ANDREE OSWALD CANDELARIO

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Engage

1. What is sexual reproduction?

The process by which organisms produce offspring by making sex cells called gametes.

2. What are gonads?

Gonads are the organs that produce gametes-sperm in males and oocytes in females. In
addition to their reproductive function, the gonads secrete hormones.

3. What are accessory sex glands

The ducts of the male reproductive system store and transport sperm cells, but the
accessory sex glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen. The accessory sex glands
include the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral glands.

4. What are gametes?

Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells. They are also referred to as sex cells.
Female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called
sperm. Gametes are haploid cells, and each cell carries only one copy of each chromosome.

5. What is Gynecology?
The specialized branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of
diseases of the female reproductive system.

6. What is Urology?
The specialized branch of medicine that deals with the structure, function, and diseases of
the male and female urinary systems and the male reproductive system.

7. What is Andrology?
The branch of medicine that deals with male disorders, especially infertility and sexual
dysfunction.
 Explore

1. Explain the reproduction and survival of spermatozoa.

After ejaculation, sperm can live inside the female body for around 5 days. The fluid in a
woman's reproductive tract has all of the nutrients that sperm need for
their survival during that time.

2. Describe Spermatogenesis.
The formation and development of sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

3. Characterize a sperm cell.

The sperm cell has three parts which are head, midpiece and tail. The head of
the sperm contains the nucleus. The nucleus holds the DNA of the cell. The midpiece of
the sperm is packed with mitochondria. Mitochondria are organelles in cells that produce
energy. The tail of the sperm moves like a propeller, around and around.

4. Give the Hormonal Control of the testes.

Hormone Description/ Function
Gonadotropin-Releasing This hormone in turn stimulates gonadotrophs in the anterior
Hormone (Gnrh) pituitary to increase their secretion of the two gonadotropins.
Luteinizing Hormone It is released by the anterior pituitary gland. In the testes, LH
(LH) binds to receptors on Leydig cells, which stimulates the
synthesis and secretion of testosterone.
Follicle Stimulating It is released by the anterior pituitary gland. Its presence in
Hormone (FSH) males is necessary for the maturation of spermatozoa.
Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates both the production
of androgen-binding protein by Sertoli cells and the formation
of the blood-testis barrier. Increasing the levels of FSH
increases the production of spermatozoa by preventing the
apoptosis of type A spermatogonia.
Testosterone It is made in the interstitial cells of the testes. It stimulates the
sex drive and is associated with aggression. Androgen-binding
protein is essential to concentrating testosterone in levels
high enough to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis, which
can be 20-50 times higher than the concentration found in
blood.
Inhibin It is secreted by the Sertoli cells and acts to decrease the
levels of FSH. The hormone is released into the circulation
when the sperm count is too high.
5. Describe vasectomy.
A means of sterilization of males in which a portion of each ductus (vas) deferens is
removed.

6. Characterize semen.
The seminal vesicles produce a yellowish viscous fluid rich in fructose and other
substances that makes up about 70% of human semen. The prostatic secretion, influenced
by dihydrotestosterone, is a whitish (sometimes clear), thin fluid containing proteolytic
enzymes, citric acid, acid phosphatase and lipids.

7. Describe circumcision.
Circumcision is the surgical removal of the skin covering the tip of the penis. The
procedure is fairly common for newborn boys in certain parts of the
world. Circumcision after the newborn period is possible, but it's a more complex
procedure.

8. Describe the events in male sexual excitation.

When a male is aroused sexually, the blood vessels in the penis relax and open up,
allowing blood to fill them. Blood trapped under high pressure creates an erection.
Ejaculation is a reflex action controlled by the central nervous system.

9. Describe oogenesis.
Oogenesis (the production of haploid secondary oocytes) begins in the ovaries. The
oogenesis sequence includes meiosis I and meiosis II, which goes to completion only after
an ovulated secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm cell.

10. What is Hysterectomy?

A hysterectomy is an operation to remove the uterus. This surgery may be done for
different reasons, including: Uterine fibroids that cause pain, bleeding, or other problems.
Uterine prolapse, which is a sliding of the uterus from its normal position into the vaginal
canal. Cancer of the uterus, cervix, or ovaries.

11. What is episiotomy?

An episiotomy is a surgical cut made in the perineum during childbirth. The perineum is
the muscular area between the vagina and the anus. Your doctor may make an incision in
this area to enlarge your vaginal opening before you deliver your baby.

