PHYSICS

Physics is a branch of physical science, which deals with the study of matter in relation to energy.

Matter:
Matter is any thing that occupies space and has weight.

Energy:
Is the ability to do work.

STATES OF MATTER
Matter exists in three states,
i) Solid e.g. bricks, stones, wood etc
ii) Liquid e.g. oil , water, paraffin etc
iii) Gas e.g. hydrogen , oxygen , carbon dioxide

EXERCISE 1
1. Define the following terms
i) Physics ii) Matter iii) Energy
2. State the three states of matter and give two examples of each

MEASUREMENTS IN PHYSICS
In physics quantities are divided into two namely:
a) Basic/fundamental quantities
b) Derived quantities

BASIC QUANTITIES AND THEIR S.I. UNITS

These are quantities that cannot be obtained from other quantities.
There are three bases quantities namely
i) Length ii) Mass iii) Time

S.I units
S.I units in full means international system of units
It is based on the metre kilogram second (mks) system.

1
 Basic quantities and their S.I units
Basic quantity S.I unit Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Seond s

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Length is the distance between two fixed points
i) Long distance
Long distance is measured using a tape measure and a metre rule.
For example a tape measure can be used to measure the length of a field

Relationship between m, cm, mm and km

1m = 100cm 1m = 1000mm
1cm = 100mm 1km = 1000m

Example
Change the following into metre
i) 20cm ii) 10mm iii) 4km

Solution
i) 100cm=1m ii) 1000mm=1m iii) 1km=1000m
20cm=x 10mm =x 4km =x
100x=20 1000x =10 X = 1000x4
X= X = X = 4000m
4km = 4000m
X=0.2m X = 0.01m
20cm=0.2m 10mm = 0.01m

EXERCISE: 2
Change the following to metres
a) 200cm b) 6cm c) 5mm d) 16mm e) 0.6km f)20km

ii) Short and very short distances

A Vernier caliper measures short distance while a micrometer screw gauge measures very small
distances

2
 VERNIER CALLIPERS
It is used to measure small length accurately e.g. diameter of objects like a beaker, cylinder, tins and
tubes.
It can also be used to measure thickness of a glass block, blocks of wood etc.

The functions of the different parts are:

 External jaw (outside jaw) measure the external diameter of objects
 Internal jaw (inside jaw) measures the internal diameter of objects.
Diagram
How to read the Vernier
Inside Main scale  Read and record the main scale reading at the
jaw zero mark of the Vernier scale in centimeter
 Read and record the Vernier scale reading at
Outside the point where the mark coincides with a
jaw mark on the main scale in hundredth of
Fixed Sliding Vernier scale
centimetres.
jaw jaw  Add the two reading to give a total reading

Example:1
0 1 2 3cm
Majn scale = 0.07cm
0.8
+ 0.07
Vernier scale
Main scale reading = 0.80cm = 0.87cm
Total reading = 0.87cm
Vernier scale reading = division

Example:2
Main scale reading Vernier scale reading = division
4 5 6 7cm
Majn scale
= 0.02cm
5.4

Vernier scale
+ 0.02
= 5.4cm = 5.42cm
Total reading = 5.24cm
3
Exercise: 3
Find the following vernier readings;
4 5 6 7cm
Majn scale

Vernier scale

4 5 6 7cm
Majn scale

Vernier scale

10 11 12 13cm Majn scale

Vernier scale

Micrometer screw gauge

It is used to measure very small length with great accuracy.
It can measure the thickness of a paper, thickness of a razor blade, diameter of a thin wire etc

How to use micrometer

Place the object to be measured between the anvil and spindle. Rotate the ratchet clockwise until
you hear a sound and then take readings
Diagram

Spindle How to read the micrometer

Anvil
Thimble  Read and record the sleeve reading at the
Rachet
edge of the thimble in millimetres
 Read and record the thimble reading at the
point where a mark on the thimble scale
coincides with the centre line on the sleeve
scale in hundreds of millimetres
Sleeve  Add the two readings to give the total reading

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Example : 1 Thimble reading=5/100mm=0.05m

0
Total=4.50
1 2 3 4
+0.05
2
4.55mm
Sleeve reading=4.50mm Total reading = 4.55mm
Example: 2
Thimble reading=23/100mm=0.23
6
Total reading =10.00
20
+ 0.23
10.23mm
Sleeve reading=10.00mm Total reading=10.23mm

EXERCISE:4
Find the micrometer readings;

9 15mm

9
8

TIME
Time is measured by using a watch, a clock, a stop clock, cocks etc
SI UNITS OF TIME
The S.I. unit of time is second(s).

Other units include:

Minutes, hours, days; weeks, months, years, decades, century and millennium.
Note
1min=60secs 1week=7days 1century=100years
1hr=60x60s=360s 1month=30days 1mellenuim=1000years
1day=24x60x60=86400s 1year=360days
Also 1decade=10years

EXERCISE: 5
Change the following into seconds
i) 3minutes ii) 4hrs iii) 50days.
5
MASS
It is the quantity of matter a body contains

SI UNIT OF MASS
The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg)
Other units include: tone, grams, milligrams etc
1tone 1000kg 1g 1mg

Note
Mass is constant everywhere. It is measured using a beam balance, triple balance and top pan
balance.

Examples
Change the following to kilograms:
a) 200g b) 5g c) 100mg d) 250mg
Solution
1g = kg b) 1g = kg

200g = y 5g = y
y = x200 y = x5

y = 0.2kg y = 0.005kg

c) 1mg = kg d) 1mg = kg

100mg = y 250mg = y
y= x100 y = x250

y=0.0001kg y = 0.00025kg

EXERCISE:6
Change the following to kg;
a) 500g b) 100g
c) 0.4g d) 25g
e) 20g f) 75g

6
 DERIVED QUANTITIES
Apart from the three basic quantities of mass, length and time, there are other quantities like area,
volume, density etc.
They are called derived quantities, because their units are obtained from the units of the three basic
quantities

AREA
This is the space covered by flat surface.
The SI unit of area is metre squared ( )

Summary
Name of Figure Formulae of Area
Rectangle A=LW
Square A = S2
Triangle A = ½ bh
Circle A = ╥ r2

Example
1 Find the area of a classroom measuring 6m by 4m
Solution A=LW A=6x6 A=36
2 Given that the area of a square is at .Find the length of one of the sides of the square in metres.
A= s=7/100 The room measured 0.07m
49= s =0.07m by 0.07m
S=√
S=7cm

Note
1 =10000 1 =1000000

VOLUME
This is the capacity that can be occupied by an object.

Regular Objects
For regular objects, three dimensions are involved i.e. length, width and height

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 Summary
Name of figure Formulae
Cylinder ╥ r2 h
Cuboid l w h
Cube S3
4╥ r3
Sphere
3

Cone 1╥ r2 h
3

S.I units of volume

The S.1 unit of volume is metres cube ( ).

Other units include, ,

=1,000, 000 =1000, 000,000

Irregular solid
Irregular objects are objects which do not have definite shapes
For example stones, nails and many others
Methods of measuring volume of irregular objects.
(i) Over floor can or displacement method
(ii) Measuring cylinder

Over flow can method

Thread  Tie a thread around the irregular solid whose
volume is required.
Spout
 Place the a measuring cylinder under the
Irregular object
spout and carefully lower the irregular object
Volume of solid
to the bottom of the water in the overflow
can.
Procedure  Wait until dripping has stopped from the
 Pour water into an over flow can until it flows spout and read the volume of the water in the
out of the spout. Wait until no more drops of cylinder, this gives the volume of the irregular
water run out of the spout. object.

Note
This method works on the principle that a body displaces its own volume when fully immersed in
fluid.
8
 Measuring cylinder method
Method
 Pour water into a cylinder and read the first volume of water
 Tie a thread around the irregular solid and carefully lower it to the bottom of the water in
the cylinder.
 Read the second volume of water when the irregular object is fully immersed in the
cylinder.

Second reading

First reading Irregular object

(i) (ii)

 Volume of the object= reading- reading

Measurement of volume of liquids

Volume of liquids can be measured using
 Measuring cylinder  Pipette (for specific volume)
 Burette

Note
The volume of a liquid can be measured using a measuring cylinder by carefully pouring a liquid
into a measuring cylinder and its volume read off.

UNEB QN
1. (2008 Q .1). The most suitable instrument for measuring the diameter of a test tube is.
A. A ruler C. Vernier calipers
B. A tape measure D. A micrometer screw gauge
2. (2007 Q1) The three basic quantities of measurement are;
A. Mass, frequency and power C. Area, electricity current and volume
B. Time, density and pressure D. Length, mass and time
3. (2005 Q.9)The width of a metre rule is accurately measured by a
A. Micrometer screw gauge C. Tape measure
B. Vernier calipers D. Metre rule
9
4. (2004 Q17) A set of apparatus that is suitable for measurement of the volume of an irregular object
includes
A Over flow can, measuring cylinder, C Overflow can, irregular object, string,
Irregular object and a string retort stand and burette
B Measuring cylinder, irregular object, and D Burette, overflow can, irregular object, a
overflow can, flask string, measuring cylinder and retort stand
5. (2004 Q39) Which of the following can be used to measure the diameter of a bicycle spoke
accurately.
A Metre rule C Tape measure
B Vernier callipers D Micrometer screw gauge
6. (2002 Q29) When 25 is converted into it becomes
A 2.5x B 2.5x C 2.5x D 2.5x
7. (1993 Q.3) The figure below shows a vernier calliper reading. The diameter of the object is
1 2cm

0 10

A 1.05cm B 1.06cm C 1.56cm D 1.60cm

DENSITY
It is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance
Density =

SI Unit of density
The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3or kgm-3)
Other units of density is gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3 or gcm-3)

ρx v

FACTORS THAT AFFECT DENSITY

1) Temperature
Density of a substance decreases with increase in temperature and vice visa. This is because:

10
  When the temperature of a substance is increased, it expands leading to increase in the
volume and since the mass is constant, the density reduces
 When the temperature of a substance is reduced, it contracts and the volume decreases and
since the mass is constant, the ratio of mass to volume becomes high (Density increases)
2) Pressure
Pressure only affects the density of gas. For a fixed mass of a gas, increase in pressure increases the
density of the gas and vice versa.
This is because; When the pressure of a given mass of a gas is increases, the gas molecules become
squeezed and occupy a small volume since the mass remains constant, the density increases.

Uses of density
It is used to;
 Identify materials
 Determine the purity of materials
 Choose light gasses for filling balloons

Notes
 Density of water is 1000kgm-3 at a temperature of c
 To change g/cm3 to kg/m3 then multiply the answer in g/cm3 by 1000 and the final answer
will be in kg/m3

Examples
a) Calculating density
1. An object of mass 500g has a volume of 200cm3. Find its density in;
i) g/cm3 ii) kg/m3
Solution
i) ii) In kg/m3

=
2500kg/m3
=2.5g/cm3
2. A cuboid of wood of mass 20g measures 5cm by 4cm by 2cm. Find its density
Solution
,

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 =0.5x1000kgm3
= 500kgm-3

b) Calculating mass
1. The density of copper is 8.9g/cm3.What is the mass of 100cm3 of copper
Solution

8.9=
m
2. An object has a volume of 4m3. If its density is 3kg/m3. Find its mass
Solution

c) Calculating volume
1. An object of mass 3kg has a density 0.5kg/m3. Find the volume in m3
Solution

6m3
2. An object has a mass of 600g. If its density is 0.5kgm-3. Find its volume in m3
Solution
M , M 0.6kg V

But , V=1.2m3

d) .Calculating the density of an irregular solid from given data

Here we first need to calculate the volume of the irregular solid from

Example:
When a piece of irregular solid of mass 200g was immersed in water in measuring cylinder. The
initial and final volume are 500cm3 and 600cm3 respectively. Calculate the density of the stone
Solution

12
 M=200g ,

Volume of irregular solid 100cm3

e) Calculate the density of liquid from given data

Here we first get the mass of the liquid from ( )

Where

Example
An empty beaker weighs 120g in air and weighs 180g when filled with 75cm3 of methylated spirit.
Find the density of the methylated spirit
Solution
120g
( )
60/75
-

f) Calculate density of the mixture

Here we get density from

Example
1) 4 of milk has mass of 5g and is mixed with 6 of water of mass 6g. What is the density of the
mixture.
Solution

Total volume volume of milk volume of water

= 1.1g/
10
2) 4g of oil of density 0.8g/ is mixed with 1g of alcohol of density 1.2g/ . Find the density of
the mixture.

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 =

Volume of oil= = =5

Volume of alcoh ( )

Density of mixture

Total volume = vol of oil +vol of alcohol Density of mixture ⁄

= Density of mixture

3) Liquid of volume 0.4 and density 900kg/ is mixed with liquid B of volume 0.35 and
density 800kg/ . Calculate the density of the mixture.
Solution
Total volume =0.4 +0.35
=0.75
Mass of liquid A=density of A x vol of A Total mass=280+360
=640kg
Density of mixture=640/00.73
Mass of liquid B =Density of B x volume of B =853.33kg/

EXERCISE:6
1) An object of mass 8g has a volume of 2 . Find its density in;
i) g/ ii) kg/
2) A piece of rubber has amass of 18g and volume of 10 .Find its density in
i) g ii) kg /
3) Calculate the mass of air in a cuboid measuring 4m by 6m by 3m. If the density of air is 1.2kg/
4) Calculate the volume of a block of polystyrene of mass 400g. If its density is 16kg

RELATIVE DENSITY (R.D)

Relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to density of an
equal volume of water
Formular for R.D

R.D= R.D =

R.D =

14
 Note,
R.D has no unit since its ratio of two similar units

DETERMINING R.D OF A LIQUID

In the laboratory, relative density of a liquid can be determined using a density bottle
Stopper  Weigh a clean empty density bottle and
record its mass ( )g
Density bottle  Fill it with a liquid and weight it again records
its mass ( )g
 Wipe the density bottle and fill it with water,

Procedure records its weight ( )g

Results
Mass of liquid = ( )g R.d of liquid =
Mass of water= ( )g
R.d of liquid =

Examples
1. The density of mercury is 13,600 kg/ and density of water is 1000kg/m3. Find the relative
density of mercury.

