Workshop Safety Precautions

 Wear tight clothes. Loose clothing or long hair will bring danger

 Wear covered footwear. Never use sandals or chapels.

 Never use file, screwdrivers without handle. Do not uses hammer without wedge.

 Never operate a machine unless otherwise you thoroughly its mechanism.

 Wear goggles while chipping, welding or grinding.

 Always wear safety hand gloves, apron or dungaree and leather shoes in the Workshop.

 Never touch overhead lines unless you are sure that it is properly earthed and dead.

 Don’t touch /operate power tools without aid from instructors

 Do not throw water on the equipment. It will be harmful since water is a good conductor

of electricity.

 Do not touch electrical circuits of welding machine

 Machine Shop
Lathe Machine
Lathe machine is a machine tool which is used to remove metal piece to give a desired shape and
size. In other words it is a machine tool that is used to hold the work piece to perform various
metal removing operations.

Working Principle:
The lathe machine holds a work piece between two rigid and strong supports called centre or in the
chuck or face plate which revolves/rotate. The cutting tools feed either parallel or at right angles to
axis of the work piece or job.

The main parts of a lathe machine are:

 Head Stock
 Tail Stock
 Bed
 Tool post
 Legs

Head Stock: The head stock is clamped on the left side of the bed and it serves on housing for the
driving pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live centre and the feed reverse gear.

Tail Stock: The tail stock is a movable casting located opposite the head stock on the ways of the
bed. The tail stock can slide along the bed. A tail stock can be set at any desired position.

Bed: The bed is a heavy casting in which working parts of the table are mounted. It carries the
head stock and tail stock for supporting the work piece and provides a base for the movement of
carriage assembly which carries the tools.
Tool Post: The tool post is mounted on the compound rest and it rigidly clamps the cutting tools or
tool holder at the proper height related to the work centre.
Legs: The legs carry the entire load of machine and the firmly seared floor by foundation bolts.

Lathe Machine
Cutting Parameters
1. Cutting Speed
It is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and is specified in meters per minute. Ti
depends upon the work piece material, feed, depth of cut, type of operation and so many other
cutting conditions. It is calculated from the relation,
Spindle speed (RPM) =cutting speed x 1000 / (πD), Where D is the work piece diameter in mm.
2. Feed
It is the distance traversed by the tool along the bed, during one revolution of the work. Its value
depends upon the depth of cut and surface finish of the work desired.
3. Depth of Cut
It is the movement of the tip of the cutting tool, from the surface of the work piece and
perpendicular to the lathe axis. Its value depends upon the nature of operation like rough turning
or finish turning.
 Shaper Machine
Shaper machine is a vertical machine which is used to produce a flat at plane surface which may be
in a horizontal or vertical or angular is also used to produce contour of concave/convex or a
combination of these.
Working Principle:
In shaper machine the job is rigidly held in a machine vice tool. The ram reciprocates end to end so
the forward stroke cuts while the return stroke is idle. The job is given index feed normal to line of
action of cutting tool.
The main parts of a Shaper Machine:
 Base
 Ram
 Tool Head
 Cross Rail
Base: It is a main body of the machine. It consists all elements of the machine. It works as pillar
for other parts. Base is made by cast iron which can take all compressive leads.
Ram: It is the main part of shaper machine. It holds the tool and provides the reciprocal motion to
it. It is made by cast iron and move over ways of column. It is attached by the rocker arm which
provides it motion in crank driven machine.
Tool head: It is situated at the front of the ram its main function is to hold the cutting tool. The
tool can be adjusted on it by means of clamp.
Cross Rail:
It consists vertical and horizontal table side ways which allows the motion of table to which it is
attached with same cross movement mechanism.

Shaper Machine
 Drill Machine
Drilling is an operation of making/producing a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from
the job by a cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end cutting tool with lips and clusters for the
passage of cutting fluids. A drilling machine tool is designed for drilling hole in metal.

Working principle:
The rotating edge of the drills exerts a large force on the work piece and the holes are generated.
The removal of metal in a drilling operation is by shearing and extrusion.

Main parts of Drilling Machine:

 Base
 Table
 Spindle
 Drill head
(1)Base: The base is used to support and stabilize the column of pillar drill.
(2)Table: The table supports the working material object and can be adjusted to the size of the
work piece. Table is adjusted by rotating around the pillar.
(3)Spindle: The spindle holds and rotates the drill bit. Its speed is adjusted to control depth and
diameter of the hole being bored.
(4)Drill Head: The drill head houses the spindle and moves it upward or downward.

Drill Machine
 Milling Machine
Milling machine is that machine in which cutting operation that removes metal by feeding the
work against a rotating cutter having single or multiple cutting edges flat or curved surfaces of
many shapes can be machined by milling with good finished accuracy. A milling machine may
also be used for drilling, slotting, making a circular profile and gear cutting by having suitable
attachments.

Working principle: The work piece is held on the work table of the machine. The table movement
controls the feed of work piece against the rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a spindle or
rotating or bar at high speed. Except that rotating cutter has no other motion. As the work piece
advances the cutter teeth remove the metal from the surface of work piece and the desired shape is
produced
Main parts of Milling Machine: milling machine having the following parts-
Base: It gives support and rigidity to the machine and also acts as a reservoir for the Cutting fluids.
Column: The column is a main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base. The column is
box shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and the
table feed.
Knee: The knee is a rigid casting mounted on the face of the column. The knee moves vertically
along the guide ways and this movement enables to adjust the distance between the cutter and job
mounted on the table.
Saddle: The saddle rests on the knee and constitutes the intermediate parts between the knee and
the table. The saddle moves transversely.
Table: The table rests on guide ways in the saddle and provides support to the work. The table is
made of cast iron. Its top surface is accurately matched and carries slots which accommodate the
clamping bolt for fixing the works. The job fitted on it is given motion in three directions.
Over Arm: The over arm is mounted at the top of the column and is guided in perfect alignment
by the machined surface. The over arm is the support for the arbor.
Arbor Support: The arbor support is fitted to the over arm and can be clamped at any location on
the over arm.
Elevating Screw: The upward and downward movement to the knee and the table is given by the
elevation screw that is operated by hand or an automatic feed.

Horizontal milling machine

 Machine shop Experiment No.1

Object: To study and perform various operations on a given Mild steel job by a lathe machine.

Materials Used: Mild steel rod of Ø 25 mm X 100 mm Tool Used: Lathe machine, single point cutting
tool.etc.

Procedure:
(a) Place the round bar in chuck (three jaws self – centring chuck) of the lathe machine and tighten
the chuck using chuck key.
(b) Mount the single point cutting tool on the tool post with the help of tool post key.
(c) Now face both the ends of the round bar by facing operation so that the length is brought to 100
mm. Check the length by Vernier calliper.
(d) Start turning operation to obtain the different step on the round bar, i.e. 100× ɸ 25 mm. Check
the diameter and length by Vernier calliper.
(e) Set the cross slide to about 450 and give a small feed in longitudinal direction. Move the tool
using cross slide to chamfer the ends.
(f) Mount another grooving tool on the tool post with the help of tool post key.
(g) Start grooving operation to obtain the desired dimensions

Conclusion: Then my final job prepared as shown in figure.

Precaution:
a) Loose clothes should not be worn.
b) Job must be fixed tightly in the chuck using chuck key.
c) Chuck key must be removed from the chuck before starting the machine.
d) Machine should not be left in running position when operation is not being done.
e) Use brush for removing chip instead of using hand.
f) Last cut for facing and turning should be done with smallest feed to ensure smooth finish.
 Carpentry Shop
Carpentry is an art or process of shaping timber, using hand tools. The products produced are used in
building construction, such as doors and windows, furniture manufacturing, patterns for moulding in
surfaces after shaping them. Hence, the term joining together of wooden pieces and finishing the
studying the fundamentals of wood working has to know about timber and other carpentry materials ,
wood working tools , carpentry operations and the method of making common types of joints.