12. Name the components of the female reproductive cycle.

 Component Description/ Function
Follicular Phase This phase accounts for the first half of the menstrual cycle;
beginning on the first day of your period and continues for 10
to 17 days. At birth, your ovaries contain all the immature
eggs you will use during your entire lifespan.
Ovulation  It is the release of a mature egg from the surface of the ovary.
This usually occurs mid-cycle, around two weeks or so before
menstruation starts. During the follicular phase, the
developing follicle causes a rise in the level of oestrogen.
Luteal phase  It is one stage of your menstrual cycle. It occurs after
ovulation (when your ovaries release an egg) and before your
period starts. During this time, the lining of your uterus
normally gets thicker to prepare for a possible pregnancy.

13. Give the Hormonal Control of the female reproductive system.

Hormone Description/ Function
Gonadotropin-Releasing It stimulates the pituitary gland to produce follicle stimulating
Hormone (Gnrh) hormone (FSH), the hormone responsible for starting follicle
(egg) development and causing the level of estrogen, the
primary female hormone, to rise.
Follicle Stimulating It is made by your pituitary gland, a small gland located
Hormone (FSH) underneath the brain. FSH plays an important role in sexual
development and functioning. In women, FSH helps
control the menstrual cycle and stimulates the growth of eggs
in the ovaries.
Luteinizing Hormone It is made by your pituitary gland, a small gland located
(LH) underneath the brain. LH plays an important role in sexual
development and functioning. In women, LH helps control the
menstrual cycle. It also triggers the release of an egg from the
ovary.
Oestrogen  It is a female reproductive hormone, produced primarily by
the ovaries in the non-pregnant woman. It promotes the
maturation and release of an ovum in every menstrual cycle.
It is also produced by the placenta during pregnancy.
Progesterone  It belongs to a group of steroid hormones called
progestogens. It is mainly secreted by the corpus luteum in
the ovary during the second half of the menstrual cycle. It
plays important roles in the menstrual cycle and in
maintaining the early stages of pregnancy.
Human Chorionic It is a test is done to measure the amount of the
Gonadotropin (HCG) hormone hCG in blood or urine to see if a woman is
pregnant. HCG may also be measured to see if cancer of the
 ovaries or testicles is present.

14. Name the phases of the Human Sexual response.

Phase Description/ Function
Excitement The body prepares for sexual activity by tensing muscles and
increasing heart rate and blood pressure. In the male, blood
flows into the penis, causing it to become erect; in the female,
the vaginal walls become moist, the inner part of
the vagina becomes wider, and the clitoris enlarges.
Plateau Stage The breathing becomes more rapid and the muscles continue
to tense; the glans at the head of the penis swells and
the testes enlarge in the male; in the female, the outer vagina
contracts and the clitoris retracts.

Orgasm At orgasm the neuromuscular tension built up in the

preceding stages is released in a few seconds. In the woman,
the vagina begins a series of regular contractions; in the man,
the penis also contracts rhythmically to expel the sperm
and semen (ejaculation). 
Resolution Stage  It brings a gradual return to the resting state that may take
several hours. In the male, the penis shrinks back to its normal
size; in the female, the vagina and other genital structures
also return to their pre-excitement condition. 

15. Complete the Homologous Structures of the Female and Male Reproductive Systems.
Female structures Male structures
Ovaries Testes
Ovum Sperm cell
Labia majora Scrotum
Labia minora Spongy urethra
Vestibule Intermediate urethra
Bulb of vestibule Corpus spongiosum penis and bulb of penis
Clitoris Glans penis and corpora cavernosa
Paraurethral glands Prostate
Greater vestibular glands Bulbourethral glands

Elaborate

Answer the following:

A. Based from the figures
Reminder: There is no shortcut in learning. Literal copy and paste will not help you at all.

Refer to figure 28.1a and 28.9

Name the male structures of reproduction
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Main organ ☑
️
Testes ✔ The testes produce sperm and the male sex
hormone testosterone.
System of ducts ✔
epididymis ✔ Sperm leave the testes through a series
of efferent ducts that enter the epididymis. Each
epididymis is a long (about 6 meters) tube that is
tightly coiled to form a comma-
shaped organ located along
the superior and posterior margins of the testes.
ductus deferens ✔ The ductus deferens, also called vas deferens, is
a fibromuscular tube that is continuous
(or contiguous) with the epididymis. It begins at
the bottom (tail) of the epididymis then turns
sharply upward along the posterior margin of the
testes.
ejaculatory ducts ✔ Each ductus deferens, at the ampulla, joins
the duct from the adjacent seminal vesicle (one
of the accessory glands) to form a short
ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct passes
through the prostate gland and empties into the
urethra
urethra ✔ The urethra extends from the urinary bladder to
the external urethral orifice at the tip of
the penis. It is a passageway for sperm and fluids
from the reproductive system and urine from
the urinary system.
Accessory sex glands ✔
seminal vesicles ✔ The paired seminal vesicles are saccular
glands posterior to the urinary bladder.
Each gland has a short duct that joins with
the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form
an ejaculatory duct, which then empties into the
urethra.
prostate ✔ The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that
 is located just inferior to the urinary bladder. It is
about the size of a walnut and encircles the
urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder.
bulbourethral glands ✔ The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are
small, about the size of a pea, and located near
the base of the penis. A short duct from each
gland enters the proximal end of the penile
urethra. 
Supporting structures ✔
Scrotum ✔ The scrotum consists of loose skin and an
underlying subcutaneous layer and supports the
testes.
Penis ✔ The penis contains the urethra, a passageway for
ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine.

Refer to figure 28.2

Describe
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Scrotum ✔ The supporting structure for the testes, consists
of loose skin and underlying subcutaneous layer
that hangs from the root (attached portion) of
the penis
Vertical septum ✔ A vertical septum divides the scrotum into left
and right compartments, each of which
encloses a testis. The external scrotum
positions the testes outside the body in an
environment about 3°C below that of the body
cavity, a condition necessary for the
development and storage of sperm.

Parts Tick Description/ Function

Spermatic cord ✔ Spermatic cord, either of a pair of tubular
structures in the male reproductive system that
support the testes in the scrotum.

Refer to figure 28.3

Describe
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Testes ✔ The testes or testicles, are paired oval glands in
the scrotum measuring about 5 cm (2 in.) long
and 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter. Each testis
 (singular) has a mass of 10–15 grams. The testes
develop near the kidneys, in the posterior
portion of the abdomen, and they usually begin
their descent into the scrotum through the
inguinal canals (passageways in the lower
anterior abdominal wall; during the latter half of
the seventh month of fetal development.

Name the duct system of the testes

Parts Tick Description/ Function
Seminiferous Tubules ✔ Seminiferous tubules are located within the
testes, and are the specific location of meiosis,
and the subsequent creation of male gametes,
namely spermatozoa. The epithelium of
the tubule consists of a type of sustentacular cells
known as Sertoli cells, which are tall, columnar
type cells that line the tubule.
Straight Tubules ✔ These are structures in the testicle connecting the
convoluted region of the seminiferous tubules to
the rete testis, although the tubuli recti have a
different appearance distinguishing them from
these two structures.
Rete Testis ✔ It is an anastomosing network of delicate tubules
located in the hilum of
the testicle (mediastinum testis) that carries
sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the
efferent ducts. It is the counterpart of
the rete ovarii in females.
Refer to figure 28.4
Describe
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Sertoli cells or ✔ These are approximately pyramid-
sustentacular cells shaped cells lying within the seminiferous
epithelium. And also the secretion of
testicular fluid into the tubular cavity and
phagocytosis (engulfing) of the remains of
degenerated germ cells.
Blood-testis barrier ✔ It forms from specialized junctions between
adjacent Sertoli cells in the seminiferous
epithelium is critical for adult fertility,
restricting contact between postmitotic germ
 cells and the immune system and preventing
rejection of spermatogenic cells that form
after immune tolerance
Spermatogenic cells ✔ It is the process by which haploid
spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the
seminiferous tubules of the testis. This
process starts with the mitotic division of the
stem cells located close to the basement
membrane of the tubules. These cells are
called spermatogonial stem cells.
Spermatogonium ✔ A cell produced at an early stage in the
formation of spermatozoa, formed in the wall
of a seminiferous tubule and giving rise by
mitosis to spermatocytes.

Primary spermatocytes ✔ It contain a diploid complement of

chromosomes (46 chromosomes or 2N, where
N is the number of haploid chromosomes),
and they are the last germ cells to undergo
DNA synthesis.
Secondary spermatocytes ✔ It completes the second meiotic division
without the replication of DNA and produces
2 spermatids each containing 23
chromosomes. Spermatids undergo
morphologic alteration (spermiogenesis) to
become mature spermatozoa. These changes
include: formation of the acrosome.
spermatids ✔ Any of the haploid cells formed by meiotic
division of spermatocytes, and develops into
a spermatozoon after maturational events. A
young sperm cell. Supplement. These are
found in the male gonads of sexually
reproducing organisms.
spermatozoa ✔ The mature motile male sex cell of an animal,
by which the ovum is fertilized, typically
having a compact head and one or more long
flagella for swimming.