R.d of mercury = =

R.d of mercury = 13.6

2. A Density bottle weight 70g when empty, 94g when full of the liquid and 90g when full of water find;
i) R.d of the liquid ii) Density of the liquid
Solution
Mass empty bottle =70g =20g
Mass of bottle full with liquid Mb+l =94g
Mass of bottle full with liquid Mb+w = 90g
=
Mass of liquid = Mb+l -
R.D of liquid =`1.5
Density of liquid RD x Density of water
=24g
=1.2 x 1000
= mb+w -
= 1200kg/

3. An object weighs 4.92N in air and 3.87N when immersed in water. Find
i) RD of the object ii) Density of the object
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 Solution
Weight in air Wa 4.92N R.D 4.686
Weight in water 3.87N Relative density of object 4.686

RD of the object Density of object =

= 4.686 x 1000
RD
=4686 kg
RD ( - )

4. A block of wood weighs 0.98N in air and 0.63N when fully immersed in water, when the block is
immersed in a liquid of unknown density it weighs 0.7N. Find;
i) R.D of the solid iii) RD of the liquid
ii) Density of solid iv) Density of the liquid
Solution
i) RD of the solid=
iii) of the liquid
=

of the solid = 2.8 of liquid

of liquid
ii) Density of solid = of the solid v) Density of liquid of liquid
density of water density of water

28000kg/ =800kg/
EXERCISE: 7
1. The mass of an empty density bottle is 46g when fully filled with water it weights 96g and when full
of a liquid of unknown it weighs 86g- calculate
i) of the liquid ii) Density of the liquid
2. The mass of a density is 18 g when empty, 44 g when full of water and 39.84g when full of a second
liquid, calculate it
i) Relative density f the liquid ii) Density of the liquid (density ofwater)
3. A bottle full of water has a mass of 45g when full of mercury its mass is 360g if the mass of the
empty bottle is 20g. Calculate the
i) density of mercury ii) Density of mercury
4. A piece of aluminum weighs 80g in air and 50.37g when completely immersed in water calculate
the relative density of glass.

16
 UNEB
1. (2012 Q.13). Find the density of a rubber bung whose mass is 80 g and volume 40
A. 0.5 kg B. 2.0 kg C. 2000.0 kg D. 3200.0 kg
2. (2011 Q. 10). The density of a substance is the
A. Quantity of matter in a unit volume C. pull of gravity on a substance
B. Volume of a given unit quantity of matter D. space occupied by the substance
3. (2011 Q.30). A rectangular block has dimensions 1.0m x 1.5m x2.0m. If the density of the block is
300 kg , find its mass in kg.
A. B. C. D.
4. (2010 Q.6). A stone has mass of 27 g and volume 9 . Find its density in kg
kg B. kg C. kg D. kg
5. (2006 Q.10). A piece of metal of mass 120g is placed in a 100ml measuring cylinder containing
20ml of water. Find the density of the metal, If the water level rises to the 50ml mark
A 12g B 2.4 C 4.0g D 6.0 g
6. (2003 Q.11). A box of dimension 0.2m by 0.3m by 0.5m is full of a gas of density 200kg/
The mass of the gas is
A kg B kg C kg D kg
7. (2001 Q.11). A tin containing 6 x of part has a mass of 8 kg. If the mass of the empty tin
with the lid is 0.5kg calculate the density of the paint in

A B C D.

8. (2000 Q. 24). A piece of material of mass 200g has a density of 25 kg

Calculate its volume in
A B C D

9. (1999 Q.12). The following reading were recorded when measuring the density of a stone
Mass of the stone=25g
Volume of water = 25
Volume of water and stone= 35
What is the density of the stone

A g/ B g/ C 10g/ D g/

17
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND STANDARD FORM
Significant figure (sgf)
All non zero digits are significant, that is to say 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7,8,9
For example 0. 32 2sgf
1.563 4.sgf
Note
A zero is only a significant under the following condition
All zeros between non zero digits are significant
e.g 4.0006 has 5s.g.f
All zeros after a decimal point and following anon zero digits are significant
e.g 43.00 has 4s.g.f
A zero before a decimal point and zero(s) after a decimal point but before a non zero digit are not
significant.
e.g 0.2, 0.003, 0.0001, have 1s.g.f

Standard / scientific notation

A number is in standard form, when there is only one figure (not zero) before the decimal point.
i.e A x 10b
Where A is appositive number (1≤A ≤ 9) and b is ± integral number
Note
The power of 10 is positive if;
The decimal point is moved from right to
The number is ≥ 10
The power of 10 is negative if;
The decimal point is moved from left to right
The number is <10
The power of ten is zero if the number is ≥ 1 but < 10

Example
Write the following in standard form
i) 60 (ii) 6 (iii) 0.6 (iv) 125 (v) 26000
vi) 1856 (vii) 8.006 (viii) 0.008
Solution

18
Number standard form
60 = 6.0 x 101
6 = 6.0 x 100
0.6 = 6.0 x 10-1
125 = 1.25 x 102
26000 = 2.6 x 104
1856 = 1.856 x 103
8.006 = 8.006 x 100
0.008 = 8.0 x 10-3

EXERCISE: 8
1. Write the following numbers in scientific notation
a) 0.0046 b) 0.053 c)4
d) 1650000 e) 200 f) 50
2. Write the following fractions in standard notation
i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi)

3. Convert in S.I units and write in standard form

a) 5cm b) 5km c) 3mm d) 4minutes

19
 FORCES
Force is a push or pull that acts on an object
Or
Force is that which changes a body’s state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line.

Effects of force
When a force acts on a body the following may take place;
(i) A stationary object may move (iii) The object may change direction
(ii) A moving object comes to rest (iv) It may cause an object to change shape
(v) Speed of a moving object increases (acceleration)
(vi) Speed of a moving object decreases (deceleration)

S.I unit of force

The S.I unit of force is called Newton (N)
Definition
A Newton is a force which gives amass of 1kg an acceleration of 1ms-2.

Relation between force, mass and acceleration

If a force, F acts on a mass, M to produce an acceleration, a then

Where m is the mass in kg

a is acceleration in ms-2 F is a force in Newton

Example
1. Find the force that acts on a mass of 500g to produce an acceleration of 3ms-2.
Solution

M= = 0.5kg, a = 3ms-2 F=
F = 1.5N
F = ma
2. Find the acceleration produced when a force of 80N acts on a mass of 400g
Solution
M = 400g = 0.4kg, F = 80N a

F = ma a = 200

20
EXERCISE: 9
1. What force will act on a mass of 800g to produce an acceleration of
2. Find the mass on which a force of 150N will act to produce an acceleration

TYPES OF FORCES
There are various types of forces but the common types are
(i) centripetal force (iii) frictional force
(ii) gravitational force (iv) weight

1. Centripetal force
It’s a force which keeps bodies moving in a circular path and it’s directed towards the centre.
e.g Earth moving around the sun.

2. Gravitational force
It is a force which pulls all objects towards the centre of the earth.
The gravitational force pulls all objects at a particular place towards the centre of the earth with the
same acceleration of free falls called acceleration due to gravity.

Acceleration due to gravity, (g)

This is the rate of change of velocity with time of a free falling body.
The average value of g on earth is 9.8ms-2 but varies slightly from place to place. E.g the value of g
on the moon is about one sixth of g on the earth ( x 9.8 = 1.6ms-2)

Variation of g with altitude

The acceleration due to gravity, g depend on the distance from the centre of the earth. Since the
earth is not a perfect sphere, so at the equator the value of (g) is less then that at the poles.

3. Weight
It is a force exerted on a body at it’s free support due to the gravitational pull.
Differences between mass and weight
Mass Weight
Quantity of matter a body contains Force exerted on a body on it’s free supports
S.I unit is kilogram S.I unit is Newton
It is constant Varies from place to place
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
Measured using abeam balance Measured using a spring balance

21
 Why weight of the body varies
Weight of a body varies because the shape of the earth is not a perfect sphere so at the equator the
value of acceleration due to gravity is less than that at the poles this makes the weight of the body
to be less at equator than poles.

S.I unit of weight

The S.I unit of weight is Newton (N)

Relation between weight and mass

Weight is related to mass by the formula

Where m is mass in kg
g is gravitational acceleration in ms-2 w is weight in Newtons

Examples
1. If the acceleration due to gravity on earth is 10ms-2, what is the weight of the following;
i) 2kg ii) 500g iii) 2tonnes
Solution
i) W = mg W = mg iii) W = mg
g= , m = 2kg g= , m= g= , m = 2tonnes
W = 2 x 10 m= 2 x 1000kg
W = 0.5 x 10
W = 20N W = 2000 x 10
W = 5N
W = 20,000N

2. Find the mass of the following weight

a) 300N b) 100N c) 5N
Solution
g=
a) W = mg b) W = mg c) W = mg
300 = m x 10 100 = m x 10 5 = m x 10
m = 30kg m = 10kg m = 0.5kg
3. Find the weight of an astronaut whose mass is 60kg on;
a) The earth b) the moon
(On earth g = , and on moon g is 1/6 of g on earth)

22
 Solution
On earth, g = b) on moon, g =
w = mg

W = 100N
EXERCISE:10
1. A mass of 1kg has a weight of 5N on a certain planet.
What is the weight of the following in that planet
i) 5kg ii) 100g iii) 50g iv) 4tonnes
2. On earth g = , on Plato g = . Find the weight on each planet for a body of 10kg mass.

UNEB QUESTIONS
1. (2012 Q.27). The force that keeps a body moving at a constant speed in a circle is
A. gravitational force C. centrifugal force
B. elastic force D. centripetal force
2. (2011 Q.26). A body of mass 1500 g is placed on a planet where the acceleration due to gravity is
two-fifth that of the earth. Find the weight of the body on the planet.(Acceleration due to gravity of
the earth = )
A. B. C. D.

3. (2010 Q.13). A body of mass 30 kg weighs 60N on planet X. Which one of the following
statements is true?
A. The acceleration due to gravity on X is greater than that on the earth
B. The mass of the body is greater on X than it is on the earth
C. The acceleration due to gravity on X is less than that on the earth
D. The mass of the body is less on X than it is on the earth
4. (2009 Q.6) Find the force that would give a amass of 400g an acceleration of 8ms-2
A. 0.05N B. 3.20N C. 20.00N D. 50.00N
5. (2009 Q.32). A body which is accelerating
A. experiences zero force C. travels with increasing velocity
B. decreases its velocity to zero D. travels only in a straight line
6. (2009 Q.35).
0.5kg F

23
Figure above shows a block of mass 0.5kg pulled from rest a long a frictionless table by a steady force F
and a speed of in 2s. Find F
A. 0.125N B. 1N C. 2N D. 4N
7. (2005 Q.12). Force is given by the product of
A. Displacement and velocity C. mass and acceleration due to gravity
B. Displacement and mass D. Velocity and mass
8. (2003 Q. 2). A Newton is defined as the
A. unit of force
B. force which produces an acceleration of 1ms-2
C. force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1ms-2
D. force which gives any mass an acceleration 1ms-2.
9. (1998 Q.18). Which of the following physical properties changes when a body is moved from the
earth to the moon.
A. mass B. volume C. weight D. density
8. (1998 Q.1)
a) Distinguish between the weight and amass of a body
b) The force of gravity on the moon is one sixth of that on the earth
Determine the weight of a 12kg mass on the moon (g = 10ms-2)

FRICTION
It is a force which opposes relative motion between two bodies in contact.

Limiting friction
This is the maximum friction between any two surfaces on verge of moving over each other.

Co-efficient of friction (µ)

a ms-2 FR = µR
Where R = mg FR = µmg
F FR is the frictional force
µR Table
µ is the coefficient of friction
mg
Coefficient of friction is the ratio of the R is the normal reaction and m is mass

frictional force to the normal reaction g acceleration due to gravity

Note
µ=
Coefficient of friction µ does not have units.
24
 Factors which affect limiting friction
(i) Frictional force between solid surfaces depends on;
(ii) The nature of the surfaces that are in contact.
(iii) The magnitude of the force causing the motion.
(iv) The weight of the object

TYPES OF FRICTION
There are two types of friction, namely
(i) Static friction
(ii) Dynamic or sliding or kinetic friction
i) Static friction
This is a frictional force between two surfaces that are not sliding over each other
Experiment to measure coefficient of static friction

Block of wood
R
 Gradually increase the weight F on the mass
Pulley hanger until the block just begins to move.
 Read and record the weight F
 Coefficient of static friction =
mg
F

 Attach alight string to a block of wood. Where R is the equals to the force pressing

 Suspend amass hanger from a string and pass the two surfaces together
it over a smooth pulley as shown in the
diagram above;
ii) Dynamic friction
This is a friction force between two surfaces that are moving relative to each other.