Properties of good Timber:

 A good timber should processes the following properties
 A good timber should be free from any defects such as knots, cup and ring shake, twisted fibers,
decay or any defects
 A good timber should be easily available A good timber should be low in lost
 A good timber should be quite suitable and sound proof construction A good timber should be
easily work able
 A good timber should be strong and rigid but should be light in weight A good timber should
have regular annual tings
 A good timber should be free from any natural defect A good should have a dark in colour
 A good timber should resistance to fire
 A good timber should processes straight fibers
 A good timber should not easily distort after seasoning
 A good timber should not easily split when nails are driven in to it A good should give good
response after painting and polishing

Types of wood: the wood which can be converted in to timber can be classified in to two major
categories
 Soft wood
 Hard wood
Soft wood: soft wood is very common in use. It is light in weight and colour. Soft wood have distinct
annular rings and straight fibers and can withstand axial load but cannot with stand any stress across the
fiber. Some common soft wood are pine, chirr, deodar, teak etc
Hard wood: hard wood is very common in engineering use. They have their annular rings compact and
less distinct. As compared to soft wood they are dark in colour. They can withstand load. Some
common hard wood are sal, babool, shisham, mahogany etc.
Differentiate between soft and hard wood:

Soft wood Hard wood

1.It is light in colour 1. It is dark in colour
2. It is weaker and less durable 2. It is stronger and more durable
3. It is light in weight 3. It is heavy in weight
4. It processes straight fiber and fine 4. It processes quite close and compact fiber.
texture
5. It is easy to workable 5. It is difficult to workable
6.annual rings of soft wood are quite distinct 6.annual rings are not distinct
7. It gets spitted quickly 7. It does not spitted quickly
8. It possesses good tensile resistance but 8. It possesses both good tensile as well as
weak across fiber shear strength

Seasoning of Timber:
Seasoning is one of the important processes to remove the moisture content from the timber.
Basic object of seasoning is to remove or minimize the moisture particles from the timber. Once
the moisture particles are removed from the timber/wood then any wood working operation can
be easily performed. If moisture particle are not removed from the timber/wood then more chance
of twisting or warping, uneven shrinkage etc.

Objects of Seasoning
1. To prevent injury by insects and decay before the timber is placed in service.
2. To increase the durability of timber in service.
1. To prevent shrinking and checking of the wood in service.
2. To increase the strength of the wood.
3. To decrease the weight of the wood and hence reduce shipping charges.
4. To prepare the wood for its injection with preservatives and for other industrial uses.
Method of Seasoning:
Different methods are used for seasoning of timber. They are given below:
(a) Natural or Air Seasoning:
Timber is normally placed in a hut / building, with two sides open to allow air to circulate. The
roof and two other sides keep the timber relatively dry. The circulation of the air slowly dries the
timer. However, this technique does not give precise moisture content. This is because air
circulates freely and carries moisture, depending on the weather and the time of year. The spacing
sticks keep the seasoning boards a short distance apart. The air flows between each of the
seasoning boards, allowing them to dry slowly. In this way warping is kept to a minimum.
The seasoning time varies depending on the thickness of the wood boards and the time of year.
Usually three to four months for 25 mm softwoods. The time is doubled, for wood twice as thick.
Hardwoods of 25 mm thickness require about six months and up to at least a year for 50 mm
boards
Advantage of Air Seasoning
1. Simple and cheap process
2. Very less chance of damage of timber
3. Process not required very much attention
Limitation of air Seasoning
1. Process is very slow take over year
2. Huge Space is required for very large stack
3. Rigid control cannot be exercised
4. Capital block for a long time
5. Timber may get damaged by insects and fungi during seasoning period
 Air seasoning of timber
(b) Water seasoning
(c) Artificial or kiln seasoning
(d) Other methods of seasoning
Marking and Measuring Tools
 Rules
 Straight Edge and Squares
 Steel Tape
 Gauges
 Try Square
Steel Rule
It consist of a hardened steel strip having line graduation etched or engraved in it they are usually
150 mm or 300 mm long and is used to take line measurement to accuracy 1 mm or 0.5 mm.
These are marked in inches or millimeters. All the faces are machined true. The edges of steel
rule should be protected from rough handling.

Engineering scale
Cutting Tools
Saws
Chisels
Gauges: Gauges are used to mark lines parallel to the edges of the wooden piece. It mainly
consists of a wooden stem sliding inside a wooden stock. The stem carries a steel point for
marking lines.
 Mortise gauge
Try Square: Try Square consists of rectangular steel blade fixed rigidly to cast iron stock. The
length of blade varies from 150mm to 300mm.

Try square
Chisel
Firmer Chisel:
The firmer chisel is capable of doing heavy work and is used for jointing and shaping the wood,
with or without mallet. The chisel blade is made of rectangular section with beveled edge length
of the blade is about 125mm and the width of the edge varies from 3 to 5 mm.

Firmer chisel

 Socket Chisel
 Dovetail Chisel
 Outside Ground Gauge
 Inside Ground Gauge
 Different types of carpentry chisels
Dovetail Chisel:
It is similar to firmer chisel but sides are leveled so that it can cut sharp corners. It is used for
cutting sockets where the angles are less than a right angle.
Mortise Chisel:
These chisels are robust, and can withstand heavy blows. It has a thick stock and narrow cutting
edge. It is used for cutting mortises, and its width is ground to exact size of mortise to be out.
Planning Tools
 Wooden Jack Plane
 Metal Jack Plane
Wooden Jack Plane: This is the most commonly used plane in carpentry shop. The main part of
a wooden Jack plane is a wooden block called Scale, in which steel blade having knife edge is
fixed at an angle with the help of wooden edge. The angle of the blade is kept about 45° to bottom
surface of the blade.
 Wooden jack plain
Metal Jack Plane: It serves the same purpose as the wooden Jack plane but facilities a smoother
operation and better finish. The body of a metal Jack plane is made from a grey iron casting with
the side and sale machined and ground to better finish.

Metal jack plane

Striking Tools
1. Mallet
2. Claw Hammer
3. Pincer
Mallet: This is the wooden headed hammer of round or rectangular section. The striking face is
made flat. Mallet is used for the cutting tools and has wooden handle.

Mallet
Claw Hammer: This is a hammer having steel head and wooden handle. The flat face of the head
and claw portion for extracting nails out of the wood.
 Claw hammer
Pincer: It is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pulling out small
nails from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are beveled and the outer faces are plain.
Saw
Saw is used for cutting of wood. It consists of a handle, which is made from wood, plastic or
aluminum. The blade is made up of high carbon steel or spring steel. The points of the teeth are
bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body of the blade from rubbing or
jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades are generally forward cut so in the case, pressure
is applied in the forward direction only.
Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:
 Forward cut
 Backward cut.
Types of Saw:
(1)Rip Saw: It is hand saw from 30 cm to 75 cm long containing one to one half teeth per cm. It
should not be called a hand saw but rip saw only cutting of the wood is done along the grains
nearly the entire length of the saw blade is used for cutting.

Rip saw
Keyhole saw or Pad saw: It is used for cutting thick internal curves other it is impossible to use
other saw.

Keyhole saw
Tenon Saw: It derives its name from the Tenon form of joint. It is a thin saw ranging from 20 cm
to 40 cm in length and is supported by back of wrought iron or brass; hence it is also called a
black saw. It contains teeth. It is used primarily for short cuts such as Tenon. So the blade is
provided with a reinforcing strip or back at the top so that blade is prevented from bending during
operation.