Leydig cells ✔ It is also known as interstitial cells of Leydig,

are found adjacent to the seminiferous
tubules in the testicle. They produce
testosterone in the presence of luteinizing
 hormone (LH).

Refer to figure 28.5

Give the steps of Spermatogenesis
Process Tick
 Spermatogonia ✔

Primary Spermatocytes ✔

Secondary Spermatocytes ✔

Spermatids ✔

Spermatozoa ✔

Refer to figure 28.6

Name the parts of the sperm cell
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Head ✔ The head of the sperm contains the nucleus.
The nucleus holds the DNA of the cell.
Midpiece ✔ The midpiece of the sperm is packed with
mitochondria. Mitochondria are organelles
in cells that produce energy.
Tail ✔ The tail of the sperm moves like a propeller,
around and around.

Refer to figure 28.10

Describe
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Penis ✔ The penis is the male sex organ, reaching its
full size during puberty. In addition to its
sexual function, the penis acts as a conduit for
urine to leave the body. 
Prepuce ✔ The fold of skin that covers the head of the
penis. Also known as the foreskin. Only about
1 in every 20 boys is born with a retractable
foreskin. This reflects the fact that the
histologic (tissue) development of the foreskin
is usually not complete at birth.
Refer to figure 28.11
Name the major female structures of reproduction
Parts Tick Description/ Function
 Vagina ✔ The muscular tube leading from the external
genitals to the cervix of the uterus in women
and most female mammals.
Uterus ✔ The uterus is an inverted pear-shaped
muscular organ of the female reproductive
system, located between the bladder and the
rectum. It functions to nourish and house the
fertilized egg until the unborn child is ready to
be delivered.
Fallopian Tubes ✔ These are tubes that stretch from the uterus to
the ovaries, and are part of the female
reproductive system. 
Cervix ✔ The lower portion of the uterus, an organ of
the female reproductive tract. It connects the
vagina with the main body of the uterus, acting
as a gateway between them.
Ovary ✔ It is an organ found in the female reproductive
system that produces an ovum. When released,
this travels down the fallopian tube into the
uterus, where it may become fertilized by a
sperm.

Refer to figure 28.12

Name the supporting ligaments
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Suspensory ligament ✔ The suspensory ligament supports the
fetlock and protects it from
hyperextension at exercise.
The ligament begins at its attachment to
the back of the upper cannon bone in both
the fore and hindlimbs.
Round ligament of uterus ✔ The round ligament of the uterus: The part
between the cornu of the uterus and the
labia majora. It is also called ligamentum
teres uteri, and it is longer than
the ovarian ligament.
Uterosacral ligament ✔ The paired uterosacral ligaments are
extraperitoneal structures which extend
 posteriorly from the uterine cervix to
sacrum, forming the lateral boundaries of
the rectouterine and rectovaginal spaces. 
Ovarian ligament ✔ The ovarian ligament (also called the
utero-ovarian ligament or proper ovarian
ligament) is a fibrous ligament that
connects the ovary to the lateral surface of
the uterus.
Broad ligament ✔ The broad ligament is a flat sheet of
peritoneum, associated with the uterus,
fallopian tubes and ovaries. It extends
from the lateral pelvic walls on both sides,
and folds over the internal female
genitalia, covering their surface anteriorly
and posteriorly.
Cardinal ligament ✔ The cardinal ligament is a
major ligament of the uterus. It is located
at the base of the broad ligament of the
uterus.