Experiment to measure coefficient of dynamic friction

R
 Gradually increase the weight F on the mass
Block of wood

Pulley
hanger.
 When the block is about to move give it a

mg
push so that it moves with a constant speed
F
 Read and record the total weight F
 Attach alight string to a block of wood Coefficient of static friction =
 Suspend a mass hanger from a string and
Where R is the equals to the force pressing
pass it over a smooth pulley as shown above
the two surfaces together

25
 Examples
3. A car of mass 1500kg is moving along a horizontal road with a uniform speed. If the friction
between the tyres and the road surface is 5000N, calculate the coefficient of friction between the
tyres and the road surface.
Solution
M = 1500kg µ= µ=
f = 5000N
but R = mg µ= ⁄
4. A block of wood of mass 2kg is placed on a table top. Find the limiting friction of the wood and table
if coefficient of friction is 0.2
Solution
μ =0.2, M = 2kg, g = 10m F = 4N

5. A lorry of mass 10 tones is moving over a leveled road with coefficient of friction 0.25. Find the
friction force between the tyres of the lorry and the road surface.
Solution μ = 0.25, g = 10m
M = 10 tones M= 10000kg F= 25000N

EXERCISES : 11
1. A body of mass 500g experiences a frictional force of 2.5N. find the coefficient of friction if such a
body is moving on a level ground
2. A tractor moving on a level road experiences a friction force of 8000N. If the coefficient of friction
between the tyres and the ground is 0.1, find the mass of the tractor
3. Find the friction force between the feet of a human being of mass 60kg and the coefficient of friction
between the feet and the horizontal ground being 0.45

Laws of friction
(i) Friction always opposes motion
(ii) Friction is independent of area of contact but depends on the nature of the surface
(iii) Limiting friction and sliding friction are both proportional to the normal reaction (ie F ∝R)

USES/ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
(i) Helps in writing
(ii) Helps in the movement of people, animals and vehicles without sliding
26
 (iii) Helps in lighting a match stick
(iv) Helps in braking systems of vehicles and individual machines
(v) Helps in gripping objects firmly
(vi) Heat produced can be used to do other things
(vii) It is used to generate static electricity
(viii) Helps in painting and bathing etc

Problems/disadvantages of friction
(i) It causes unnecessary noise and heat
(ii) Causes wear and tear of surfaces in contact
(iii) Friction reduces efficiency of machines

Ways of reducing friction

(i) Lubrication (oiling and greasing)
(ii) Using ball bearing
(iii) Using rollers
(iv) Making surfaces in contact smooth
(v) By streamlining objects eg fish, boats, submarines etc

FLUID FRICTION/VICOUS DRAG

It’s a retarding force which acts on a body moving through a fluid due to the viscosity of the fluid

Viscosity

It is defined as internal friction between adjacent layers moving at different speeds

Factors which determine fluid friction

1 Surface area 3 Nature o fluids (viscosity)
2 Velocity of the moving body 4 Temperatures

Note:
Viscosity of liquid decreases as temperature of liquid increases while that of gasses increases with
temperature

27
 SCALARS AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
a) Scalar quantity
This is a quantity which has only magnitude or size.

Examples
Mass, time, length, distance, volume, density, temperature, energy, power, speed etc

b) Vector quantity
This is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

Examples
Weight, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, pressure and magnetic fields,
electric fields.

RESULTANT / NET FORCE

Resultant force is a single force which has an effect of two or more forces acting the same point.

Forces acting in a straight line

a) Forces acting in the same direction
The resultant force of two or more forces acting in the same direction is obtained and by addition.

Example
1:Two forces 120N and 250N act on body W in the same direction. Find the resultant force.
Solution
120N FR = 250N + 120N
250N W
FR = 370N
Resultant force = 370N
2. Find the resultant force in the following
i)
3N FR = 3 + 5
5N
FR = 8N
ii)
12N
9+12+8
9N
8N
FR = 29N

28
 b) Forces acting in opposite direction
When forces are acting in opposite direction the resultant force is obtained by subtracting the
smaller force from the larger force and the resultant acts in the direction of the larger force .

Examples
1. Two forces 900N and 250N act on a body P as shown below. Find the resultant force.
250N P 900N

Solution
P (900 – 250) N

FR = 900 – 250
FR = 650N
2. Find the resultant force in the following
(i) 12N 5N (ii) 2N 15N (iii) 8N 8N
Solution
(i) (ii) iii)
FR = 8 – 8 = 0N
(12-5)N (15-2)N
FR = 12-5 = 7N FR = 15 – 2 = 13N

c) Forces acting at right angles

When forces are acting at right angles, then the resultant force is obtained by using Pythagoras
theorem.

EXAMPLES
1. Find the resultant force of the following forces
6N FR = √
FR = √
P 8N
FR = 10N
FR = √

2. 3 force of 3N, 10N and 6N act on a body P of mass 2kg as shown below
3N

6N P 10N

Determine;

29
 a) Resultant force on P b) Acceleration of the body
Solution FR = √
a) FR = √
3N
FR = √
P (10 – 6)N FR = 5N
3N
b) FR = ma
P 4N
5 = 2a
a = 2.5ms-2

3. 4 forces of 170N, 240N, 250N, and 300N acts on a body of mass 100kg as shown below
170N

300N P 240N

250N

Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and the acceleration.

Solution
(300 – 240)N P FR = √
FR = 100N
(250 – 170)N

60N P Also FR = ma
100 = 100a
80N
a = 1ms-2
4. If a body experiences an acceleration of . Find its mass
6N

3N P

2N

Solution FR = 5N
(6 -2)N FR = ma

3N P m = 0.83kg

FR = √

30
 UNEB
1. A boat in a river flowing Eastwards at 12 is acted upon by wind blowing Northwards at a
velocity of 5 . Find the resultant velocity of the boat
A. 7.0 B. 13.0 C. 17.0 D. 169.0
2. (2010 Q.16). A body moving on a horizontal surface experiences a frictional force of 5N. If the
normal reaction on the body is 20N, find the mass of the body.
A. 0.5 kg B. 1.5 kg C. 2.0 kg D. 2.5 kg
3. (2009 Q.23)
Mass
Rough surface
F

Figure above shows a constant force, F acting on a mass placed on a rough surface. Which of the
following statements about the mass is true?
A. Acceleration is constant if F is equal to frictional force
B. Velocity is constant if F is greater than frictional force
C. Momentum is constant if F is equal to frictional force
D. It moves to the left if frictional force is greater than F
4. (2008 Q.34)
15N 35N Table
BLOCK

Two forces of 15N and 35N act on a block placed on a smooth table as shown above. Find the
resultant force on the block.
A. 20N B.50N C.525N D.1000N
3. A block of wood of mass 4kg is placed on a smooth table and two forces applied on it as shown
below.
F 4kg 10N

If the acceleration of the body is 2m/s2 in the direction of the 10N force, find F
A. 2N B. 2.5N C. 6N D. 30N
4. (2007 Q.3). The force that gives a body of mass 1kg an acceleration of 1ms-2 is called
A. weight B. Newton C. gravity D. friction
5. (2007 Q.11). Force of 10N, 8N and 4N act on object O as shown below. Find the magnitude of the
resultant force on O
10N
A. 10.0N B. 16.1N
C. 22.0N D. 100N
8N
O

4N

31
6. (2003 Q.27). The diagram below shows 3 forces 8N, 6N and 16N acting on a particle X. Find the
magnitude of the resultant force.

6N A. 10N B. 14N
C. 18N D. 30N
8N 4kg 16N

7. (1999 Q. 7). Find the force required to give a mass of 500g an acceleration of 2x10-2ms-2
A. 1 x 10-2N B. 1 x 10-1N C. 1 x 102N D. 1 x 104N
8. (1997 Q.1). Which of the following group consists of vectors only
A. momentum, acceleration, time, energy
B. speed, velocity, displacement, energy
C. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force
D. velocity, work, power, momentum
9. (1997 Q. 27). Which one of the following is / are true statement(s) about friction
i) It does not oppose friction
ii) It causes wearing of surfaces e.g. tyres
iii) It decreases as weight of a body decreases
iv) It can be reduced by applying oil between surfaces.
A. (i) only B. (i) and (iii) only C. (ii) and (iv) only D. All
10. (1994 Q.8). A block of mass 10kg accelerates uniformly at a rate of 3ms-2 along a horizontal table
when a force of 40N acts on it. Find the frictional force between the block and the table.
A. 10N B. 13.3N C. 30N D. 70N
11. (1992 Q.34). Two forces of 5N and 12N act at a point at right angle to each other. Find the magnitude
of the resultant force.
A. 7N B. 13N C. 17N D. 60N
12. (1991 Q. 24). If forces acting on a train moving along a level straight track are equal and opposite,
the train will .
A. come to a stop C. Move with a faster speed
B. accelerate uniformly D. Move with a constant speed
13. (1987 Q. 23)
F Three forces act on a body as shown in the
6N
above figure. If the forces are in equilibrium.
Calculate F
8N
A. 20N B. 14N
C. 10N D. 3.7N

32
14. (1988 Q.23) A block of wood is placed on a smooth table and two forces are applied on it as shown
in the diagram below;
F 4kg 10N

If the acceleration of the body is 2ms-2 in the direction of the 10N force. Find force F
A. 2N B. 2.5N C. 6N D. 30N

SECTION B (g = 10ms-2)
12. (1997 Q.1)
a. i) What is meant by dynamic friction?
ii) Describe, with the aid of a diagram, an experiment to determine the limiting Friction
between two surfaces in contact.
i) State any two factors which affect friction.
b) Give two applications of friction
13. (1998 Q. 2). Two forces of 6N and 10N act at the same time on a body P of mass 500g as shown in
the diagram below;

6N P 10N

Find (i) the resultant force on P

(i) The acceleration of P
14. (2003 Q.41)
a) What is a vector quantity?
b) Two forces of 30N and 40N act perpendicularly on an object of mass 10kg as shown below;
30N i) The magnitude of the resultant
force on the object.
40N
ii) The acceleration of the object
Calculate
c) The figure below shows the resultant force R of two forces P and Q.
R makes an angle of 60o with a horizontal and P is 50N.
Find the magnitude of;
i) Q ii) R
R
Q
600
P

33
 MACHINES
A machine is a device which simplifies work.
In a machine an effort (E) is applied to move a load (L)

Simple machines
These are devices that work with one movement and change the size and direction of force.

Examples
Levers, pulleys, wheel and Axle; incline planes, Gears and screws

LEVERS
A lever is a rigid bar which is free to move about a fixed point known as the fulcrum or pivot.

Classes of levers
There are three classes of levers, namely;
i) The first class lever ii) The second class lever iii) The third class lever.

i) First class levers:

Here the pivot (fulcrum) is between the load and the effort.
Examples: sea-saw, pair of scissors, pliers etc.

ii) Second – class lever:

The load is between the effort and pivot.
Examples: wheel barrow, Nutcracker, bottle opener.

iii) Third class lever:

The effort is between the load and the pivot.
Examples: Human arm, spade, fishing rod, pair of tong, forceps.

TERMS USED
i) Mechanical advantage (M.A)
It is defined as ratio of load to effort.
Mechanical advantage =

34
 Examples
1. A lever was used to overcome a load of 500N by applying an effort of 100N. Find the M.A of the
lever.
Solution
L = 500N, M.A = ? M.A = ⁄
E = 200N, M.A = ⁄ M.A = 5
2. A lever is used to overcome a load of 2000N. If the M.A 2. Calculate the effort applied
Solution
L = 2000N, E=? 2= ⁄
M.A = 2 M.A = ⁄ E = 1000N
Note
Mechanical advantage has no units because it’s a ratio of two similar units.

ii) VELOCITY RATIO (V.R)

It is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load

The principle of work

The work output is less than the work input

Reason
Extra effort is required to overcome friction in the moving parts of machines.

iii) EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE ( )

It is defined as the percentage ratio of the work output to work input.

But work output = work done by load

Work input = work done by effort

Relationship between M.A, V.R and η

35
 Note
The efficiency of a machine is always less than 100%
Reason
- Because of frictional forces between the moving parts of machines
- For the case of pulleys, other reasons are;
 The weight of the string
 The weight of the movable pulley and
 The weight of lower movable block

How to improve efficiency of a machine

Efficiency of a machine can be increased by;
i) lubricating the moving parts of the machine
ii) using light strings and pulleys

Graph of M.A against loads

Explanation
MA
A small increase in load causes large increase in
n
M.A. On further increase of the load, the graph
begins to level as M.A approaches it maximum
value and then finally becomes constant.
Load The graph levels exactly at the value of the M.A.
Graph of η against load
A small increase in load causes a large
ɳ

100% increase in η. On further increase of the load,

the graph begins to level as η approaches it
maximum value and finally becomes constant.
Load

Note: The graph levels below 100% for practical machines, however for a perfect machine, it levels
exactly at 100%

Example
1. A machine of V.R 5 is used to raise load of weight 200N using an effort of 50N;
i) Calculate the M.A ii) The efficiency of the machine
Solution
36
 E = 50N, V.R = 5, L = 200N, M.A =? η =? ii) η= x 100%
i) M.A = ⁄
η = x100%
M.A = η = 80%
M.A = 4
2. A machine is used to lift a load through a distance of 10m. If the distance moved by the effort is 30m.
Calculate the V.R of the machine
Solution

V.R = V.R = V.R = 3

3. A machine which is 75% efficient uses an effort of 100N to lift a load of 300N. Find the velocity ratio
of the machine.
Solution
η= 75%, L = 300N, E. 100N η= x 100% V.R = 4
M.A = ⁄
75% 100%
M.A = 3
V.R = 3

4. An effort of 50N is used to move a load of 200N through a distance of 80m. If during this time the
effort moves through a distance of 400m, calculate the following;
i) M.A ii) V.R iii) η
Solution
E = 50N, L = 200N, V.R =
d.E = 400m, d.L = 80m
V.R = 5
M.A =

M.A =

M.A = 4

V.R =

37
PULLEYS
A pulley is a wheel with a groove in which a string passes.

Types of pulleys
There are three common types of pulleys
i) single fixed pulley
ii) single movable pulley
iii) block and tackle system

a) A single fixed pulley

A single fixed pulley is a type of pulley fixed on a support as shown below

Applications of single fixed pulley

(i) Builders often use a single fixed pulley to lift bricks, cement, sand etc.
(ii) It can also be used to raise a flag to the top of a flag pole.