Tenon saw

Coping Saw: It is used for cutting quick or sharp curves either internal or external. For cutting
the surface first drilling is done and then the saw blade is inserted in the hole for cutting.
Double Ended Saw: It is a saw provided with two handles. One at each end used for cutting heavy
timber across the grains.

Drilling and boring tools

Hand drill Machine: Hand drill consists of a spindle, drill chuck, crank handle and two bevel
gears. Bevel gears are fitted on the body. Drill is held in chuck and rotation to spindle is given
through gears with the help of crank.

Hand drill machine

Gimlet Drill: Gimlet Drill is very simple type of drilling tool. It consists of two parts. One is
gimlet and second one is handle. It has a screw type starting edge.

Gimlet drill
Ratchet Brace: It consists of a crank, a head a ratchet and a chuck for holding the drill. The head
is pressed with one hand and the crank is rotated by the second hand.
 Ratchet type hand drill machine

Wood rasp files:

It is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges, and finish fillets
and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose. This
file is exclusively used in wood work.

Rasp
Holding Tools
 Work Bench
This is a table of having size and raised construction made of hard wood. The size ranges from
50- 80 cm in length and about 90 cm in width. Two or four carpenters can work at a time on the
work bench.

Work bench with bench hook

Work bench table: It is a table which is made of Sal or sneasour wood. Size of the table is
6’x3’. Two to four carpentry vice are fixed at the four corners of the table. This table acts as a
base for all the carpentry or wood working operations.
Carpentry bench vice:

Carpentry bench vice

 Carpentry shop Experiment No.1
Object:
To make a roller in carpentry shop with the help of a carpentry shop with the help of a carpentry
tools and machines as per given dimension.

Tools Used:
Engineering scale or Steel scale

Machine Used:
Circular saw and wood working lathe machine.

Material Used:
Soft Wood (Kail Wood)

Procedure:
First of all we take soft wood and move on it with pencil and cut it with the help of circular saw
or sip saw.
Then put the wood piece in the middle of wood working lathe machine and with the help of
gauge chisel round the wood and given it the proper shape.

After that finishing with sand paper is obtained.

Precaution:

Listen the teacher carefully when he is describing about machine and use it properly.
Use the machine carefully and take care of your hands while cutting wood.
Shape the order properly, otherwise it will not be round.
 Carpentry shop Experiment No.2
Object:
To make a cross lap joint final carpentry shop with the help of carpentry tools as per given
dimensions.
Tools Used:
Inch Scale, Try Square Rip Saw, firmer chisel, iron Jack planner, rasp, work bench, clamping
vice, mallet.
Materials Used:
Soft wood (Kail) of a given size.

Cross lap joint

Procedure:
 First of all we take the soft wood and cut the wood in given length from Rip Saw then
mark the dimensions on the wood with the help of inch scale and try square.
 After marking and cutting, iron Jack plane is used for better finish.
 Then cut the wood in two pieces equally.
 Again with the help of scale, mark the centre and cut help both the pieces inside.
 Then from firmer chisel finish the inside groove.
 Then with the help of mallet strike the joints cross too joint is obtained.

Precaution:

 Take care of your hands while cutting the wood.

 Cut the grooves properly so that both wood pieces can fit together to make a cross lap
joint.
 Measure everything carefully so that cross top joint can be made properly.

Or
 Carpentry shop Experiment No.3
Object: To make a dovetail lap joint with the help of carpentry tools as per given dimensions.
Materials Required: Teak wood (30 mm x 150 mm x 50 mm)

Tools and Equipment Used:

 Steel rule
 Try square
 Marking guage
 Rip saw
 Tenon saw
 Mortise chisel
 Mallet
 Jack plane
 Wood rasp file

Operations to be carried out:

 Planning
 Marking
 Sawing
 Chiseling
 Finishing
Procedure:
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width
according to given figure.
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces
7. The excess material in X is chiselled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiselled to suit X
9. The end of both the pieces is chiselled to exact lengths.
Precautions:
 Wood should be free from moisture
 Marking is done without parallax error
 Care should be taken while chiselling
 Matching of X and Y pieces should be tight.
Result: The dovetail lap joint is made success fully
Carpentry machines:
Circular Saw:

It is generally used for cross cutting of the wood. Other operations like grooving, rebating,
tennoning, chamfering against a rotating cutter.

Main parts of a circular saw are shown in the figure.

Power Band Saw:

A band saw consists of a table guide, pulley belt and tension adjusting screw. It is used to saw the
wooden pieces lengthwise fence is used to adjust the thickness of cutting stop. A bland type cutter
revolves over two pulleys as illustrated in the figure.

Wood working Lathe:

A wood working lathe consists of a coalition bed, a head stock, tail stock, tool rest, live and dead
centre and driving mechanisms. It is used for producing round symmetrical jobs scrapping tool.
Chisel and turning tools are used on a wood working lathe.

Carpentry lathe machine

Tools:
Gauge:
It is used to finish curved holes. Gauge chisels are of two types I.e. inside and outside.
Skew: A skew chisel is a too with characteristically shaped cutting edge of blade on its end for
carving or cutting a hard material such as wood , stone or metal. The handle of blade is made of
metal or of wood with a sharp edge on it.
Flat Chisel: A flat chisel of hardened tampered steel used to obtain a flat and finished surface (as
on wood or stone).
 Sheet Metal Shop
Introduction: Sheet metal work has its own significance in the engineering work. Many products,
which fulfill the household needs, decoration work and various engineering articles, are produced
from sheet metal. Common example of sheet metal are hoppers, canisters, guards, covers, pipes,
hoods, bends, boxes, etc.
Such articles are found less expensive lighter in weight and in some cases sheet metal products
replaced the use of casting or forgings.
Advantages of sheet metal:
1. High strength
2. Good dimensional accuracy
3. Good surface finish
4. Economical mass production (low cost).
Parts made by Sheet Metal Forming
• Car bodies • Aircraft fuselages • Trailers • Office furniture appliances • Fuel tanks •
Cookware
Sheet metal operations:
Various types of operation are performed in sheet metal.
 Shearing
 Blanking
 Punching (Piercing)
 Bending
 Stamping
 Drawing
 Deep Drawing
 Embossing
 Spinning
 Roll Forming
Metals used Sheet Metal work:
A metal plate of thickness less than 4mm is considered as sheet. The size of the sheet is specified
by its length, width and thickness in mm. In British system the thickness of sheet is specified by a
number called Standard Wire Gauge (SWG). The commonly used gauge numbers and the
equivalent thickness in mm are given below.

SWG No. 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 27 30
Thickness(mm) 1.62 1.42 1.22 1.02 0.91 0.71 0.56 0.42 0.37

The following metals are generally used in Sheet Metal work:

Block Iron Sheet: It is the cheapest among all. It has a bluish black appearance and is uncoated
sheet. Being uncoated it corroded rapidly. It is prepared by rolling to the desired thickness the
annealed by placing in a furnace and then set aside to cool gradually.
Galvanized Iron: It is soft sheet coated with molten Zinc. This coating resists rust, improves
appearance, improves solder ability and improves water resistance. It is popularly known as GL
sheets.
Stainless Steel: It is an alloy of steel with Nickel, Chromium and traces of other metals. It has
good corrosive resistance. The cost of stainless steel is very high but tougher than GL Sheets.
Copper: It is a reddish colored metal and is extremely malleable and ductile. Copper sheets have
good corrosion resistance as well as good appearance but costs as high as compared to GL and
Stainless Steel. Because of high thermal conductivity it is used for radiator of automobiles,
domestic heating appliances, etc.
Aluminum: Aluminum cannot be used in its pure form, but is used in alloy form. Common
additions are copper, silicon, manganese and iron. It has many qualities like high ratio of strength
to weight, corrosion resistant qualities and ease in fabrication and whitish in colour.
Hand tools
For measuring, marking, cutting and forming various types of hand tools are used in sheet metal
works.
 Measuring tools
 Marking tools
 Cutting tools
 Forming tools
 Joining tools

Measuring Tools
The following types of tools are commonly used in sheet metal shops to measure the dimensions of
work pieces:
 Sheet rule
 Vernier calipers
 Micro meter
 Sheet metal gauge

Sheet metal gauge

It is a disc shaped piece of metal having a number of slots on the outer side edge as shown in
figure. The slots are of various widths and each corresponds to a certain standard wire gauge
(SWG) number. The gauge is placed over the edge of the sheet to be measured and a slot is found
that will slip over the metal with a light fit pressure.

