa and IIx training session with preceded with a 15-min warm-up.
fibers. Interval training, by affecting glycolytic capacity, The interval training sessions involved four 20–30 s repe­
may also lead to increased mitochondrial activity in titions of maximal intensity running (covering a dis-
type II fibers and thus show characteristics similar to tance of 90–200 m). Rest between each repetition was
those of type I fibers [5]. Of considerable implication based on a 2:1 ratio of work to recovery and therefore
is the fact that endurance training is known to reduce ranged from 40 to 60 s. The number of sets performed
maximum heart rate (HRmax) [27], which is one of the ranged from 2 to 4, with 20 min of moderate intensity,
factors determining maximal oxygen uptake according varied active recovery provided between each set [31].
to Fick’s equation [8]. However, by exercising with re- All exercise sessions were performed on a tartan track
peated maximal efforts, as is present in interval training, or running path. Distance covered in each repetition
it is possible to maintain a high HRmax. Combined with was recorded so as to compare subsequent repetitions in
increased stroke volume, this allows for improved car- a set or the total distance within a set. If in either case
diac output and consequently O2max [21]. work output decreased by 5% the training session was
This increase in absolute oxygen consumption as ended for that participant and a 5–10 min cool-down
a result of such training stimuli introduces various adap- was performed. The total running time within a set (not
tive changes, the most important of which is the ability including active recovery) ranged from 4 to 8 min. The
to sustain a high running speed, even above 20 km/h, control group continued to train as normal via contin-
for long periods of time in long-distance events [5]. uous training. All of their training sessions were per-

72
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M. Zatoń, K. Michalik, Interval training in distance running

Table 1. Anthropometric and performance characteristics of the control (C) and experimental (E) groups
at study outset (± SD)

Training experience 10 km time Marathon time

Group Age (years) Height (cm) Mass (kg)
(years) (min) (min)
34.25 176 76.3 2.1 47.5 238.7
E
9.39 12 17.8 0.8 2.8 16.2
34.22 174 70.9 2.1 45 241.8
C
15.95 7 10.3 0.9 5.5 13.2