Note: For a single fixed pulley

 Effort distance is equal to load distance i.e V.R = 1
 The tension is the same throughout the rope.
 Effort is equal to load for an ideal machine i.e M.A = 1

Advantages of single fixed pulley

It changes the direction of the effort applied.

M.A of a single fixed pulley

Neglecting the weight of the string and frictional forces in the pulley
M.A = But L = E M.A = 1

In practice, the actual M.A is slightly less than 1 because of frictional forces in the moving parts of
the pulley.

38
b) A single movable pulley
A single movable pulley is a pulley which moves a long a rope with the load attached to it.

E E

Note: For single movable pulley

 Effort distance = twice the load distance i.e V.R = ½
 In ideal pulley i.e (light and smooth) L = 2E i.e M.A = 2

M.A of a single movable pulley

Neglecting the weight of the string and frictional force in the pulley

M.A = M.A =

But L = 2E M.A = 2

c). BLOCK AND TACKLE

It consists of both the fixed and movable system with a single rope passing over the groove of each
pulley. In a block and tackle the V.R is given by the number of pulleys making up the system.
V.R can also be got by counting the number of strings, supporting the lower movable block.

Note:
 For an even number of pulleys, both the movable and fixed parts of the system have an
equal number of pulleys and the string states from upper fixed part.
 For an odd number of pulleys the upper fixed part has one pulley more than the lower
movable part and the string starts from the lower block.

Two pulleys (V.R = 2)

39
Three pulleys (V.R = 3)

OR

E E

Four pulleys (V. R = 4)

OR

E E

Five pulley (V.R = 5)

OR

E E

M.A of a block and tackle system

 The M.A of an ideal block and tackle system is the number of pulleys in the system or the
number of strings supporting the lower movable system.
 The M.A of a practical pulley is less than the number of pulleys in the system or less than the
number of strings supporting the lower movable system.

Practical applications of block and tackle

They are commonly used in cranes, break downs and lifts to raise heavy loads.

40
Example
a) In the figure below
i) Find the V.R
ii) Find how far the load is raised if the effort

20N
moves down by 2m
iii) Calculate the mechanical advantage
iv) What is the efficiency of the system?
40N

b) Explain what happens to the efficiency of the system in (a) above if the load is much
(i) less than 40N ii) More than 40N
c) Draw a sketch graph to show how mechanical advantage of the system in (a) varies with the load.
b) Give two practical applications where the pulley systems are used.
Solution
a) i) V.R = 3 (number of pulley) iii) M.A =

M.A =
ii) V.R = 3, effort distance = 2m
M.A = 2
iv)

Load distance =
η = 66.7%
= 0.67m

b) i) If the load is less than 40N, the efficiency will be less than 66.7%
ii) If the load is more than 40N, the efficiency will remain constant at 66.7%.

c) The graph of M.A against load

M.A

Load (N)

The graph levels at 2 since the M.A of the system

41
INCLINED PLANES
An inclined plane is a slope which allows a load to be raised more gradually by using a smaller
effort than if were lifted vertically upwards
V.R of inclined planes

L
F h

EXAMPLES
1. A load of 150N is raised through a height of 2m by moving it along an inclined plane of
length 10m using an effort of 50N. Find;
i) The M.A ii) V.R iii) of the inclined plane
Solution

M.A

M.A = 3

V.R

2.
i) L= 1m, h= 20cm = m

1m
10N 20cm

20N θ V.R =

V.R = 5
The diagram above shows a brick of weight
20N being pulled up a flat incline by a steady ii) M.A =

force of 10N. What is? M.A =

i. The velocity ratio of the system M.A = 2
ii. What is the mechanical advantage of
iii)
the system?
iii. What is the efficiency of the system
Solution η= 40%
42
Exercise: 12
1. In the figure aside, find
i) M.A
ii) V.R
2N 2m

10N θ

2. Given the simple machine below. Find

i) M.A
ii) V.R
5N 4m
iii)
20N θ
3m

3. A wooden plank 3m long is used to raise a load of 1200N through a vertical height of 60cm. If the
frictional force between the load and the plane is 40N. Calculate
a) The effort required
b) The M.A [Work input = work out put + work done by friction.]

WHEEL AND AXLE

Wheel of radius R
Axle of radius r
R r

E L
Effort
Load

When the effort is applied to the wheel, the load is raised by a string attached to the axle (shaft) as
shown in the diagram below.
For one complete turn, the effort moves through a distance equals to the circumference of the
wheel while the load moves through a distance equals to the circumference of the axle.
V.R OF WHEEL AND AXLE

V.R

43
EXAMPLE
A machine consisting of wheel of radius 50cm and an axle of radius 10cm is used to lift a load of
400N using an effort of 100N. Find;
i) M.A ii) V.R iii) η
Solution

M.A =

M.A = V.R =

M.A = 4 η= 80%
GEARS
A gear is a device which consists of a set of toothed wheels.
Driven Gear

Driving Gear

Shaft of larger gear

Shaft of smaller gear

Load
Effort

V.R OF A GEAR
Whichever the driving and the driven wheel the V.R is given by

Example
In a gear system, the number of teeth on the driving wheel is 10 and the teeth on the driven wheel
are 40. If the system is able to lift a load of 300N with an effort of 100N. Find;
i) V.R ii) M.A iii) η
iv. Distance moved by the effort if the distance moved by the load is 5m
Solution

i) iii)

V.R =

V.R = 4

ii) M.A = iii) V.R =

M.A =

M.A = 3
Effort distance = 20m
44
THE SCREW

The screw is a slope turning around a pole. It is like spiral stair case. A screw goes in or comes out
of a bolt or wood.
It is an effectual feature of machines such as the car screw jack.
For a complete turn of the effort, the load moves through a distance equal to the pitch and the
effort moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the handle.

DEFINITION
Pitch is the distance between successive threads on a screen.
V.R of the screw

Example
In a screw jack the length of the handle is 56cm and the screw pitch is 2.5mm. If it is used to raise a
load of 2000N, calculate;
i) The effort required
iii) M.A (Take π )
ii) V.R
Solution
L= 56cm,

screw pitch = 2.5mm

screw pitch = m

Using principle of work

V.R = 1407

45
 HYDRAULIC PRESS
E
Load Volume displaced by small piston = volume
y
used to raise the load.
Piston of area A1 Piston of area A2
x A1 x = A2Y

But V.R =

If the effort falls by x, the load is raised by

distance y, the volume of liquid displaced is
the same.

Example
A hydraulic press has a large piston of radius 14cm and a smaller piston of diameter of 7cm. It is
used to lift a load of 800N using a given maximum effort. If the press is 95 efficient, find;
i) V.R ii) M.A iii) maximum effort applied
Solution
L= 800N , E= ? η = 95% iii) M.A =
R2 = 14cm , R1=3.5cm ii) η = 15.2 =
i)
95 =
Effort =
M.A = Effort = 52.6N

V.R = M.A = 15.2

V.R = 16

UNEB
1. (1987 Q.36). Find the efficiency of a machine which requires and effort of 200N to raise a load of
1800N if its velocity ratio is 10
A 30% B 60% C 67% D 90%
2. (1998 Q.34 )

46
 The figure shows alight, smooth pulley used
E E
to lift a load of 16N with an effort E. The
mechanical advantage of the system is
16N A 128 B 2
C. 1 D

3. (1991Q.26)
The block and tackle system in the figure has
an efficiency of 80%. The load which can be
10N lifted by an effort of 10N is
A 4N B 8N C 40N D 50N
load

4. (1998 Q.6) Calculate the effort when a load 0f 72N is raised using a block and tackle system of 5
pulleys and efficiency of 80 .
A 11.52N B 18N C 57.6N D 288N
5. (2006 Q.4)
Calculate the efficiency of the pulley system
in the diagram. If the minimum effort needed
E
to raise the load of 210N is 90N.
A. B.
load
C. D.

6. ( 2010 Q.3). Which of the following are second class levers?

(i) see saw (iii) pair of tongs
(ii) wheel barrow (iv) nut cracker
A. (i) and (ii) only B. (ii) and (iii) only C. (iii) and (iv) D. (ii) and (iv) only

Section B
7. (1992 Q.6)
a) State what is meant by each of the following terms as applied to simple machines
i) Mechanical advantage ii)Efficiency
b) (i) Give two reasons why the efficiency of any simple machine is always less than 100%.
ii) Give two ways in which the efficiency of a machine can be increased.
c) The figure shows a load of 10N being raised slowly by a simple frictionless pulley system.

47
 ii) Calculate the effort required to lift the load

E
if the mass of the pulley is 0.2kg
iii) If the load is raised through a distance of
5m in 5seonds, calculate the efficiency of
load
the system
i) What is the velocity ratio of the system

8. (1994 Q.8)
R = 40cm The figure shows a wheel and axle system.
r =10cm
When an effort of 300N is applied, a load of
900N is raised though a distance of 1m.
Calculate;
Effort
a) The velocity ratio
Load
b) The efficiency of the system

9. (1999 Q.2) a) Define the following terms

i) Mechanical advantage ii) Velocity ratio
b) The diagram in the figure below shows a pulley system used to raise a load
i. What is the velocity ratio of the system?
ii. Find how far the load is raised if the effort
E moves down by 4m.
iii. Calculate the effort required to raise a load of
800N. If the mechanical advantage of the
system is 4.
iv.Calculate the efficiency of the system

c) Explain what happens to the efficiency of the system in (b) above if the load is much
i) Less than 800N ii) More than 800N
d) Draw of sketch graph to show how mechanical advantage of the system in (b) varies with the load
e) Give two practical applications where pulley systems are used.

10. (2001 Q.42)

48
 450N
150N

Two gear wheels A and B with 80 and 20 teeth respectively lock into each other. They are fastened
on axles of equal diameter such that weight of 150N attached to a string wound around the other
axle as shown; Find
i) V.R (ii) Efficiency of the system

11. . (2007 Q.1) a) What is meant by;

i) Velocity ratio of a machine? ii) Pitch of a screw?
b) A screw jack with a lever arm of 56cm and a pitch of 2.5mm is used to raise a load of 800N. If its
efficiency is 25%. Find;
i) The velocity ratio ii) Mechanical advantage (Take = )

c) Describe an experiment to show how the mechanical advantage of a block and take pulley system
with velocity ratio 4 varies with the load.

12. Two gear wheels P and Q with 25 and 50 teeth respectively lock into each other. They are
fastened on axles of equal diameters such that a weight of 400N attached to a string wound
around one axle raises a load of 600N attached to a string wound around the other axle.
Calculate;
a) (i) the velocity ratio when Q drive P
(ii) The efficiency of the system
b) (i) velocity ratio when P drives Q
(ii) The efficiency of the system
13. (2010 Q.41). Figure below shows a pulley system supporting a load 600 N.
Find the;

P
(i) tension in the string
(ii) value of P if the mechanical advantage is 3

load 600 N

49
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

State of matter
There are three states of matter namely;
i) Solids such as metal, stones, wood etc
ii) Liquid e.g. paraffin, milk, water etc
iii) Gas e.g. air, oxygen, hydrogen etc.

Difference in the three states of matter

Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of Particles are closely packed in Particles are fairly packed Particles are far apart
particles a regular pattern called lattice closely in an irregular from each other
pattern
Intermolecular Have strong intermolecular Weak intermolecular Very weak
force forces of attraction forces of attraction intermolecular forces
Shape Have Definite shape No definite shape No definite shape
Mobility of Particles are immobile do not Particle move randomly Move randomly at
particles move freely throughout the liquid higher velocities
Rate of Very little in some solids Low in liquid High in gases
diffusion
Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

Kinetic theory of matter states that;
Matter is made up of small particles called molecular atoms that are in continuous random motion
and the speed of movement of the particles is directly proportional to temperature.

The kinetic theory of matter can be proved using;

i) Brownian motion and
ii) Diffusion

50
 BROWNIAN MOTION
Experiment to illustrate Brownian motion (To proof kinetic theory of matter using Brownian
motion)
 Place smoke particles in a smoke cell
 Illuminate the smoke particles from one side of the smoke cell
 Observe the smoke cell using a microscope from above as shown in the diagram
Microscope

Source of light Glass rod Smoke cell

Smoke particles

Observation
 Small silvery white particles (smoke particles) are seen moving in a continuous random
motion
Explanation
 The continuous random motion of the smoke particles in due to collision with air. Molecules
which are in a state of continuous random motion.

Effect of temperature on Brownian motion

 When the temperature of the smoke cell is increased, the smoke particles are seen moving
faster.
Explanation
 The increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules hence they move
faster than before.