Wire gauge (SWG)

Marking Tools:
Scriber:
It is used to scribe or mark line on a metal surface for a variety of purposes. It is a metal worker’s
pencil.

Different types of scriber

Trammel:
It is a long rod known as beam on which two sliding heads are mounted, used to hold scribing
points for scriber work on sheet. The points are adjustable by nature and can be replaced by pencil.
It is used for marking large circle or too long for divider.

Trammel
Punches:
It is used in sheet metal work for marking on sheet, locating centres.
 Dot Punch
 Prick Punch Cutting Tools:

Snips:
Snips are hand shears varying in length from 200 mm to 600 mm. The 250 mm length is the
commonly used one.
Types of Snips:
Straight snip: It has a straight blade and is used for cutting along straight lines and for trimming
the edges. The straight snip and its usage is shown in figure below:
 Straight snip
Bent or Curved Snip
It is having curved blade and is used for cutting circles and irregular shapes. It is also used for
trimming the cylindrical edges. The curved snip and its usage are shown in figure below:

Bent or Curved Snip

Hammers:
The sheet metal is shaped by hammering or striking with mallet after keeping the metal on suitable
form of stake. The hammers used for sheet metal work are:
 Setting Hammer
 Raising Hammer
 Riveting Hammer
 Mallet
Lever Sharing Machine:
This is must in sheet metal shop. It is a universal shearing machine it is used for sheet cutting, flat
shearing, and round bar shearing any iron cutting.

Swaging Machine:
Swaging machine consists of sharp teeth black that can be moved by means of a handle. The joint
gets pressed and locked. This machine is used for pressing I.e. looking the grouse joint or seam
joint.
Miscellaneous tools
1. Folding rule
2. Semi-circular protector
3. Hollowing hammer
4. Teflon hammer
5. Riveting hammer
6. Planishing hammer
Stakes:
1. Hand stake
2. Half round stake
3. Taper stake
Hand stake: It is a handly with a flat face two straight edge one concave edge and other convex
edge and is used for pressing the inner sides of straight joints.
Half round stake:
It is used for pressing round seam joint and inner side.
Taper stake:
It is used for rounding of tapering jobs such as conical job etc.

Stakes
Stake holder
It is rectangular cast iron plate that has comentiently arranged taper holes so that the various stakes
may fit in and may be used in different position for tacking the sheet metal job for a particular
work.
Different types of seems for joining
According to requirements many different types of joints are used in sheet metal work. Some very
commonly used forms of these are:
 Lap joint
 Seem joint
  Locked seam
 Item
 Wire edge
 Cup or circular
 Flanges
 Angular
 Cap
Lap seam: This is the simplest seam used in sheet metal work Figure (a). This consists of one edge
lapping over the other and joint is made by soldering or riveting.
Grooved seam: A grooved seam is made by hooking two-folded edges together and then off
setting them as shown in Figure (b). This joint is self-locking and stronger to some extent than lap
seam.
Single seam: This seam is used to join a bottom portion to a vertical body as shown in Figure (c).
The bottom edge is hooked over the bent edge of the vertical body. This method of joint can be
used for square, rectangular or round containers.
Double seam: This seam is similar lo single scam with the difference that the formed edge is bent
upwards against the body as shown in Figure (d).
Dove-tail seam: This seam is used to connect a cylindrical piece to a flat as shown in Figure (e).
The edge of the cylindrical part to be joined is slit at short distance and is bent so that alternate
pieces come inside and outside of the joint. Permanent joint is obtained by soldering or riveting.
Flanged (burred) bottom seam: This seam is used to fasten the bottom of a container to its body.
The flange of a cylindrical job is often called a burr. The joint consists of a narrow flange which
may be joined to inside or outside of the vessel as shown in figure (f).

Different sheet metal joints

 Sheet Metal shop Experiment No.1
Object: To make a locked seam joint by using GI sheet.

Materials Used: Galvanized Iron (GI) Sheet.

Tool Used: Steel scale, scriber, mallet, ship, anvil, etc.

Procedure:
 First of all tools a GI Sheet.

 Measuring the sheet by 50 mm.

 Marking the sheet by scriber.

 Cutting the sheet at marking edge.

 Now we have two sheets.

 Again measure the two sheets 10mm.

 Again mark after measuring

 Now bent at 10 mm of sheet by mallet.

 Then bend by hammer to required form.

Conclusion: Then my final job is locked seam joint is formed as shown in figure.
Precaution:

 Avoid using any tool whose edges are blunt or out of order.
 For cutting sheets appropriate cutting tools or machines must be selected based on the
thickness of material to be cut.
 Always use apron and shoes while working.
 Hammering should not be in lazy mood.
 Tools should be placed properly.
 Black smithy Shop
Introduction: The process of a desired shape to a metal piece by heating and hammering is
known as forging. The metal piece is heated up to a desired temperature known as forging
temperature. The pressure involved in forging and hammering pressure, bending flattening, etc.
When the forging is done by the hand tools manually then it is called as power forging. In case it
is drop stand then it is called drop forging. The metal pieces are heated to the plastic style either in
smithy forging or in a furnace. Forging is widely done in auto and bicycle industries. It has the
following advantages over the other machine process.
 It refines the strength.
 It increases the strength.
 It saves time, material and labor.
The normal plastic range for steels and high-strength alloys is from about 1038°C to about
1260oC; for brasses and bronzes, from about 593°C to about 926°C; and for aluminum and
magnesium alloys, from about 343°C to about 510°C
Forging tools and equipment
The following tools and equipments are used in a Smith shop.
1. Furnace or Hearth
2. Anvil
3. Tongs
4. Chisels
5. Swages Block
6. Hammers
7. Punches and Drifts
8. Set hammers
9. Clamping Devices
10. Flatters
11. Fullers
Furnace or Hearth: A black Smith uses a furnace for heating the metal pieces furnace consists of
4 legs. A cast iron or steel body iron bottom a chimney and a blower. The main features of a
furnace are shown:

Open heath furnace

Hearth: The iron bottom where fire is lightened is known as hearth. It is provided with fire brick
lining.
Tuyere: A coming from the bottom.
Chimney: Chimney is filled on the upper end of the hood. It is used for the purpose of easy
escape of exhaust gases and smoke.
Water Tank: A small iron tank is attached with the hearth of the furnace it is used for dipping
purposes.
Accessories for forging furnace
 Shovel: It is used to place the coal into the furnace hearth.
 Blower: It is used to supply air at high pressure to the hearth.
 Poker: It is a bend rod used to strike the fire. Poker is made of mild steel.
 Regulator: It is used to control the supply of air to the hearth. Its supply is controlled by
increasing or decreasing the passage of air.
 Rake: Rake is used to put coal pieces on Tuyers.
Shovel: It is a tool resembling a spade with a broad blade and typically upturned sides, used for
moving coal, earth, snow, or other material as well is used to dig ,move loose, granular materials
(like dirt, gravel, grain, or snow) from one spot to another.