formed together with the running association and lasted maximums recorded in the graded exercise test. A rate
40–150 min covering a distance of 8–30 km. of recovery (ROR) was calculated based on heart rate
All participants completed two exercise tests pre- and before and after the Cooper test [7].
post-training, the 12-min Cooper test and a graded exer- Descriptive statistics for all variables were calcu-
cise test, on two separate days (separated by a week) at lated. All calculations were performed using the Sta-
a track and field stadium or at the Exercise Laboratory at tistica 12.0 software package (StatSoft, USA) and Ex-
the University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, cel (Microsoft, USA) was used for data summary. The
Poland (PN-EN ISO 9001:2001 certified), respectively. Wilcoxon signed-rank test means was used to com-
On the day of the graded exercise test body composi- pare the experimental (E) and control (C) groups. The
tion and blood cell counts were also measured. significance level was set at = 0.05.
The Cooper test was performed on a 400 m tartan
running track (Mondo, Italy) after the participants had Results
been randomly divided into two groups outside of the
initial division into experimental and control groups. In both groups an increase in maximal oxygen up-
Cones were set at 50 m intervals in order to help iden- take per kg of body mass was observed in post-training
tify running distance and a whistle was used to mark measures, from 49.48 ml/min/kg to 51.1 ml/min/kg in
the start and end of the 12 min. Each participant wore group E and from 51.98 ml/min/kg to 54.63ml/min/
a S810 heart rate monitor (Polar Electro, Finland). Resting kg in group C (Figure 1). Pre- and post-maximal heart
heart rate immediately after waking as well as maximal rate decreased slightly in group E but increased from
heart rate during the test and 5 min into recovery was 186 to 188 bpm in group C. Minute ventilation rose from
recorded. 126.21 to 133.51 l/min and from 120.01 to 122.26 l/min
The graded exercise test was conducted on a SEG- in groups E and C, respectively (Figure 2). Increases
TA7720 treadmill (InSportLine, Czech Republic). The were also noted in tidal volume, from 2.66 to 2.71 l in
conveyor belt was calibrated before testing by special group E and from 2.26 to 2.35 l in group C. For the
computer software. Starting speed was 6 km/h and Cooper test, the distance covered also increased in both
increased by 2 km/h every 3 min. Running speed was groups. Pre- and post-training results in group E were
increased incrementally until volitional exhaustion or 2747.5 and 2783.8 m, whereas in group C they were
O2max was reached, where no increase was noted de- 2757.8 and 2828.89 m, respectively. None of the above
spite an increase in running speed. Heart rate was recorded differences in either group were statistically significant.
with the same heart rate monitor as before. Respira- While the increase in ROR from 56 to 58 in group C,
tory function was measured 3 min before the test and for group E participants the increase from 53 to 59.5
continued for 5 min after it was ended using a Quark b2 (Figure 3).
(Cosmed, Italy) metabolic analyzer on a breath-by-breath Pre- and post-training differences were also observed
basis. Blood was drawn from the fingertip before the test in the calculated relative measures. In group E, % O2/kg
during rest and 3 min after its completion. Acid–base relative to O2max decreased from 45.62% to 41.03%
balance variables, including blood pH and the partial and from 86.14% to 81.04% for running speeds of 6
pressures of oxygen (pO2) and carbon dioxide (pCO2), and 12 km/h, respectively. In group C, /kg decreased
were analyzed using a RapidLab 248 blood gas analyzer from 52.84% to 43.89% at 6 km/h and from 84.27%
(Bayer, Germany). Blood lactate (La-) was controlled to 80.02% at 12 km/h. Only the decrease at 6 km/h in
for using a LKM 140 lactate cuvette tester on a LP400 the control group was significant (Figure 4). For %HRmax
photometer (Dr. Lange, Germany). at 6 km/h, decreases were found both in group C, from
All of the variables recorded during the graded exercise 70.36% to 62.09%, and group E, from 67.18% to 60.89%.
test were averaged over 30-second periods. was deter- At 12 km/h these decreases were almost negligible, from
mined as the highest O2max attained within an averaged 89.51% to 89.41% in group C, and from 88.74% to 89.28%
30-s interval. Relative values of % O2max/kg and in group E. Out of these decreases, only the one at 6 km/h
%HRmax were also calculated for data analysis by di- in group C was statistically significant (Figure 5).
viding the values obtained at 6 and 12 km/h by the

73
HUMAN MOVEMENT
M. Zatoń, K. Michalik, Interval training in distance running

Figure 1. Graded exercise test

pre- and post-training
maximal oxygen uptake
per kg of body mass per
minute in groups E and C

Figure 2. Graded exercise test

pre- and post-training
minute ventilation
in groups E and C

Figure 3. Cooper test rate

of recovery (ROR)
in groups E and C

74
 HUMAN MOVEMENT
M. Zatoń, K. Michalik, Interval training in distance running

100 100
90 90
80 80
70
(%VO2max/kg)

70
60

(%Hrmax)
60
50
50
40
30 40
E
20 30
C E
10 20
0 10 C
pre post pre post pre post 0
6 (km/h) 12 (km/h) V max pre post pre post pre post
6 (km/h) 12 (km/h) V max
* difference significant at p < 0.05
* difference significant at p < 0.05
Figure 4. Pre- and post-training changes in relative
Figure 5. Pre- and post-training changes in relative heart
maximal oxygen uptake per kg of body mass per minute
rate at different running speeds in group E and C
at different running speeds in group E and C

Table 2. Graded exercise test acid–base balance characteristics pre- and post-training in groups E and C (± SD)