CHANGE OF STATE
a) Heating of matter
When a solid is heated, it changes to liquid at a constant temperature called melting point, this
process is called melting or fusion.
On further heating, the liquid changes to vapour at constant temperature called the boiling point.
The process is called boiling or evaporation.
i) Melting

51
This is the change from a solid to a liquid at a constant temperature
Melting point
Is unique temperature at which a solid melts to a liquid

Factors affecting melting point of a solid

1. Presence of dissolved substances
Melting point of a solid is lowered by presence of dissolved substances
2. Pressure
Melting point is lowered by increasing the pressure especially for substances that contract in
melting like ice.

ii) Boiling
Is the heating of liquids to the extent of bubbles coming from the bottom to the top.
Note:
Boiling occurs when internal saturated vapour pressure is equal to the external pressure.

Factors affecting boiling point of a liquid

1. Dissolved impurities
When an impurity such as salt is added to water, the boiling point rises.
2. Pressure
A liquid boils when internal saturated vapour pressure is equal to the external pressure, so when
pressure is changed the boiling point is also altered ie decrease in pressure decreases the boiling
point.

iii) Evaporation
It is the change of a liquid into it’s gaseous state

Factors affecting evaporation

1. Temperature. Increase in temperature increases evapouration
2. Pressure
3. Surface area
4. Movement of wind
5. Nature of liquid

52
 Differences between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
1. Takes place throughout the liquid 1. Takes place at the surface of the liquid
2. Occurs at a fixed temperature 2. Occurs at all temperatures
3. It is a rapid process 3. Slow process

b) Cooling of matter
When a gas or vapour is cooled, it condenses to liquid at a constant temperature called
condensation point. The process is called condensation.
On further cooling, the liquid changes solid at a constant temperature called freezing point. The
process is called freezing or solidifying.

Diagram showing changes of state of matter

Melting Boiling
Solid Liquid Gas
Freezing Condensation

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
The properties of matter are based on the behavior of its molecules. This is seen in the following;
i) Molecular force iii) Capillarity v) Elasticity
ii) Diffusion iv) Surface tension

a) Molecular forces
Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction and repulsion between molecules of matter. The
molecules may be of the same substance or different substances.
Types of molecular forces
There are two types of molecular forces namely;
Cohesion and adhesion forces

i) Cohesion
This is a force of attraction between molecules of the same substance
E.g – forces of attraction between water molecules
- Forces of attraction between mercury molecules

53
 ii) Adhesion
This is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances
E.g – The force of attraction between water molecules and glass molecules.
- The force of attraction between mercury molecules and glass molecules.
Note:
The magnitude of cohesion and adhesion determines;
1. The ability of a liquid to wet glass
2. The shape of liquid meniscus in contact with a solid
3. The rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube.

1. The adhesion of water to glass is stronger than the cohesion of water hence when water is spilled on
a clean glass; it wets the glass and spreads out into a thin field
Water
Glass

On the other hand, the cohesion of mercury is greater than adhesion of mercury to glass hence
when mercury spills on a clean glass, it forms small spherical droplets.
Mercury
Glass

2. When water is poured into a clean vessel e.g a measuring cylinder, it’s meniscus curves upwards
(concave meniscus).

water

Adhesion greater than Cohesion

This is because adhesion of water to glass is greater than the cohesion of water molecules.
On the other hand, when mercury is poured into a clean glass vessel, the meniscus curves
downwards (convex meniscus).

Mercury

Cohesion greater than adhesion

This is because cohesion of mercury is greater than the adhesion of mercury to glass.

54
b) Capillarity
It is the rising (elevation) or falling (depression) of the surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
 If a capillary tube is dropped into water or any other liquid which wets the glass the liquid
rises in the tube.
Capillary tube

water
Adhesion greater than cohesion

 However, if a capillary tube is dropped into mercury the mercury depresses in the tube.
Capillary tube

Cohesion greater than adhesion

Mercury

Effect of the size of diameter of capillary tube

The size of the diameter of capillary tube determines the extent to which rise and fall occurs.
 Water rises higher is a capillary tube of smaller diameter than the one of larger diameter as
show

Water

 Mercury depresses dipper in capillary tube of smaller diameter than the one of large
diameter as show below;

Mercury

Applications of capillarity
 Absorption of paraffin (kerosene) by wicks of stove lamps.
 Absorption of water by plant roots
 Absorption of water by a towel
 Helps blotting paper to absorb a liquid (ink)

55
Disadvantages of capillarity
Absorption of water by buildings, well-constructed house have damp proof Polythenes which
prevent capillary attraction of moisture from the ground that could make the wall collapse.

c) Surface tension
This is the force on a liquid surface that makes the liquid surface to behave as if it is covered with a
thin elastic membrane.
OR
It is a tangential force in the liquid surface acting normally per unit length a cross any line in the
surface.
Example of surface tension
 A needle floating in water
 A boat floating in water
 Insects walking in water

Experiment to show surface tension in a liquid

 Place a blotting paper on water surface
 Gently place a needle on the blotting paper and observe
Blotting paper
Needle

Beaker

Water

Observation
After some time the blotting paper sinks to the bottom but the needle remains floating on the water.

How to reduce or destroy surface tension

 Strong heating or increasing temperature reduces surface tension
 Impurities reduce surface tension e.g Detergent solutions like omo, Nomi, Ariel
- Soap solutions - Oil etc.

56
d) Diffusions
It is defined as the movement of molecules from a region of their high concentration to region of
their low concentration.
Diffusion is extremely slow in solids, average in liquids and very fast in gasses and this is because
gases have weak forces of attraction.

Factors which affect the rate of diffusion

i) Temperature
The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher
the speed of the molecules and hence the higher the rate of diffusion.

ii) Pressure
The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to pressure. This is because at high pressure gas
molecules are squeezed, they collide frequently and move faster than at high pressure.

iii) Size of the diffusing molecules

Smaller molecules diffuse faster than large molecules. This is because large molecules occupy more
space than smaller molecules.

iv) Size of the pores across which molecules diffuse

The rate of diffusion of a gas across a porous material is directly proportional to the size of pores.
This is because large pores allow many gas molecules to pass through in a unit time as compared to
the number of molecules passing through small pores per unit time.

v) Density of a gas
The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of their densities ie the
lower the density, the higher the rate of diffusion.

Experiment to show diffusion in liquids e.g. water

Place a crystal of purple potassium permanganate at the bottom of a beaker containing clean water
and the set up left undisturbed for some time.

57
 Beaker

Potassium permanganate
Water

Observation
The crystal dissolves and spreads throughout the water forming a purple solution.

Explanation
The molecules of potassium permanganate diffuse into the molecules of water and collide with
them hence spreading in all directions.

Conclusion
Diffusion occurs in liquids and this provides a good evidence that molecules of the liquids are in
motion and that this motion is energetic and random.

Note:
Blue copper II sulphate or potassium dichromate can be used instead of potassium permanganate.

Experiment to show diffusion in gases

 Connect a water manometer to a porous pot containing air.
 Pass hydrogen into the air enclosed in a porous material as shown in below;
Air
Hydrogen gas

Porous pot

Water manometer

Observation
The water level in the left arm of the manometer falls white that in the right arm rises.

Explanation
The hydrogen molecules diffuse through the porous material into the air. This increase the pressure
in the porous pot, which then acts on the water surface in the left limb of the manometer thus
pushing the water level downwards.

58
 UNEB (Section A)
1. (2012 Q.16). Which of the following is/are true about molecules of liquids?. They
(i) are constantly vibrating about their mean positions.
(ii) are further apart compared to molecules in gases
(iii) have weaker attractive forces compared to those in solids
A. (i) only B. (ii) only C. (i) and (iii) only D. (i) and (ii) only
2. (2012 Q. 31). When a copper (II) sulphate crystal is placed at the bottom of a test tube containing
water, a dense blue solution is formed in the water at the bottom due to
A. diffusion B. capillarity C. surface tension D. Brownian motion
3. (2011 Q. 1). Solids are not easily compressed because their molecules
A. are far apart C. Vibrate about their mean positions
B. are closely packed D. have strong adhesive forces between them
4. (2011 Q.12). Which one of the following diagrams shows capillary depression in a liquid

A B C D

5. (2010 Q.22). Which one of the following does not affect the rate at which a gas diffuses through a
porous partition
A. Temperature of the gas C. volume of the gas
B. size of gas molecules D. size of the pore
6. (2009 Q.2). A razor blade floating on water sinks when a few drops of paraffin are added to the
water because
A. paraffin is denser than water C. surface tension of water reduces
B. surface tension of water increases D. cohesion of water molecules increases
7. (2008 Q.29). Gas leaking at one corner of a room reaches another corner by way of
A. diffusion B. evaporation C. Brownian motion D. osmosis
8. (2006 Q.19). When potassium dichromate dissolves at the bottom of water in a container, it spreads
slowly throughout the water by a process called.
A. Evaporation B. Diffusion C. Capillarity D. Convection
9. (2002 Q. 25). Blotting paper is used to dry ink spilt on a surface by a process called.
A. Osmosis B. Diffusion C. Surface tension D. Capillarity
10. (1999 Q. 13). Water wets glass because
A. Adhesive forces between water and glass molecules are greater than cohesive forces.
B. Adhesive forces between water and glass molecules are more than cohesive forces.
59
 C. Surface tension forces between water and glass molecules are more than adhesive forces.
D. Surface tension forces are less than cohesive forces
11. (1997 Q.13). When smoke is introduced in a smoke cell and observed under a microscope, it is
observed as particles moving at random. This is mainly because the particles.
A. Are hot C. Collide with air molecules
B. Collide with one another D. Collide with the walls of the smoke cell
SECTION B
1. (2001 Q.43)
A pin is placed on a blotting paper, which is floating in the surface of water as shown

Needle
Blotting paper
a) Explain what happens after some time
b) Explain what happens when some soap
Beaker solution is carefully added to the water.

Water

2. (2003 Q.3). ( a) (i) What is meant by the term diffusion

ii) State factors on which diffusion depends
b)Describe an experiment to show diffusion in liquids.
c) A porous pot containing air is connected to a water manometer. Explain what happens if
hydrogen is let in to the space surrounding the pot as shown in the diagram below.
Air
Hydrogen gas

Porous pot

Water manometer

d) (i) Describe a simple experiment to show surface tension in water.

ii) State two factors which affect surface tension.
3. (2005 Q. 49)
a) Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion
b) Sketch diagrams to show the level of liquids in a capillary tube that is immerse in a liquid which
has greater;
i) Cohesion than adhesion ii) Adhesion than cohesion
4. (2011 Q. 41). (a) State what is observed in a smoke cell when studying Brownian motion
(b) Explain what would be observed if the temperature of the smoke cell is reduced

60
SIZE OF AMOLECULE
The size of molecules is too small to be measured accurately; the approximate size can only be
estimated by using an experiment.

Experiment to estimate the size of a molecule (thickness of the oil molecule)

 Sprinkle lycopodium powder on a still surface of water (so that area covered by oil drop is
seen clearly)
 Put a small drop of oil on the surface.
 Measure the diameter d of the circular oil patch.
 Determine volume V of one drop of oil molecule.
Diagram

Oil patch Lycopodium powder

Beaker containing water

Assuming the patch is cylindrical

Volume = Area x thickness
V =
t =

where A=

Assumptions made when estimating size of a molecule

i) Oil film is assumed to be one molecule thick.
ii) Oil film is assumed to be cylindrical
iii) Each molecule is assumed to be a perfect sphere
iv) There are no air spaces between the molecules

Note:
To get the volume of the oil film
Let
Volume of oil (solute) dissolved = V1cm3
Volume of petroleum other (solvent) = V2cm3
Volume of solution dropped on water = V3cm3
61
Total volume of solution = (V1 + V2)cm3
(V1 + V2)cm3 of solution = V1cm3 of oil
V3 of solution = ( )
cm3 of oil

Volume of oil film = Volume of solution dropper

Example
1. The mass of 100 identical drops is found to be 0.04g. A single drop of density 0.8g/cm3 is
dropped onto the surface of water where it spreads into a circular patch of radius 10cm. Calculate;
i) Mass of one drop of oil ii) Volume of one drop of oil iii) Thickness of the oil molecule
Solution
i) Mass of one drop of oil iii) Thickness of the oil molecule
100drops = 0.04g
1drop = t

= x (10)2 t

ii) Volume of one drop of oil

2. (1993 Q.7). 1cm3 of oleic acid is dissolved in 999cm3 of alcohol to form 1000cm3 of solution. 1cm3
drop of the solution was put on water surface sprinkled with lycopodium powder. The alcohol
dissolved in water and leaving the acid to spread forming a patch of diameter 28cm.
i) Why was lycopodium powder used
ii) Calculate the volume of oleic acid in the 1cm3 drop of solution
iii) Estimate the size of oleic acid molecule.
Solution
i) Lycopodium powder was used so that the area covered by the solution is clearly seen.

ii) Volume of Oleic acid = Volume of solution dropped

= ( )

Volume of Oleic acid = cm3

62
 iii) Size of Oleic acid

t
x (14)2 x t where d = 28cm r =14cm

t =

t =1.62 x 10-6cm
3. (1995 Q.6). A solution is made by dissolving 1cm3 of cooking oil in 199cm3 of methanol when
0.004cm3 of the solution is dropped on the surface of water, an oil film of diameter 12cm is
obtained.
i) Calculate the volume of the cooking oil in the film
ii) Estimate the thickness of a molecule of the cooking oil.
Solution
i) Volume of solute = 1cm3
Volume of solute = 199cm3
Total volume of solution = 200cm3
Volume of drop used = 0.004cm3

Volume of cooking oil = x Volume of drop

= x 0.004

Volume of cooking oil = 2 x 10-5cm3

ii) Volume = area x thickness

2 x 10-5 = t
2 x 10-5 = x (6)2 x t d = 12cm r = 6cm

t =

t =
UNEB (Section A)
1. (1987 Q.7). In an oil film experiment to estimate the size of a molecule 0.00 of oleic acid was
dropped on lycopodium powder on water surface. The mean diameter of the acid was 5cm. The
thickness of a molecule of Oleic acid is;
( )
A. B. C. D.