Refer to figure 28.13

Name the structures in the histology of the ovary.
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Primordial follicle ✔ The primordial follicles are the first class
of follicles formed in mammalian ovaries and
consist of an oocyte surrounded by a single
layer of flattened granulosa cells. 
Primary follicle ✔ A follicle that has two layers of follicular cells
is called a primary follicle. These cells
continue to hypertrophy and proliferate to
form many layers surrounding the oocyte.
Secondary follicle ✔  A secondary ovarian follicle is a maturing
ovarian follicle consisting of an oocyte
surrounded by two or more layers of tall,
supporting granulosa cells.
Germinal epithelium ✔  The germinal epithelium is
the epithelial layer of the seminiferous
tubules of the testicles. It is also known as the
wall of the seminiferous tubules. 
Ovarian cortex ✔ The ovarian cortex is the outer portion of
the ovary. The ovarian follicles are located
within the ovarian cortex. The ovarian
 cortex is made up of connective
tissue. Ovarian cortex tissue transplant has
been performed to treat infertility.
Follicular fluid ✔ Follicular fluid is a liquid which fills
the follicular antrum and surrounds the ovum
in an ovarian follicle. This fluid is rich in
hyaluronic acid, and is used in a modified
intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) called
physiological ICSI (PICSI), semi-viscous and
yellow in colour.
Mature follicle ✔ During ovulation, a mature egg is released
from a follicle. While several follicles begin to
develop each cycle, normally only one will
ovulate an egg (rarely, more than one egg is
released, increasing the potential for twins).
After ovulation, the follicle turns into a corpus
luteum.
Corpus hemorrhagicum ✔ The corpus hemorrhagicum is a temporary
(ruptured follicle) structure formed immediately after ovulation
from the ovarian follicle as it collapses and is
filled with blood that quickly clots.
Corona radiata ✔ The corona radiata is the innermost layer of
the cells of the cumulus oophorus and is
directly adjacent to the zona pellucida, the
inner protective glycoprotein layer of the
ovum. Its main purpose in many animals is to
supply vital proteins to the cell.
Discharge of a secondary ✔ The discharge of a secondary oocyte through
oocyte (ovulation) the germinal epithelium into the pelvic cavity
from a mature follicle = vesicular follicle =
Graafian follicle in response to the LH surge
or pulse (and lesser simultaneous FSH surge
or pulse) from the anterior pituitary about
midway in the ovarian cycle.
Ovarian medulla ✔ The ovarian medulla contains large arteries
and veins, lymphatics, nerves embedded in a
loose collagenous matrix.
Corpus albicans ✔ The corpus albicans is the regressed form of
the corpus luteum. 
Corpus Luteum ✔ A corpus luteum is a mass of cells that forms
in an ovary and is responsible for the
production of the hormone progesterone
 during early pregnancy.

Refer to figure 28.16 Name

the parts of the uterine tube.
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Isthmus ✔ A narrow strip of tissue or narrow passage
connecting two larger parts. The medial,
short, narrow, thick-walled portion of the
uterine tube that joins the uterus.
Constricted region of the uterus between the
body and cervix.
Ampula ✔ A saclike dilation of a canal or duct. Dilated
terminal portion of the ductus deferens.
Widest, longest portion of the uterine tube.
infundibulum ✔ The stalklike structure that attaches the
pituitary gland to the hypothalamus of the
brain. The funnel-shaped, open, distal end of
the uterine (fallopian) tube.

Name the parts of the uterus.

Parts Tick Description/ Function
Fundus ✔ The fundus of the uterus is the top portion,
opposite from the cervix. Fundal height,
measured from the top of the pubic bone,
is routinely measured in pregnancy to
determine growth rates.
Body ✔ The portion of the uterus above the
isthmus is termed the body, and that
below, the cervix. The part of
the body which lies above a plane passing
through the points of entrance of
the uterine tubes is known as the fundus.
Cervix ✔ The cervix is the lower portion of
the uterus, an organ of the female
reproductive tract. It connects the vagina
with the main body of the uterus, acting as
a gateway between them.

Name the layers of the uterine wall.

Parts Tick Description/ Function
Endometrium ✔ The endometrium is the inner layer that
 lines the uterus. It is made up of glandular
cells that make secretions.
Myometrium ✔ The myometrium is the middle and
thickest layer of the uterus wall. It is made
up mostly of smooth muscle.
Perimetrium ✔ The perimetrium is the outer serous layer
of the uterus.