Shovel
Fuels used in Black smith shop/Forging Shop
Fuel: 1. Solid (coal) 2. Liquid (oils) 3. Gas (Natural Gas, Producer gas)
The fuels in common use are steam coal coke and char coal. A good fuel should have the
following essential properties:
1. It should be able to maintain the required forging temperature.
2. It should be cheap and easy available.
3. It should not produce excess smoke and fly ash. Method of lightening the furnace:
The space inside the hearth is filled with soft wood.
Anvil: A back on which forging work is done is known as anvil. A anvil having the following
main parts:
(A) Body (B) Horn or Beak (C) Chippy block (D) face (E) Hardy Hole (F) Round Hole (G) Base
(H) Pritchel hole
 Size and shape of the job.
 Falling weight of the hammer.
 Height of falling weight.
 Anvil
Tongs: Tongs are used for holding and turning hot metal pieces depending upon their use. Tongs
are classified into many types. All types of tongs have similar construction except the mouth. It
has the two legs from a suitable mild steel metal after their hardening and both legs are joint by a
hinge. Various types of tongs are given by following:-
Closed Mouth Tong: A closed mouth tong is used for holding thin sections.
Open Mouth Tong: An open mouth tong is suitable for holding heavier stock.
Round Hollow Tong: A round hallow tong is use for holding square, hexagonal and orthogonal
work.
Square Hollow Tong: A square hollow tong is used for holding square, hexagonal and octagonal
section.
Pick-up tong: A pick-up tong is used for picking up round bars, but not for holding work during
forging
 Tongs
Chisels:
1. Hot chisel
2. Cold chisel
3. Hardie set
Hot chisel is used to cut the metal in hot state and Cold chisel to cut the metal in cold state.
 Shank
 Body
 Cutting edge
Punches and Drifts: Punches are made up of high carbon and are used for making holes in metal
pieces.
Swages: Swages are used for giving various shapes to the work pieces.
Swage Black: It is a block of cast steel consisting of a number of slots of different shapes and
sizes along its four side faces. It has through holes from top face to bottom face which vary in
shapes and sizes and used for mainly squaring, sizing, heading, bending, punching and forming
operations. The swage block is supported on a cast iron base. It is specified according to size of
block or by weight

Swage block
Hack saw
The hacksaw is a cutting tool and used to cut the metal by hand. The hacksaw blade has a number
of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 /CM. Lesser number of teeth is used for cutting materials like
Aluminium, brass and Bronze and large number of teeth is used for cutting hard materials like
steel, C.I etc. Hack saw blades are fitted either in a solid frame or adjustable frame to
accommodate different lengths of blade.
Hacksaw blade is made out of high-speed steel. The hacksaw blades are specified by its material,
length, width, thickness and pitch of the teeth. The common dimensions are length 250-300 mm,
width 13 mm-16 mm, thickness 0.6 to 0.8 mm, pitch 1 to 1.8 mm. The blades are fixed with teeth
facing forward and the teeth are staggered, which are known as ‘set of teeth’. These make slots
wider than blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming

Fixed frame and adjustable type frame hack saw

Types of Hack Saw: Hack saw is usually two types:
a) Fixed hack saw/ solid hack saw
b) Adjustable hack saw

Bick iron: It is also made of tool steel and it is hard. It’s one portion is similar to the horn of the
anvil and tapered tail on the other side. Due to a taper shank it is fitted in the anvil
Precautions while using forging tools and equipment:
1. The following points must be kept on mind while forging the tools:
2. Heath should be lightened in proper way.
 3. Flurrying should not be done.
Hammers:
Ball‐ Peen Hammer: Ball‐ Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material
and specified by their weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work
and a ball end, particularly used for riveting.
Cross‐Peen Hammer: It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used
for chipping, riveting, bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and
shoulders.
Sledge Hammer: It has double faces on both ends as shown in figure. Sledge hammers are
comparatively heavier than hand hammers. Therefore, they are used for heavy type of forging
work when heavy blows are needed.
Straight‐Peen Hammer: This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the
hammer handle. It is used for swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals. Its
weight varies from 1 to 9 Kg.
Power hammer: when the quality of job to be produced is very high, then power hammers are
used. They are generally driven by electric power. power hammers are usually heavy in weight.

Hammers
Precautions while Using Forging Tools and Equipment

1. The following points must be kept in mind while working with the forging tools:
2. Hearth should be lightened is proper way.
3. Hammering should not be done in lazy mood.
4. Heavy blows should not be given on the tail of the anvil.
5. Hammers should have proper handle length.
6. Length of the tong should be kept between 15” to 18”. The tong should be kept cool while
working with it.
7. Blunt chisels should not be used in the forging shop.
8. Mushroom should not remain on the face of the flatter, punch or chisel.
9. Never use fullers and swages for cold metal.
10. While working on furnace, keep the fire small but deep.
11. Do not let the fire burn hollow.
12. Keep the fire clear from clinkers, particularly while welding.
13. Do not add fresh coke on the top of the fire, put it at the side and pull in later when
required.
 Black Smithy shop Experiment No.1
Object: To make fan hook with the support of Smith shop tools.

Fan hook

Materials used: Mild steel rod

Mild steel diameter (Փ) = 10 mm, length= 100 mm.
Tools used:
Poker, shovel, Anvil, hammer, tong, hack saw, steel scale, open heart furnace.
Procedure:
 First of all take a mild steel rod of 10mm diameter
 Hold the rod in a bench vice and measured by steel rule
 Cut it by hack saw as per prescribed dimension.
 If Its one part of cutted is sharp
 Then hammered on the sharp part to make the sharp end round.
 Put the rod in an open hearth furnace at desired temperature and hold it for a desired time.
 Now withdrawn the red hot rod from furnace and put it on anvil and hammered the same.
 One half of the rod towards the pointed end is heated in the forge to red hot condition and
then bent into circular shape as shown.
 The straight portion of the rod is finally heated and bent into circular shape as required
via back side hole of anvil.
Result:
Fan hook prepared.

Precautions:
1. Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
2. Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
3. Wear steel-toed shoes.
4. Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
5. Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work
6. All the exhaust, gases and smoke should go to the chimney.
7. Never try to touch the job with hand that can damage the skin.
 Welding Shop
Introduction: Welding is process for joining two similar and dissimilar metals by fusion. It joints
different metals with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The heat may be either generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric
resistance or by chemical reaction. Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the
metallurgy of the components. It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for
most of the critical component the welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in
industries. Some are easier to weld than other, to compare this case in welding term “weld ability"
is often used.
There are a wide variety of welding methods.
Selection of a particular method depends on the
(a) The material to be joined, (b) thickness of material, (c) its design, and (d) quantity to be welded.
The welding processes can be broadly categorized as follows:-
1. Electric arc welding methods
2. Gas Welding Methods
3. Resistance welding methods
4. Solid State welding methods(Friction welding)
5. Miscellaneous welding methods.

Block diagram of welding

Electric arc Welding: In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an
electric arc.
Arc: sustained electric discharge through the ionized gas column, called plasma, between the two
electrodes.
When the circuit is energized, the flow of electric current through the electrode heats the electrode
by virtue of its electric resistance. When the electrode tip is touched to the work piece and then
withdrawn to leave a gap between the electrode and work piece, the arc jumping the short gap
presents a further path of high electric resistance, resulting in the generation of an extremely high
temperature in the region of the sustained arc. The potential difference between the two electrodes
must high enough to allow electrons to move across the air gap.
The temperature reaches about 6000oC, which is more than adequate to melt. This heat melts both
the base metal and the electrode, producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a “crater”.
Working Principle of electric arc welding

Electric arc welding set-up

Welding joint: welding joints are usually five types and they are given below:
In welding shop butt joint was fabricated by electric arc welding and gas welding process.