63
2. (1992 Q. 31). An oil drop of volume spreads on a water surface to form a patch of area
. If the patch is one molecule thick, find the approximate number of molecules in the
drop.
A. 1 B. C. D.
3. (2004 Q.40)

Oil patch Lycopodium powder

Beaker containing water

An oil drop of volume c forms a patch on water as shown above. The area of the patch is
0.785 c . If it is one molecule thick, what is the size of the molecule?
A. B. C. D. cm
4. (2009 Q.30). Oil of volume is dropped on the surface of clean water. If it spreads to
form a circle of radius 4cm. Find the diameter of a molecule of oil
A. B. D.
5. (2008 Q.24). When oil of volume is dropped on the surface of clean water. It forms
a circular patch one molecule of diameter 2cm. Find the thickness of oil.
A. B. C. D.
SECTION B
1. (2002 Q.45). The diagram below shows an arrangement for determining the size of an oil molecule

Oil patch Lycopodium powder

Beaker containing water

a) State two assumptions made in the experiment

b) If of oil spreads to form a patch of area 150 . Calculate the thickness of
the film.
2. (a) A mosquito larva clings to the water surface due to surface tension
(i) What is meant by the term surface tension?
(ii) How would you make the mosquito larva to sink
(b) In an oil drop experiment , the radius of the oil film is 10 cm and volume of the oil drop used is
1.1 . Find the thick ness of the oil molecules

64
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
1. WORK
Work is the product of force applied to a body and distance moved by the body in the direction of
force.
Work = force x distance moved in direction of force

S.I units of work is called Joule

Definition
A joule is the work done when a force of one Newton (1N) acts on a body and moves the body
through a distance of one metre (1m).

Other units of work are;

 Kilo joule ( ) 1kJ J, ( )
 Mega joule ( ), 1MJ ,( )
Examples
1. Calculate the work done when a force of 9000N acts on a body and makes it move through a
distance of 6m.
Solution
W = 54000J
2. A crane lift a weight of 100N through a distance of 250cm. Find the work done on this weight
Solution

100 W

3. An object of mass 5kg moves a distance of 6m. Find the work done.
Solution

( ) W = 300J
4. A frog of mass 40g jumps 6 steps each 5cm. Calculate the work done by the frog
Solution
W =( ) ( )

W = 0.12J
Exercise:
1. Calculate the amount of work done by a labourer who carries a load of mass 42kg to a height of 4m.
2. Calculate the amount of work done by a machine of mass 500kg through a vertical distance of 2.4m

65
3. A body of mass 8kg is pulled from rest by a constant force of 20N on a smooth floor. Find;-
a) The acceleration c) The distance moved in 4 seconds.
b) The velocity after 4 seconds d) Work done by the force in 4 s.
4. Calculate the work done in lifting a body of mass 4kg to a height of 20m.
5. The work done in moving a body of 200g to a certain height is 500J. Calculate the height.

POWER
Power is the rate of doing work

Power =

OR Where = velocity

S.I unit of power is Watt (W)

A watt is the power developed when one joule (1J) of work is done in one second (1S)

Other units of power are;

Kilowatt ( )
Mega watt ( )

Examples
1. A man whose mass is 75kg walks up a flight of 12 steps each 20cm in 5sec. Calculate the power he
develops.
Solution ( )

Power =
P = 360W
2. A man whose mass is 75kg climbs up a ladder of 6.5m high in 5s calculate the power expended.
Solution

Power = Power = 975W

3. (1987 Q. 24) A machine lifts a load of 5000N through a distance of 10m in 5s. Calculate the average
power of the machine
Solution
= 10,000W

66
 EXERCISE
1. What is the power of the plane which can lift a box of mass of 1 tone vertically to a loaded height of
15m in 40s?
2. A boy whose mass is 60kg can run up a flight 28 steps, each 25cm high in 5.6 seconds. Calculate the
power developed by the body.
3. A boy runs up a flight of 40 steps, each 15cm high in 4.8 seconds and develops a power of
kW. Calculate the weight of the boy

EFFICIENCY
This is the ratio of the useful work done by a machine to that put into the machine expressed as a
percentage.

Example:
1. A crane lifts 600kg through a vertical height of 12m in 18 seconds.
a) What weight is the crane lifting?
b) What is the crane’s useful power output?
c) If the mortar has an efficiency of 80%, what is the power input?
Solution:
a) c) Efficiency

b) Power output =

Power output = 4000W

2.. The power output of an engine is 3KW.
(i) How much work is done by the engine in 20s?
(ii) If the efficiency of the engine is 30%, how much energy is supplied to the engine in 20s?
(iii) What power is supplied to the engine?

67
 ENERGY
It is defined as ability to do work.
The S.I unit of energy is Joules (J).
Forms of energy
Energy exists in various forms i.e. electrical energy, light energy, heat energy, sound energy,
chemical energy, solar energy, biogas energy, nuclear energy and mechanical energy.

MECHANICAL ENERGY
We have two forms of energy under mechanical energy i.e.
(i) Potential energy (ii) Kinetic energy

i) Kinetic energy
This is the energy that a body has due to it’s motion.

M kg V ms-1

The kinetic energy of the body therefore depends on 2 factors namely;

 Mass of the body  Velocity of the body

Example
1. A body of mass 2kg moves with a velocity of 4m/s. W hat is it’s kinetic energy
Solution
K.E = 16Joules

2. A truck of mass 2 tones moves with a velocity of 72km/h. Find it’s kinetic energy.
Solution M = 2tonnes = 2 x 1000kg ( )
V= = 20m/s K.E=400,000J

3. The kinetic energy of a body is 1000J. If the body is moving with a velocity of . Find its mass
Solution 1000 m=

m=

4. A body of mass 10kg has a kinetic energy of 2000J. Find the velocity
Solution 2000 = V = √( )
=
V = 20m/s

68
 ii) Potential energy
This is the energy a body has due to its position in the field of force.
Commonest form of potential energy is that which is possessed by a body when it is above the level
of the earth surface.
Body of mass mkg

Where m = mass in kg
h h = height above the ground in metre
g = acceleration due to gravity (10ms-1)

Ground

Potential energy of a body depends on 3 factors namely;

(i) Mass of the body (ii) Acceleration due to gravity (iii) Height above the ground.

There are 3 types of potential energy. These include;

1. Gravitational Potential Energy
This the energy possessed by a body in the gravitational field when it is above the ground.
2. Elastic Potential Energy
This is the energy possessed by an elastic body when it is either stretched or compressed.
3. Electrostatic Potential Energy
This is the energy possessed by a charged body in an electric field.

Example
1. An object of mass 3kg is held 2.5m above the ground. Find its potential energy before it dropped
Solution
P.E = 75J
2. A body of mass 800g is 2m above the ground. Find the potential energy it posses (g = 10m/s).
Solution
P.E = P.E = 16Joules

3. A ball of mass 40g is held 150cm above the ground. Find its potential energy before it is dropped
down (g = 10m/s)
Solution
P.E = 10 P.E = 0.6Joules

69
 EXERCISE
1. A ball of mass 2kg is resting at the top of the cliff 20m high. Calculate the potential energy at that
point.
2. A stone of mass 60g at the top of the building of height 10m falls on the ground. Calculate the
potential energy of the stone when it is in the middle of the building.
3. A car of mass 500g moving with a velocity of 10m/s. Calculate its kinetic energy.
4. A stone of mass 10kg at the top of the building of height 5m falls on the ground with a velocity of
5m/s. Calculate;-
(i) P.E of the stone on the top of the building.
(ii) K.E of the stone at which it hits the ground.
5. A ball of mass 3kg is resting at the top of the cliff 14m tall falls freely to hit the ground at a velocity of
6m/s.
a) Determine the potential energy of the ball
(i) At the top of the cliff.
(ii) When it has fallen half-way of the cliff.
(iii) At the bottom of the cliff.
b) What is the kinetic energy at which it falls the ground?
6. A ball of mass 500g is kicked vertically upwards with a velocity of 20m/s and it reaches a height of h
above the ground, where its potential energy is 1400J.
(i) Determine the kinetic energy at which the ball is kicked.
(ii) The value of h.
7. A stone of mass 2kg is brought down to a well of 25km deep. Calculate the kinetic energy as it
reaches the bottom.
8. A stone is brought from rest vertically from the top of the cliff and it is travelling at 2m/s when it hits
the ground below. Calculate the height of the cliff.
9. A heavy object is thrown vertically downwards from the top of a 1.00 x 102m building at a velocity of
10.0m/s. What is the speed as it reaches the ground?

PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

It states that; energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but changes from one form to another.
OR;
(It states that the total amount of energy in the universe or system is constant).

70
 Examples of energy changes;
1. Projection of a stone
A stone is projected upwards and falls to the ground. When a stone is thrown upwards, it possesses
kinetic energy, as it rises, it loses velocity and hence kinetic energy.
But due to the increasing height, it gains potential energy.
At maximum height the stone is stationery for a moment and at this time, it has only potential
energy.
When it falls it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy and its velocity increases.
When it hits the ground, kinetic energy is changed into heat and sound energy.
2. In a hydro-power station
Water has potential energy at the top of the reservoir.
As it falls down this is changed into kinetic energy which drives the turbines that drives the
electrical generator to produce electricity. This energy can be converted to;-
(i) Heat energy (cookers, iron boxes etc) (iii) Sound energy (radios, loud speakers)
(ii) Light energy (bulbs) (iv) Kinetic energy (motors)
3. In an electric lamp
Electrical energy is changed into; light and heat energy.
4. In electric motors such as one fitted on the sewing machine, electrical energy changes to kinetic
energy.
5. When an electric torch is used, chemical potential energy is converted into electrical energy which
gets converted into light energy.
6. In a nuclear power station, chemical potential energy is stored in the uranium atoms is utilized to
produce heat. The heat energy is used to make steam at a high pressure. The steam turns a turbine
that turns a dynamo which converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Illustration of principle of conservation of energy

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’ from the ground surface and at rest
A i) At point A

x Kinetic energy = O (at rest)

B Potential energy
h
Total energy
h - x

C
Ground ii) At point B

71
It has both kinetic and potential energy iii) At point C (just before impact)
K.E = ½ m K.E = ½ m
Where v can be obtained from = + 2a.s But = + 2a.s (u = o, a = g s = h)
i.e. (u = O, a = g, s = x) = 2gh
= 2gx K.E = ½ m 2gh
( ) K.E =
P.E = O (ground level)
( ) Total energy
Total energy ( )

Inter-conversion of energy between P.E and K.E

Energy transformation between P.E and K.E is seen is the following;
a) Simple pendulum
b) Falling object

a) Simple pendulum
Rigid support

String

bob
A P.E P.E C

h
K.E h
B

It consists of a bob that oscillates about equilibrium position B.

 At extreme ends A and C of the swing, the energy is potential energy and maximum since h
is maximum.
 When passing through rest position B, the energy is kinetic energy and maximum; since the
velocity at B is maximum and h = O.
 At intermediate positions (i.e. between AB and BC) the energy is partly kinetic and partly
potential.
b) Falling object
When an object is raised to a height h, above the ground and let to fall. The potential energy
decreases while kinetic energy increases. This is because as the object falls, its vertical height
decreases while the velocity increases.

At impact (hitting the ground) all the P.E is converted to K.E.

72
 Rebounding of Bodies
m P.E = mgh
1 1

h1 m P.E2 = mgh2

h2
K.E1 = mgh1 K.E2 = mgh2

i) K.E, is the kinetic energy with wheel it hits the ground

K.E1
The velocity with which it hits the ground
= √
ii) K.E2 is the kinetic energy with which it leaves the ground on rebounding
K.E2 = mgh2
The velocity with which it rebounds is
= √

Example
1. A stone of mass 2kg is dropped down a well 15m deep. Calculate the kinetic energy gained by it as it
reaches the bottom.
Solution
K.E gained = P.E lost K.E=300J

2. A stone is dropped vertically down from the top of a cliff, is traveling at 20m/s when it hits the
ground below. Calculate the height of the cliff.
Solution h =
K.E gained = P.E lost
h = 20m
3. A 10g bullet traveling at 400m/s penetrates 10cm into a wooden block what is the average force
exerted by it.
Solution All the kinetic energy is used to do work on
K.E = ½ mv2 penetrating the wood
=½ ( ) Work done = F x distance

800J 800 = F x

F = 8000N

73
4. A steel ball of mass 0.4kg falls to the ground from a height of 1m and rebounds to a height of 0.8m.
Calculate
i) The initial potential energy
ii) The kinetic energy just as the ball reaches the ground.
iii) The speed with which the ball hits the ground.
iv) Kinetic energy just after it leaves the ground after bouncing
Solution
i) V =√
V =√
P.E = 4J V = 4.47m/s
ii) Gain in K.E=loss in P.E iii) K.E after rebound = P.E at 0.8m height
K.E = 4J K.E= mgh
iii) Speed with which the ball hits ground K.E= 0.4 x 10 x 0.8
Gain K.E = loss in P.E K.E = 3.2J
V2 = mgh

5. A 100g steel ball falls from a height of 1.8m onto a plate and rebounds to a height of 1.25m. Find;
i) P.E of ball before the fall iv) K.E as it leaves the plate on
ii) K.E as it hits the plate rebound
iii) It’s velocity on hitting the plate v) Velocity of rebound
Solution
i) V = 6m/s
iv) K.E after bounce = P.E at 1.25m height

P.E = 1.8J
= x 10 x 1.25

ii) Gain in K.E = loss in P.E K.E = 1.25J

v) Gain in K.E = loss in P.E
½ mv2
iii) Gain in K.E = loss in P.E V = √
½ mV2 V= √
V= √ V = 5m/s
V= √

74
 HEAT ENGINES
An engine is a machine which converts energy into motion or mechanical work.

TYPES OF HEAT ENERGY

Heat engines are classified into
i) Internal – combustion and
ii) External combustion

Internal combustion engine

A combustion engine is a machine which converts energy into motion or mechanical work.
The common heat engines are;
i) petrol engine
ii) Diesel engine
Both engines are further classified into
i) four stroke engine
ii) Two stroke engine

Note
A stroke is one movement of the piston either up or down.
In Petrol or diesel engine, fuel is burnt in a cylinder where the energy changes occurs.