Refer to figure 28.20a

Name the parts of the vulva
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Mons pubis ✔ It is an elevation of adipose tissue covered by
skin and coarse pubic hair that cushions the
pubic symphysis.
labia majora ✔ It is extend inferiorly and posteriorly. The
singular term is labium majus. The labia
majora are covered by pubic hair and contain
an abundance of adipose tissue, sebaceous
(oil) glands, and apocrine sudoriferous (sweat)
glands. They are homologous to the scrotum.
labia minora ✔ It is medial to the labia majora are two
smaller folds of skin. The singular term is
labium minus.
clitoris ✔ It is a small cylindrical mass composed of two
small erectile bodies, the corpora cavernosa,
and numerous nerves and blood vessels. The
clitoris is located at the anterior junction of the
labia minora.
prepuce of the clitoris ✔ A layer of skin that is formed at the point
where the labia minora unite and covers the
body of the clitoris.
glans clitoris ✔ The exposed portion of the clitoris. The clitoris
is homologous to the glans penis in males.
vestibule ✔ The region between the labia minora. Within
the vestibule are the hymen (if still present),
the vaginal orifice, the external urethral
orifice, and the openings of the ducts of
several glands.
vaginal orifice ✔ It is the opening of the vagina to the exterior,
 occupies the greater portion of the vestibule
and is bordered by the hymen.
external urethral orifice ✔ Anterior to the vaginal orifice and posterior to
the clitoris is the external urethral orifice, the
opening of the urethra to the exterior.
external urethral orifice ✔ These are the openings of the ducts of the
paraurethral glands. These mucus secreting
glands are embedded in the wall of the
urethra.
greater vestibular glands ✔ These are two pea sized compound
alveolar glands located slightly posterior and
to the left and right of the opening of the
vagina.
lesser vestibular glands ✔ These are two glands located on either side
of the urethra. These glands are believed to
secrete a substance to lubricate the urethra
opening. This substance is also believed to act
as an antimicrobial.
bulb of the vestibule ✔ These are two bulbs of erectile tissue that
starts close to the inferior side of the body of
the clitoris. The vestibular bulbs then extend
towards the urethra and vagina on the medal
edge of the crus of the clitoris.

Refer to figure 28.21

Describe
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Perineum ✔ The perineum refers to the area between the
anus and genitals, extending from either the
vaginal opening to the anus or the scrotum to
the anus. This area is near several nerves,
muscles, and organs, so it's not uncommon to
feel pain in your perineum.

Refer to figure 28.22

Name the parts of the mammary gland
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Nipple ✔ The nipple is at the very center portion of
your breast, and is linked to the mammary
glands, where milk is produced. The areola is
 the darker colored area surrounding
the nipple.
Lactiferous duct ✔ Lactiferous ducts are those ducts that
converge and form a branched system
connecting the nipple to the lobules of the
mammary gland.
Areola ✔ A small circular area, in particular the ring of
pigmented skin surrounding a nipple.
Suspensory ligaments of the ✔ These are bands of tough, fibrous, flexible
breast connective tissue that shape and support
your breasts.
Mammary gland ✔ A mammary gland is an exocrine gland in
humans and other mammals that produces
milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get
their name from the Latin word mamma,
"breast".
Lobules ✔ A breast lobule is a gland that makes milk.
Anatomy of the female breast. The nipple
and areola are shown on the outside of
the breast. The lymph nodes, lobes, lobules,
ducts, and other parts of the inside of
the breast are also shown.
Mammary ducts ✔ The mammary duct is an enlarged sweat
gland. The mammary gland, or mammary
duct, is composed of alveoli. 
Lactiferous sinuses ✔ Near the nipple, the mammary ducts expand
slightly to form sinuses.
Lactiferous duct ✔ Each lactiferous duct typically carries milk
from one of the lobes to the exterior.

Refer to figure 28.24

Name the phases of female reproductive cycle.
Parts Tick Description/ Function
Menstruation ✔ Menstruation is the elimination of the
thickened lining of the uterus
(endometrium) from the body through the
vagina. Menstrual fluid contains blood,
cells from the lining of the uterus
(endometrial cells) and mucus. The
average length of a period is between
three days and one week
Follicular phase ✔ The follicular phase starts on the first day
of menstruation and ends with ovulation.
Prompted by the hypothalamus, the
pituitary gland releases follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH). This hormone stimulates
the ovary to produce around five to 20
follicles (tiny nodules or cysts), which bead
on the surface.
Ovulation ✔ Ovulation is the release of a mature egg
from the surface of the ovary. This usually
occurs mid-cycle, around two weeks or so
before menstruation starts.
Luteal Phase ✔ During ovulation, the egg bursts from its
follicle, but the ruptured follicle stays on
the surface of the ovary. For the next two
weeks or so, the follicle transforms into a
structure known as the corpus luteum. This
structure starts releasing progesterone,
along with small amounts of oestrogen.
This combination of hormones maintains
the thickened lining of the uterus, waiting
for a fertilised egg to stick (implant).