Different type of welding joints

Edge Preparations: For welding the edge of joining surfaces of metal are prepared first, different
edge preparations may be used for welding but joints, which are given in figure.
1. Lap joint:
Single lap joint: This joint is made by overlapping the edges of the plate and is not recommended
for most work
Double lap joint: This is similar to single lap joint but has the disadvantage that it requires twice
as much welding.
2. Butt weld joint:
Single “V” Butt weld: It is used for plate up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the “V” depends upon
the technique being used.
Double “V” Butt weld: It is used for plates over 13mm thick when the welding can be performed
on both sides of the plate. The top “V” angle is either 60° or 30° while the bottom angle is 30°
depending upon the technique being used.
Arc Welding Process: The process in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work piece
or between two electrodes is utilized to weld base metals. Arc welding is shown in figure. Arc
Welding Equipment: Arc welding equipment set up and related tools accessories are shown in
figure.

Arc welding equipment

AC Welding power source: Bothe direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for
electric arc welding, each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained
from generators driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion
engines.
Electrode Holder: Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting
current to it. These are usually matched and conducting current to it. These are usually matched to
the size of the lead, which in turn is matched to the amperage output of the arc welder electrode
holders are available in sizes that ranges from 150 to 500 ampere.
Welding Electrodes: 1. Consumable electrodes 2. Bare electrode 3.Coated electrodes 4. Non
consumable electrodes 5.Carbon or Graphite electrode 6. Tungsten electrodes
Hand Screen/face shield: Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
 Face shield
Chipping Hammer: Chipping hammer is used to remove the slag from welding bead by striking
and it is also used to remove the spatters.

Chipping hammer
Wire brush: Wire brush is used to clean the surface (job) to weld.

Wire brush
Electrode Holder: It is device used for mechanically holding the electrode and conducting current
to it. Jaws are made to hold the bare end of the electrode in either vertical or an angular position.
These are fully insulated and the jaws are made of metals having high heat conductivity.
 Electrode Holder
Leather Gloves:
This is a flame-retardant outfit worn by a welder to protect the under clothing and the body from
the sparks, the metal and the hot metal being welded.

Leather Gloves
Tongs: Tongs are used to hold the hot metal-welding job while cleaning; they are also used to hold
the metal for hammering.

Tongs
Gas welding: It is a process of construction that involves the use of gases as well as oxygen to
weld metals together other norms for gas welding.
Fuels for gas welding: As the name suggests acetylene is one of the preferred fuels in gas
welding, Called oxidation though many people will also refer to the process as combustion.
Gas welding equipment: The welding equipment has an oxygen source as well as a fuel gas
source which helps to begin the welding process with two hoses and two pressure regulators for
each source. The gas welding apparatus is shown in figure with the torch to weld.

Gas welding arrangement

Gas welding flame: During the gas welding usually three types of flames produced.
1) Neutral flame
When the equal parts of O2 burn with the equal part of acetylene gas at the torch of tip then neutral
flame is produced.

Neutral flame
2) Carburizing flame:
When the more than the one part of C2H2 gas burn with the one part of O2 gas burn with at the
torch of tip then neutral flame is produced.
Carburizing flame is clearly recognized by three flame zones;
 A clearly defined bluish white inner cone
White immediately cone indicating amount of excess acetylene
A light blue outer flare envelope.
This flare burns with a coarse rushing sound. The inner cone tips temperature is approximately
3700oC. If a carburizing flame is used for welding, carbon absorb from the flame, causing
metals to boil. This metal is not clear as it boils, obtain high carbon steel, becomes brittle and
subject to cracking.

Carburizing flame
3) Oxidizing flame:
In this oxidizing flame, the content of oxygen is more than the content of fuel gas by volume.
It has two zones or two cones; the first one is called the inner cone and is white in colour. The
inner zone is very bright. The second one is called outer cone and is blue in colour. The size of
the inner cone in the oxidizing flame is very small as compared to its size in a natural or neutral
flame. It has more heat than a neutral flame.
The temperature of the inner cone is from 3300 °C to 3500 °C and the temperature of outer
cone is nearly 1200°C.
If more heat is required to weld then we use oxidizing flame in which the temperature of inner
cone is very high.
Application of oxidizing flame:
 Oxidizing flame is used to weld copper alloys like brass, bronze, etc.
 Oxidizing flame should not be used to weld metals like zinc, copper, manganese steel,
cast iron etc.
 When an oxidizing flame is applied to steel, the oxidizing flame causes the molten
metal to foam and give off sparks. The excess oxygen in oxidizing flame combines with
steel and burns it.

Oxidizing flame
Welding Position
Welding positions are usually four types:
1.Flat position: Flat position is very common position mostly shop welding is usually done by flat
welding position .intricate fixture is used in this welding position so that work piece rotate while in
welding condition. This type of welding position is very common as it requires less skill to produce
a sound weld

Flat position
2. Horizontal position: Horizontal welding position is another important welding position and
commonly used. It is extensively used due to a large metal deposition. The manipulation of
electrode can be made with the same movement that is used flat position. C, J, O are the preferred
movement. Angle of electrode should be in between 5o to 25o

Horizontal position
3. Vertical position: The welding position in which welding is done on a vertical surface. Vertical-
position welding is more difficult than flat- or horizontal-position welding. A “vertical weld” is
defined as a weld that is applied to a vertical surface or one that is inclined 45 degrees or less

Vertical position
4. Over head position: Overhead welding is the most difficult position in welding. Not only do
you have to contend with the force of gravity but the majority of the time you also have to assume
an awkward stance. Nevertheless, with practice it is possible to make welds equal to those made in
the other positions. It is a position in which electrode hold vertically over your head to the surface
you are welding. This is one of the most difficult positions to weld.
 Over head position

Differentiate between Electric arc welding and gas welding:

S.No Electric arc welding Gas welding

1 In the arc welding, electricity is used to In gas welding, fuel gases like acetylene,
generate heat. hydrogen are used to generate heat.
2 This welding generates higher temperature This welding generates lower temperature than
than gas welding. The temperature is about arc welding. The temperature is about 3600oC.
6000oC.
3 This welding generates stronger joint It gives weaker joint.
compare to gas welding.
4 It gives poor surface finish. This welding gives good surface finish.
5 In arc welding consumable electrode is In gas welding non consumable electrode is
used. used.
6 The electrode is combined with the filler A filler rod is used separately if required.
metal.
7 It can be used in welding alone. It can be used in welding, brazing and
soldering.
8 There is risk of explosion due to high There is risk of explosion due to high
voltage. pressure.
9 It is mostly used to joint similar material. It is mostly use to join both similar and
different metals.
10 The heat is concentrate in arc welding. The heat is distributing according to the
flame. There is higher loss of energy.
11 It is more efficient. It is less efficient.
12 Speed of welding is high. Speed of welding is low.
 Welding shop Experiment No.1
Aim: To make a lap or butt joint with the help of electric arc welding as given dimensions.
Tools used:
 Mild steel plates
 Welding power supply
 Bench vice Flat file
 Welding rod
 Measuring scale
 Chipping hammer
 Try Square
 Electrode holder
 Wire brush
 Hack saw
 Gloves and apron
 Earthing clamps
 Shield and goggles
Materials used: Mild steel flat Length= 75 mm, width = 50 mm, and thickness= 6 mm.
Theory - Metal transfer in SMAW:
Metal transfer refers to the transfer of molten metal droplets from the electrode tip to the weld pool
in consumable arc welding processes. Metal transfer in SMA welding is primarily affected by
surface tension of molten metal at the electrode tip.
Presence of impurities and foreign elements in molten metal lowers the surface tension which in
turn facilitates easy detachment of molten metal drop from the electrode tip. Therefore, type and
amount of coating on electrode and effectiveness of shielding of arc zone from the atmospheric
gases appreciably affect the mode of metal transfer. Acidic and oxide type electrodes produce
molten metal with large amount of oxygen and hydrogen. Presence of these impurities in the
molten weld metal lowers the surface tension and produces spray like metal transfer.
Rutile electrodes are primarily composed of TiO2 due to which molten metal drop hanging at tip of
electrode is not much oxidized and therefore surface tension of the molten weld metal is not
reduced appreciably. Hence, rutile electrodes produce more drops and less spray transfer.
Basic electrode contains deoxidizers and at the same time moisture is completely driven off to
render low hydrogen electrodes. Therefore, melt droplets at the tip of the electrode are of killed
steel type having high surface tension. Since high surface tension of molten metal resists the
detachment of drops from the electrode tip and hence the size of drop at tip of electrode increases
to a great extent before it is detached under the effect of gravitational and electro-magnetic pinch
forces. These conditions results in globular transfer with basic electrode.
In case of light coated electrodes incomplete de-oxidation (due to lack of enough flux), CO is
formed which remains with single molten weld metal droplet until it grows to about half of
electrode diameter. Eventually, drops with bubble of CO bursts which in turn results in metal
transfer in form of fine drops and spatter.
In case of basic electrode, metal transfer occurs by short circuiting mode if molten metal drop
touches the weld pool and melt is transferred to weld pool by surface tension effect.
Procedure:
1) Clean the mild steel flats to be joined by wire brush. Remove any layer of oxide by filing.
Prepare edge of the work-pieces at 45o.
 2) Arrange the flat pieces properly providing the gap for full penetration for butt joint (gap ½
thicknesses of flats).
3) Practice striking of arc, speed and arc length control.
4) Set the welding current, voltage according to the type of metal to be joined.
5) Strike the arc and make tacks at the both ends to hold the metal pieces together during the
welding process.
6) Lay beads along the joint maintaining proper speed and arc length (Speed 100-150
mm/min).
7) Welding should be done by maintaining 3 mm gap between the electrode and mild steel flat
(Work piece).
8) Use tongs to lift up the welded plates and immerse in water to cool down
9) Clean the welded zone using wire brush and chipping hammer.
Precautions:
1) Before you start welding, ensure that the welding machine frame is grounded, that neither
terminal of the welding generator is bonded to the frame, and that all electrical connections
are secure. The ground connection must be attached firmly to the work, not merely laid
loosely upon it.
2) Keep welding cables dry and free of oil or grease.
3) Keep the cables in good condition and always take appropriate steps to protect them from
damage. When it is necessary to run cables some distance from the ma-chine, lay them
overhead, if at all possible, using adequate support devices.
4) When you are using portable machines, make sure that the primary power cable is separate
from the welding cables so they do not become entangled. Any portable equipment
mounted on wheels should be securely blocked to prevent accidental movement during
welding operations.
5) When stopping work for any appreciable length of time, be sure to de-energize the
equipment. When the equipment is not in use, you should completely disconnect it from its
source of power.
6) Keep the work area neat and clean. If at all possible, make it a practice to dispose the hot
Electrode stubs in a metal container.
Result:
The desired butt joint using shielded metal arc welding was made as shown in Fig .

Before the metal plates were welded and after the metal plates were welded
 Welding shop Experiment No.2
Aim: To make a lap or butt joint with the help of gas welding as given dimensions.
Tools used:
 Gas welding arrangement
 Bench vice
 Flat file
 filler rod
 Measuring scale, Try Square
 C2H2 cylinder + O2 cylinder
 Hack saw
 Gloves, apron, and Goggles
Materials used: Mild steel flat Length= 50 mm, width = 20 mm, and thickness= 4 mm.
Procedure:
1) First take the piece of mild steel and measure the dimension of above mentioned.
2) Mark the measured dimension and fixed it in bench vice.
3) Cut the mild steel flat with the help of hacksaw as per the marked.
4) Clean the mild steel flats cutted piece by wire brush that to be joined. Remove any layer of
oxide by filing. Prepare edge (V-shape) of the work-pieces at 45o with the help of file and
make sure that all angles are of 90o with the help of try square.
5) Arrange the flat pieces properly providing the gap for full penetration for butt joint (gap ½
thicknesses of flats).
6) During the gas welding process first burn the gas at the tip of welding torch and manage the
flame and then take it ahead the mild steel flat. When place of welding becomes red hot
then put the brazing rod between them. The brazing rod (filler rod) starts to melt and fill the
V-groove and in such a way joint formed.
7) Use tongs to lift up the welded plates and immerse in water to cool down.
8) Clean the welded zone using wire brush and chipping hammer.
9) After completing the gas welding, blow out the welding torch by switch off the gas
cylinders.
Precautions:
1) Before you start welding, ensure that the gas welding arrangement is properly or not.
2) Check the hose (Pipe) for any crack or damage.
3) Keep the hose pipe in good condition and always take appropriate steps to protect them
from damage.
4) Rolling of gas cylinder should be avoided.
5) Use the lighter for spark purpose.
Result:
The desired butt joint using shielded metal arc welding was made as shown in Fig .

Lap joint by gas welding

 Fitting Shop
The term fitting is related to assemble of parts after bringing the dimensions or shape to the
required size or form in order to secure the necessary fit.
Types of tools used in fitting shop:
Measuring tools: the basic function of measuring tool is measure the size of a job and they are
following types:
1. Steel rule
2. Try square
1. Steel Rule
It consist of a hardened steel strip having line graduation etched or engraved in it they are usually
150 mm or 300 mm long and is used to take line measurement to accuracy 1 mm or 0.5 mm.
These are marked in inches or millimeters. All the faces are machined true. The edges of steel
rule should be protected from rough handling.

Engineering scale
2. Try Square: The basic function of a try square is to measure/check the right angle (90 o) of a
job and to draw the parallel line on job surface. Try Square consists of rectangular steel blade
fixed rigidly to cast iron stock. The length of blade varies from 150 mm to 300 mm.

Try square
Marking tools: the basic function of marking tools is marking on the job and they are the
following types:
1. Scriber
2. Dot punch
3. Centre punch
4. Divider
5. Inside caliper
6. Outside caliper
7. Odd leg caliper
Scriber:
It is used to scribe or mark line (permanent) on a metal surface for a variety of purposes. It is a
metal worker’s pencil.
 Different types of scriber
Types of punches:
1) Dot punch: This is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes
and to provide a small center mark for divider point, etc. For this purpose, the punch is
ground to a conical point having 60 degrees included angle.

Dot punch
2) Centre punch: This is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point
having 90 degrees included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.
It is used to mark the location of the centre where holes are to be drilled. The centre punch
mark facilitates easy location of the drill tip and centre accurately.

Centre punch

1) Prick Punch: It is sharply pointed tool. The tapered point of punch has an angle of
usually 400. It is used to make small punch marks on layout lines. DIVIDER: It has two
straight legs sharpened at one end, hinged at other end. This is used for marking circles,
arcs, laying out perpendicular lines, bisecting lines, etc.
2) Hollow punch
3) Split punch
Types of caliper:
1) Leg caliper: It is made of steel tapered strip, which is hinged between washers at one end,
one leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the other has a straight pointed end. It is used to find
the center of a bar. It is extremely used for scribing lines parallel to edge of work.

2) Outside Caliper: These are also of two type’s ordinary, spring type. It has two steel legs
that are bent inward. These are used to measure the outside dimensions of round objects.
 Outside caliper
3) Inside caliper: These are also of two type’s ordinary, spring type. It has two steel legs,
which are bent outward. These are used to set internal dimensions, to transfer them to
work.