Group Pre La– Post La– Pre pH Post pH Pre pCO2 Post pCO2 Pre pO2 Post pO2
11.1 10.85 7.17 7.21 32.94 34.93 87.3 85.34
E
2.7 2.77 0.11 0.11 6.09 2.9 7.77 5.85
9.75 9.18 7.23 7.25 34.97 37.09 85.48 84.49
C
3.41 3.33 0.08 0.07 2.38 3.43 6.95 5.84

Discussion firmed by numerous studies [15, 16, 33]. At the same

time, we observed no reduction in maximum heart rate,
The results of our study indicate that the interval train- itself associated with decreased sympathetic nervous
ing protocol enhanced exercise capacity and post-ex- system activity according to various sources [27]. Our
ercise recovery as evidenced in the Cooper test. Similar results should be approached with caution largely due
functional improvements were reported by McKenna to the small sample size, which may have influenced the
et al. [21] after 7 weeks of sprint interval training in lack of statistically significant changes when comparing
untrained men. Their protocol involved 4 to 10 repeti- the absolute values in the experimental and control groups.
tions of 30-s maximal sprint cycling exercise separated However, relative maximal oxygen uptake and relative
by 4-min intervals. This rise in maximal oxygen uptake heart rate decreased in both groups in relation to the
is credited to an increase in cardiac stroke volume and maximum values recorded in the graded exercise test.
more efficient utilization of oxygen by skeletal muscle, These differences were particularly evident during low-
inferred by the fact that the effects of training lead to intensity effort (6 km/h), although only the decrease in
a slight albeit observable decrease in maximum heart the control group was significant. This effect nonetheless
rate [5]. The latter adaptation of improved oxygen use is suggests improved movement economy in both groups,
caused by higher muscle blood flow via increased capil- as lower relative values of oxygen consumption and heart
lary density as well as increased arteriovenous oxygen rate (in relation to recorded maximums) were observed
difference and mitochondrial enzyme activity [25, 26]. at an effectively similar workload.
The lack of change in blood lactate content in the graded The literature indicates that the magnitude of change
exercise test itself is indicative of improved buffer capacity in O2max is dependent on various aspects that include,
and H+ clearance in working muscle [32], which is one besides adaptations via oxygen transport and utilization,
of the main objectives of glycolytic-based interval training intensity, duration, and frequency; overall physi-
training [19]. cal fitness; and genetic factors [34]. Comparisons be-
Of interest is that the present control group showed tween different interval training and endurance training
a greater increase in maximal oxygen uptake and tidal protocols have indicated greater increases in maximal
volume with a larger decrease in minute ventilation com- oxygen uptake as a result of interval training [24]. For
pared with the experimental group, although these dif- example, in Esfarjani and Laursen [24], a control group
ferences were not statistically significant. The improve- trained four times per week for 60 min at a speed cor-
ments of the above variables as an effect of endurance responding to 75% of O2max whereas their experi-
training at low and moderate intensities has been con- mental groups performed a mix of interval and endurance

75
HUMAN MOVEMENT
M. Zatoń, K. Michalik, Interval training in distance running

training. Besides significant performance and physiologi- 2. This training modality increases maximal oxygen
cal improvements noted in the experimental groups, uptake, minute ventilation, tidal volume, distance covered
3000 m running time was also enhanced when com- in the Cooper test, and improves post-exercise recovery
pared with the control group. The authors concluded as well as running economy.
that such a training protocol results in improved aero- 3. The low training volume (duration) of interval train-
bic and glycolytic capacity, which is consistent with ing make this form of training particularly important for
the findings of Laursen et al. [22]. individuals with limited time available for exercise.
Burgomaster et al. [35] also compared interval train-
ing and traditional endurance training by drawing par- Acknowledgments
ticular attention to the differences in training duration We wish to express our gratitude to the study participants
as well as the Wrocław Pro-Run Running Association for their
and volume. Their interval training group performed
help in promoting the study among their members.
four to six maximal 30-s cycle ergometer bouts three
times per week for 6 weeks; the endurance training
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