Diagram of internal-combustion engine

Spark plug A cycle is divided into four strokes namely
Inlet valve Exhaust valve
i) Induction stroke / intake stroke
Cylinder ii) Compression stroke
Piston iii) Power stroke and
Piston rod
iv) Exhaust stroke

Crank shaft

75
PETROL ENGINE
1. INDUCTION STROKE 2. COMPRESSION STROKE

- in let valve opens (both valves closed)

- in exhaust valve closed - Inlet valve closes
- piston moves down - the piston moves up
- petrol air mixture enters the - petrol air mixture is compressed
cylinder
3. POWER STROKE 4. EXHAUST STROKE

- both valves close

- spar plug produces electric - Exhaust valve opens
spark and petrol-air - Piston moves up
mixture ignites and burns - exhaust gas is forced out of combustion chamber
-expanding gas pushes the piston down (cylinder) through the exhaust

DIESEL ENGINE
A diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine in which heat caused by air compression
ignites the fuel.
Advantages of a diesel engine over a petrol engine
 Diesel engines are more efficient than petrol engines.
 They consume less fuel and therefore less expensive
 Diesel fuel costs less compared to petrol
Disadvantages of diesel engine
Diesel engine produces sooty and smelly smoke which may lead to carbon monoxide poisoning.

76
 Factors that affect efficiency of heat engines
The efficiency of combustion engines is reduced by;
i) Heating up of the system
ii) Friction
Improving the efficiency of heat engine
Efficiency of heat engines is increased by;
i) Cooling the system by using circulating water.
ii) Cool air from a fan
iii) Lubricating using engine oil.
UNEB
1. (1987 Q.3). When a force of 30N is applied to a trolley, the trolley moves through a distance of 10m in
20s in the direction of the force. The average power developed by the trolley is.
A. 6.67W B. 60W C. 15W D. 7.5W
2. (1991 Q.11). The below figure shows a child on
a swing. The child will have
A. Maximum potential energy at P and R
B. Maximum potential energy at Q P R

C. Maximum kinetic energy at P Q

D. No kinetic energy at Q
3. (1997 Q.9). A body pulls a block of wood with a force of 30N through a distance of 300m in
2minutes. Find the power he develops, if he pulls the block at a constant speed.
A. B. C. D.

4. (1997 Q.10). A ball of 1kg bounces off the ground to a height of 2m after falling from a height of 5m,
find the energy lost.
A. 5J B. 20J C. 30J D. 50J
5. (1999 Q.8). The energy changes that take place when a stone falls freely from rest to the ground can
be orderly arranged as:
A. Kinetic energy potential energy sound energy heat
B. Sound energy potential energy kinetic energy heat
C. Potential energy sound energy kinetic energy heat
D. Potential energy kinetic energy heat energy sound
6. (2000 Q.23). A mouse of mass 0.03kg climes through a distance of 2m up a wall in 4s. The power
expended in watts is
77
 A. B. C. D.

7. (2001 Q. 26). Which of the following forms mechanical energy

A. Electrical energy and kinetic energy C. Nuclear energy and kinetic energy
B. Potential energy and nuclear energy D. Potential energy and kinetic energy
8. (2003 Q.15). A pump is rated at 400W. How many kilograms of water can it raise in one hour through
a height of 72m?
A. 0.8kg B. 5.6kg C. 33.3kg D. 2000kg
9. (2007 Q.6). During the power stroke of a four stroke petrol engine
i) The plug sparks iii) Both valves remain closed
ii) The piston moves up iv) The piston moves down
A. (i) and (ii) only B. (i) and (iii) only C. (i) (ii) and (iii)only D. (i) (iii) and (iv)only
10. (2006 Q.1). Which of the following shows correct stages in an internal combustion engine?
A. Compression power exhausts induction
B. Exhaust induction compression power
C. Induction power compression exhaust
D. Induction compression power exhaust
11.(2009 Q.15). When a body is raised above the ground its potential energy
A. Is raised C. Remains constant
B. Is lowered D. Changes to kinetic energy
12.(2009 Q.27). A car engine exerts a force of 500N in moving 1000m in 200s. Calculate the power
developed by the engine
A. 200W B. 500W C. 1000W D. 2500W
13. (2010 Q. 18). A crane lifts a mass of 500 kg through a height of 12 m in 5 s. Find the power output
A. B. W C. D.

14. (2010 Q.29). During the power stoke of a petrol engine the
A. inlet valve opens C. expanding gas pushes piston down
B. piston moves down D. burnt gas is pushed out from the cylinder
15. (2011 Q.9). The energy which a body has by reason of its motion is
A. potential energy B. kinetic energy C. chemical energy D. internal energy
Section B
16. . (1993 Q.4). (a) Distinguish between potential and kinetic energy
b) A block of mass 2kg falls freely from rest through a distance of 3m. Find the kinetic energy of the
block.
78
 17. (1994 Q.5)An object of mass 2kg, dropped from the top of a building hits the ground with kinetic
energy of 900J. Calculate the height of the building.
18. (1995 Q.9). A bullet of mass 5g is fired at a speed of 400ms-1. How much energy does it have?
19. (1999 Q. 2). (a) Define power
(b) Find the power developed when a crane lifts a load of 3500N through 5m in 5 seconds.
20. (2005 Q.45). (a) Define a Joule
(b) A boy of mass 45kg runs up a flight of 60 steps. If each step is 12cm, find the work done against
gravity by the boy.
21. (a)
A
Figure above shows a petrol engine .
B

Name the parts labeled A, B, C, and D

C
(b) State what happens in petrol engine
during the power stroke
D

22. (a) . Define work and state its units

(b). A block of weight 3 N moved from C to B on an incline plane as shown below
B If there is no frictional force,
find the work done
m

6 m
10

A C
8 m

Exercise; 14
1. A boy can do his work of 1800J in 5seconds. Calculate his power
2. A man pushed a car of mass 500kg up a hill of height 600cm. If he took 1hour to reach that height,
Find.
i) The work done by the man ii) The power of the man
3. A car of mass 1.5 x 103kg climbs a hill in 900 seconds. If the top of the hill is 500m above the starting
point. Find the average power output of the engine.
4. A mass of 8kg is pulled by a force of 4N along a smooth floor. Calculate;
a) The acceleration b) The work done by the force in 2 seconds.
5. A car of mass 1 x 103kg is driven from rests with uniform acceleration and reaches a speed of 25ms-1
in 30seconds. Find
(a) the force exerted by the engine (b) The power developed

79
6. A vehicle tows a trailer of mass 1000kg at a steady speed of 20ms-1 along a level road. If the tension
in the coupling is 800N. Find the useful power expended by the engine on the trailer
7. A boy of mass 45kg runs up a flight of 60 steps. If each step is 12cm. Find the work done against
gravity by the boy.
8. A man lifts a weight of 300N through a height of 2m in 6s. Determine the power he develops.
9. An engine exerts a force of 2000N at a speed of 15ms-1. Find the power developed by the engine in
KW.
10. A water pump raises 2000kg of water through a vertical height of 72m in one hour. Calculate the
power of the pump.
11. A man of mass 75kg climbs up a ladder of 6.5m high in 5s. Calculate
i) workdone ii) Power expended
12. An electric motor of efficiency 90% operates a water pump. If it raises 0.9kg of water through 10m
every second. Calculate the power supplied to the motor.
13. A block of mass 2kg falls freely from rest through a distance of 3m. Find
i) The K.E of the block ii) Potential energy.
14. A 200g ball falls from a height of 0.2m. Calculate the K.E before it hit the ground.
15. A ball falls freely through 3m. Calculate the velocity with which it hits the ground.
16. A stone of 150g is dropped from a height of 80m. Calculate the kinetic energy when it is 50m above
the ground.
17. A bullet of mass 4 x 10-3kg strikes a solid surface at a speed of 200ms-1. Calculate the work done
against the bullet, which brings it to rest, if it penetrates the solid to a depth of 3cm.
18. A gun of mass 6kg is placed in such a way that it is free to recoil, and fires a bullet of 50g which
leaves the muzzle at 800ms-1. Calculate the velocity of recoil of the gun and the kinetic energy of the
bullet.
19. A piece of stone of mass 0.5kg is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20ms-1. Calculate;
i) The potential energy at the maximum height
ii) The kinetic energy on striking the ground (g = 10ms-2).
20. 500kg of air moving at 15ms-1, impinge on the vanes of a windmill per second. Calculate the rate at
which the energy arrives at the windmill.
21. What is the maximum mass of water that could be pumped per second through a vertical height of
5.0m? (g = 10ms-2).
SECTION B
1. How much work is done when a mass of 3kg is lifted vertically through 6m?

80
2. A hiker climbs a hill 300m high. If he weighs 50kg, calculate the work he does in lifting his body to
the top of the hill.
3. In loading a lorry, a man lifts boxes each of weight 100N through a height of 1.5m.
(a) How much work does he do in lifting one box?
(b) If he lifts 4 boxes per minute, at what power is he working?
4. Calculate the kinetic energy of
(a) A 1kg trolley travelling at 2m/s
(b) A 2g bullet travelling at 400 m/s
(c) A 500kg minicar traveling at 72 km/h
5. A 100g steel ball fall from a height of 1.8m on to a plate and rebounds to a height of 1.2m. Find
(a) The potential energy of the ball before the fall .
(b) Its kinetic energy as it hits the plate
(c) Its velocity on hitting the plate
(d) It kinetic energy as it leaves the plate on the rebound.
(e) Its velocity of rebound.
6. A body of mass 5kg falls from rest and has a kinetic energy of 1000J just before touching the ground.
Assuming there is no friction, calculate
(a) (i) The loss in potential energy during the fall.
(ii) The height from which the body has fallen
(b) Name one important principle which applies in this situation.
7. A trolley of mass 3kg moving with a constant velocity of 4m/s collided with a stationary trolley of
mass 1kg . After the collision the two trolleys moved together with constant velocity of 3m/s. Show
that ;
(i) These results satisfy the law of conservation of linear momentum.
(ii) The kinetic energies of the trolleys before and after the collision are not the same and
account for the difference in Kinetic energy
8. Calculate the amount of work done by
(a) A machine lifting a load of mass 500kg through a vertical distance of 2.4m.
(b) A labourer who carries a load of mass 42kg to a height of 4.0m .
9. Calculate the amount of energy needed by a catapult to throw a stone of mass 500g with a velocity of
10m/s
10. A tennis ball is dropped from a height of 1.8 m . It rebounds to a height of 1.25m.
(a) Describe the energy changes which take place.

81
 (b) With what velocity does the ball hit the ground?
(c) With what velocity does the ball leaves the ground?
11. A boy whose mass is 60kg can run up a flight of 28 steps, each 25cm high, in 5.6 seconds. Calculate
the power developed by the boy.
12. A boy runs up a flight of 40 steps each 15cm high, in 4.8 s and develops a power of 500W. Calculate
the weight of the boy.
13. In riding a bicycle a distance of 900m in 2minutes, a boy over comes a force of 100N due to air
resistance. What is the power exerted by the boy during the ride?
14. A stone of mass 60 kg , at rest, is dropped from the top of a building . Just before it strikes, without
any hindrance to the ground 20m vertically below, it has a velocity of 18.0m/s.
(a) How much potential energy is lost by the stone during the fall?
(b) How much kinetic energy is gained by the stone?
Account for the difference in the answers in (a) and (b)
15. A stone of mass 50g , thrown vertically upwards, has the speed of 10m/s as it leaves a catapult .
Find ;
(a) Its kinetic energy as it leaves the catapult.
(b) Potential energy gained by the stone.
(c) The height to which the stone reaches
(Neglect air resistance)
16. A crate of mass 70kg is pushed by a man with a force of 150N along the plane AB as shown below.
B

7 0 kg
m

2m
12
0N

A C
15

(i) How much potential energy is gained by the crate when it is raised form level A to level B?
(ii) How much work is done by the force of the man?
(iii) How much energy is wasted?. Account for this wastage.
18. A bullet of mass 50g leaves a short gun at 200m/s and penetrates into a soft wood target at a force
of 10,000N. How deep does it penetrate?
19. A man raised 100kg from the floor to a height of 2m in 1.5 seconds. What is the work done and
power developed?
20. A man weighing 500N runs up a stair case and in 5 seconds rises 3.75m. what work did he do and
the power developed.