Inside caliper
Divider:
This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines, bisecting lines, etc. Size
ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.

Divider
Cutting tools
a) Hack saw b) Chisel c) Drill d) Tap
Hack saw
The hacksaw is a cutting tool and used to cut the metal by hand. The hacksaw blade has a number
of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 / cm. Lesser number of teeth is used for cutting materials like
Aluminium, brass and Bronze and large number of teeth is used for cutting hard materials like
steel, C.I etc. Hack saw blades are fitted either in a solid frame or adjustable frame to
accommodate different lengths of blade.
Hacksaw blade is made out of high-speed steel. The hacksaw blades are specified by its material,
length, width, thickness and pitch of the teeth. The common dimensions are length 250-300 mm,
width 13 mm-16 mm, thickness 0.6 to 0.8 mm, pitch 1 to 1.8 mm. The blades are fixed with teeth
facing forward and the teeth are staggered, which are known as ‘set of teeth’. These make slots
wider than blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming

Fixed frame and adjustable type frame hack saw

Types of Hack Saw: Hack saw is usually two types:
a) Fixed hack saw/ solid hack saw
b) Adjustable hack saw
Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from
0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed, hardened and
tempered to produce a tough shank and a hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the internal
stresses in the metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is 60 degrees.
A flat chisel is a common chisel used for chipping and cuffing off thin sheet-metal.
A cape chisel is narrow shaped tool. It is cased mostly for the chipping grooves and keyways.

Chisels
Finishing tools
a.) Files
i. Hand file ii. Flat file iii. Square file iv. Triangular file v. half round file vi. Round file
Striking tools
Ball peen hammer b) Straight peen hammer c) Cross peen hammer
Files
A file is a cutting tool used to remove small amount of material from the surface of the work
piece and also helps in giving a smooth surface finish. A number of teeth, parallel and inclined at
suitable angle are cut on the flat surface of the file. The various parts of a file are shown in figure
the main parts of the file include:-
Tang-It is the pointed part that fits into the wooden handle.
Heel – It is end of the tang that forms a curved edge.
Face -It is the portion of the file on which cutting teeth are formed.
Point – It is the end opposite the tang
Files are often tapered along their length but they may also be parallel.
Material -tool steel (hardened)
Specification- length, single cut /double cut, shape and pitch. Example Length (say 400 mm)
Single cut /Double cut
Shape (say square cross –section) Pitch or grade (say smooth)

Parts of a file
Classification of file:
 According to size
 According to shape
 According to cut
 According to grade
 According to size: When the file to be 100mm to 450 mm.
According to shape:
1) Flat file
2) Hand file
3) Round file
4) Half round file
5) File
6) Triangular file
7) Knife edge file

According to cut: 1. Single cut file 2. Double cut file 3. Covered cut file 4.Rasp cut file 5.
Parallel cut file
According to grade:
 Rough file (R)-5
 Bastard (B)-9
 Second cut file (Sc) -14
 Smooth file (S)-18
 Super smooth file (SS) - 28 (No. of teeth count for grade in 10mm.)

Flat File:
Rectangular in section and tapered for 1/3rd length in width and thickness. The faces have double
cut teeth and edges single cut. Used for general purpose filing.
Square File:
Square in section and tapered for 1/3rd length in all faces. All the faces have double cut teeth.
Used for filing corners and slots and also to cut keyways.
Triangular File:
Equilateral triangular in section and tapered for 1/3rd length on all faces. All the faces have double
cut teeth. Used for filing internal corners.
Half Round File:
It has one flat face, connected by curved face and tapered for 1/3rd length. The curved face is not
exactly semi-circular but only a part of circle. The flat face has double cut teeth and the curved
face, single cut. Used for filing concave surfaces and internal corners.
Round File:
Circular cross section and tapered for 1/3rd length. It has double cut teeth. Used for filing concave
surfaces and circular openings.
 Different type of files
Grades of files:

Rough having: 8 teeth/cm

Coarse: 10 teeth/cm
Bastard: 12 teeth/cm
Second cut: 16 teeth/cm
Smooth: 20 to 24 teeth/cm
Dead smooth: 40 teeth/cm
Cut of files cut of file are usually two types (1) single cut (2) double cut
Single cut file have rows of teeth running in one direction, across their faces while double cut file
have a second row of teeth, cut diagonally to the first row.

Cut of file
The explanations of above types of files in engineering workshop are shown below:

Methods of Filing:
There are two methods of filing.

 Cross Filing
  Draw Filing
Cross Filing:
Filing in a direction perpendicular to the axis of a component is called Cross Filing. This filing
method is used mostly in the Fitting Workshop.
Draw Filing:
Filing in a direction parallel to the axis of a component is called as Draw Filing.

Method of filing
Holding tools
1) Bench vice
2) C-lamp
Types of Vice:
1. Bench vice
2. Machine vice
3. Pipe vice
4. Hand vice
5. Pin vice
Bench vice:
The vice used for bench work is called bench vice. The bench work includes filing, sawing, and
threading operations. The bench vice is a device commonly used for holding the work pieces.
When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction the moving jaw forces the work against
the fixed jaw. The greater the pressure applied to the handle, the tighter is the work held.
It consists of a cast iron body carrying a fixed jaw and movable jaw. Both the jaws are made of
cast steel and are brought together by means of hand operated Screw. Separate cast steel plates
known as ‘jaw plates’ are fixed to the jaws my means of set screws which can be replaced when
worn out. The face of the jaw plates have teeth (serrations), which helps in gripping the work
firmly.
Specification: - the width of the jaws determines the size of the vice.
 Parts of a bench vice
Pipe vice
It is used for holding round section parts such as pipes, tubes.
Hand vice
It is used for carrying work on small jobs, such as screws, keys, rivets etc., which cannot be held
in the Bench vice. It consists of two jaws that can be operated by means of a wing nut.
Types of Hammer:
1) Ball peen Hammer
2) Cross peen Hammer
3) Straight peen Hammer
Ball peen hammer:-This is the most common type of hammer which has a ball-shaped end of the
head opposite to the striking face. It is used for all kinds of engineering works. The ball end being
useful for sheet metal forming and it is made in weights from 1000 gm to 1.5 kg. It is used for
riveting and chipping.

Ball peen hammer

Cross–peen and straight peen hammer:-These have blunt, chisel-shaped ends on the head
opposite to the face. It has the peen of the shape of a ball. It is the most common type of the
hammer and is mostly used for riveting, bending, stretching, hammering into shoulders, curves.
Cross-peen hammer:
It is used for hammering into shoulders, inside curves for bending.
Straight peen hammer:
It has a flat and tapered peen. The width is usually equal to the diameter of the face. It is used for
stretching the metal by hammering.
Cross peen hammer and straight peen hammer
 Fitting shop Experiment No. 1
Object: To make a rectangle and cut one side corner 20 mm X 20 mm with hack sawing and
filling.

Material and measurement:

Mild steel flat of 65 mm X 50 mm X 6 mm size.
Tools used:
Bench vice, hack saw, Jack file rough, ball pean hammer, dot punch, jenny caliper.

Procedure:

1. Hold the job in a bench vice.

2. Perform filing operation on all sides and check that the adjacent sides are at right angles
using try square.
3. Maintain the finished job after filing to the dimension of 65 mm X 50 mm X 6 mm.
4. Mark areas using scriber, punch and hammer on one corner of job.
5. Using hacksaw cut the job from one edge as per drawing and filled to straightness with
rough and smooth file and checked with try square.

Result:
The square cutting is done successfully.

Precautions:

1. Job should be held tightly in a vice while doing fitting operations like filing and cutting.
2. While filing by a file and cutting by a hacksaw pressure should be applied during forward
stroke.
3. Cutting should be done accurately along the lines drawn after measurement.