82
21. A boy weighing 400N climbs 750m against gravity in 30 minutes . what is his average rate of
working.
22. A petrol engine raises 2000cm3 of water in a well from a depth of 7m in 6 seconds. Calculate the
power of the engine .
23. 300 litres of water are lifted 10m vertically in 5 seconds. Calculate the work done and the power.
24. (a) How much work is done if a force of 12N moves an object a distance of 5m?
(b) If you use a 40N force to lift a bag, and do 20J of work, how far do you lift it?
25. 50J of work must be done to lift a vase from the ground up on to a shelf.
(a) How much potential energy does the vase have when it is on the shelf?
(b) If the vase falls from the shelf, how much kinetic energy does it have just before it hits the
ground?
(c) What happens to this energy after the vase has hit the ground?
26. An object has a mass of 6kg. What its gravitational potential energy:
(a) 4m above the ground? (b) 6m above the ground?
27. An object of mass 6kg has a speed of 5m/s.
(a) What is its kinetic energy?
(b) What is its kinetic energy if its speed is doubled?
28. A ball of mass 0.5kg has 100J of kinetic energy. What is the speed of the ball?
29. A ball has a mass of 0.5kg. Dropped from a cliff top, the ball hits the sea below at a speed of 10m/s.
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the ball as it is about to hit the sea?
(b) What was the ball’s potential before it was dropped?
(c) From what height was the ball dropped?
30. A crane lifts a 600kg mass through a vertical height of 12m in 18seconds. (a) What weight is
the crane lifting?
(b) What is the crane’s useful power output?
(c) If the motor has an efficiency of 80%, what in put is required?
31. A motor has a useful power output of 3kw.
(a) What is the power in watts?
(b) How much useful work does it do in 1second?
(c) If the power in put to the motor is 4kw, what is the efficiency?
32. An engine does 1500J of useful work with each 5000J of energy supplied to it.
(a) What is its efficiency?
(b) What happens to the rest of the energy supplied?

83
33. With frictional forces acting, a forward force of 2500N is needed to keep a lorry traveling at a
steady speed of 20m/s along a level road . What useful power is being delivered to the driving
wheels?
34. An object has a mass of 6kg. Calculate the potential energy
(a) from above the ground (b) from above the ground
At what height above the ground will its potential energy be 360J?
35. A stone has 100J of potential energy. What will be its potential energy if its height above the ground
is halved?
36. An object of mass 6kg is traveling at a velocity of 5m/s . What is its kinetic energy?.
What will be its kinetic energy if its velocity is doubled?
37. A ball of mass 0.5kg has 100J of kinetic energy. What is the velocity of the ball?
38. A trolley of mass 2.5kg is pulled along a flat bench by a force of 5N. when the
trolley had travelled 4m, find
(a) How much work has been done on it.
(b) How much kinetic energy it has gained
(c) Its velocity.
39. A man weighing 600N climbs a vertical distance of 10m in 20s. What is his average power out put?
40. The power out of an engine is 3kW.
(a) What does this mean?
(b) How much work does the engine do in 20s?
(c) The efficiency of the engine is 30%.
(i) How much energy is supplied to the engine in 20s?
(ii) What power is supplied to the engine?
41. A crate of mass 300kg is raised by an electric motor through a height of 60m in 45s. Calculate.
(a) The weight of the crate
(b) Work done by the motor.
(c) The useful power of the motor.
42.(a) A stone of mass 3kg is thrown up wards with kinetic energy of 240J. Neglecting air resistance;
calculate the height to which it will rise.
(b) What kinetic energy is gained by a body of mass 3kg on falling freely through a height of 4m?
43. An object of mass 2kg falls freely from rest for 4s. Calculate
(a) The distance fallen. (b) The velocity attained. (c)The gain in kinetic energy.

84
44. Calculate the work done against gravity by a person of mass 80kg in walking up a flight of 12 steps
each of which is 200mm high.
45. A man whose mass is 75kg walks a flight of 12 steps each 20cm high in 5s. Find the power he
develops in watts.
46. A body of mass 50kg is raised to a height of 2m above the ground. What is the potential energy
gain? If the body is allowed to fall, find its kinetic energy:
(a) When half way down
(b) Just before impact with the ground.
(c) What has become of the original energy when the body has come to rest?
47. A mass of 8kg is pulled by a force of 20N along a smooth floor. Find
(a) The acceleration (c) The distance moved in 4s
(b) The velocity after 4s. (d) The work done by the force.
48. A ball of mass 1kg is dropped from a height of 7m and rebounds to a height of 4.5m. Calculate:
(a) Its kinetic energy just before impact
(b) Its initial rebound velocity and kinetic energy
(c) Account for the loss of kinetic energy on impact.
49. A motor car of mass 1000kg traveling at 90km/h is brought to rest by the brakes in 100m. Calculate
(i) The cars initial momentum
(ii) Its initial kinetics energy
(iii) Average braking force required.
50. A car of mass 1500kg is driven from rest with uniform acceleration and reaches a speed of 50km/h
in 30s. Find; (Assume all friction force are constant)
(a) The useful force exerted by the engine in Newtons
(b) The power developed at a speed of 50km/h
51. A railway truck of mass 2400kg is shunted on to a stationary truck on a level track and collides with
it at 4.7m/s . After collision the two trucks move on together with a common speed of 1.2m/s. Find:
(a) The mass of stationary truck.
(b) The original kinetic energy of the first truck.
(c) The total kinetic energy of both trucks after collision.
(d) Account for the apparent loss in kinetic energy.
52. (a) A boy , whose mass is 36kg, can run up a flight of 28 steps , each 25cm height, in 4.2s.
Calculate the power developed by the boy.
(b) A catapult is used to fire a stone of mass 50g vertically to a height of 4.05m. Calculate:

85
 (i) The potential energy gained by the stone.
(ii) The speed of the stone as it leaves the catapult.
(c) The diagram shows a pendulum bob swinging from side to side. Name the points at which the bob
has.
i) All potential energy.
ii) All kinetic energy.
A E
iii) Partly potential energy and partly kinetic
B C D
energy.
53. (a) Define the joule
(b) The work done to more a body through a distance of 5m is 30J. Find the force that acts on the
body.
54. A block of mass 50kg is pulled from rest along a horizontal surface by a rope
tied to one face of the block as shown below.
150N 50kg 220N

The tension in the rope is 220N. The frictional force between the block and the horizontal surface is
120N.
(i) Find the acceleration of the block
(ii) Calculate the distance moved by the block in 4s.
(iii) What is the reaction of the surface to the block?
(iv) Compare the work done by the tension in the rope during the 4s interval with the
kinetic energy gained.
55. A boy of mass 45kg runs up a flight of 60 steps. If each step is 12cm, find the work done against
gravity by the boy.
56. (a) (i) State the principle of conservation of energy.
(ii) Illustrate the principal in (a) (i) above with reference to a simple pendulum in a vacuum .
(b) A ball of mass 0.3kg falls from rest at a height of 4.0m onto a horizontal surface and
rebounds to a height of 2.0m.
(i) Find the kinetic just before the ball hits the surface and just after the collision .
Explain the difference between the two energies .
(ii) What is its initial momentum?
57. A bullet of mass 20g is fired into a block of wood of mass 400g lying on a smooth horizontal surface.
If the bullet and the wood move together with speed of 20m/s, calculate:
(i) The speed with which the bullet hits the wood.
86
 (ii) The kinetic energy lost.
(iii) State the energy changes involved
58. In a dam, 2.0 x 103 kg of water falls every second through a height of 20 cm to operate an electric
generator.
(a) Calculate the power input to the generator.
(b) State the energy changes which take place.
59. An object is released from rest at a height of 20m above the ground.
(i) Describe the energy changes which take place
(ii) Calculate the speed with which the object hits the ground.
60. (a) Define Power.
(b) Find the power developed when a crane lifts a load of 300N through 5m in 5 seconds.
61 . A ball of mass 0.25kg is dropped from rest at a height of 20m above the ground.
(i) Calculate the time it takes to reach the ground.
(ii) If the ball bounced once on hitting the ground and lost 20% of its original
energy, calculate the maximum height the ball reached again.
62. A man whose mass is 75kg climbs up a ladder of 6.5m high in 5s. Calculate
(i) The work done. (ii) Power expended.
63. An object of mass 2kg is moving with a velocity of 1m/s . It is then acted on by a force of 5N through
a distance of 16m. Calculate
(a) The acceleration produced by the force.
(b) The final velocity of the object.
(c) The work done by the force.
64. (a) Distinguish between potential energy and kinetic energy.
(b) A block of mass 2kg falls freely from rest through a distance of 3m. Find the kinetic
energy of the block.
65. A 5kg mass is dropped from a height above the ground and hits the ground after 4.5s.
(i) Find the velocity of the mass as it hits the ground.
(ii) Calculate the kinetic energy of the mass just before it hits the ground.
(iii) From what height was the mass dropped?
(iv) State the energy changes of the mass.
66. 103 kg of water falls through a height of 15m every second to operate an electrical generator.
(a) Calculate the power input to the generator.

87
 (b) Give any two possible reasons why the efficiency of the generator is less
than 100%
67. An electric motor of efficiency of 90% operates a water pump. The pump raises 0.9kg of water
through 10m every second.
(a) What is meant by efficiency?
(b) State the energy changes which takes place
(c) Find the electrical power supplied to the motor.
SECTION C
1. A boy whose weight is 600N runs a flight of stairs 10m high in a time of 12s.
the average power he develops in W, is
A. 72 B. 500 C. 720 D. 5000
2. A cyclist free – wheels from the top of a hill, gathers speed going down the hill, applies his brakes
and eventually come to rest at the bottom of the hill. Which one of the following energy changes
takes place?
A. Potential to kinetic to heat energy C. Chemical to heat to potential energy
B. Kinetic to potential to heat energy D. Kinetic to heat to chemical energy
3. At what height above the ground must a mass of 5kg be to have a potential energy equal in value to
the kinetic energy possessed by a mass of 5kg moving with a velocity of 10m/s
A. 1m B. 5m C. 10m D. 50m
4. What energy is supplied in 1 minute to a 3kW heater?
A. 50J B. 80J C. 3000J D. 180,000J
5. A crane lifts 4 bricks per minute through a height of 1.5m. Find the Power that
is expended if each brick weighs 100N.
A. 2.5W B. 10.0W C. 150W D. 600W.
6. A crane raises a mass of 500kg vertically upwards at a speed of 10m/s. Find the power developed.
A. 5.0 x 100 B. 5.0 x 101 C. 5.0 x 102 D. 5.0x 104
7. A girl whose mass is 50 kg runs up a staircase 25m high in 4s. Find the power she develops.
A. B C. D.

8. A man lifts a weight of 300N through a height of 2m in 6s. Determine the power he develops.
A. 25W B. 100W C. 600W D. 900W
9. A body of mass m kg and at a height hm from the ground has
A. Total gravitational potential energy
B. Greatest gravitation potential energy when at height h
88
 C. Greatest potential energy when it just drops to the ground
D. The least potential energy when at a height ½ h to the ground.
10. Which of the following is the correct order of energy changes or conversions in a generator?
A. Heat energy in cylinder - kinetic energy in piston – electrical energy
B. Chemical energy from fuel – heat energy in cylinders – kinetic energy in Pistons – rotational
kinetic energy in dynamo – electrical energy
C. Chemical energy – rotational kinetic energy in the dynamo – rotational kinetic in pistons -
electrical energy.
D. Electrical energy – rotational kinetic energy in dynamo – rotational kinetic energy in piston –
sound energy.
11. What energy changes take place when a switch of the electrical bell is pressed?
A. chemical – electrical – kinetic – magnetic – sound
B. chemical – electrical – magnetic – kinetic – sound
C. chemical – electrical – sound
D. electrical – magnetic – sound.
12. A train traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s over comes a resistive force of 8kN. The power of
the train is;
A. B. C. D.
13. A pump is rated at 400w. How many kilograms of water can it raise in one hour through a height
of 72m?
A. 0.8kg B. 5.6kg C. 33.3kg D. 2000kg
14. The energy transformations involved in a bicycle dynamo is
A. Electrical to chemical B. Potential energy to chemical energy
C. Chemical to light energy D. Kinetic energy to electrical energy.
15. Which of the following statement is true about energy transformation?
A. A steam engine changes heat energy into mechanical energy
B. A thermopile changes electrical energy to heat energy
C. A dynamo changes electrical energy to mechanical energy
D. A microphone changes electrical energy to sound energy.
16. An engine exerts a force of 2000N at a speed of 15m/s. Find the power developed by the engine in
kW.
A. 30,000 B. 3,000 C. 300 D. 30

89
 18. A constant force of 5N acts on a body and moves it through a distance of 20m in 10s. Calculate it
power.
A. 2.5W B. 10W C. 40W D. 100W
19. In which of the following devices is kinetic energy converted to electrical energy?
A. An accumulator. B. An electric motor
C. A combustion engine D. A dynamo
20. A body of mass 25kg falls freely from a height of 10m to the ground. Calculate its velocity as it hits
the ground.
A. 4.47m/s B. 10.0m/s C. 14.14m/s D. 2500m/s
21. A mouse of mass 0.03kg climbs through a distance of 2m up a wall in 4s. The power expended in
watts is
A. B. C D.

22. A bullet of mass 0.02kg is fired with a speed of 40m/s. calculate its kinetic energy.
A. 0.4J B. 0.8J C. 16J D. 32J
23. A water pump raises 2000kg of water through a vertical height of 72m in one hour. Calculate the
power of the pump.
A. 40,000W B. 4000W C. 400W D. 40W
24. Which of the following statement is true about an electric motor? It changes
A. Kinetic energ to electrical energy C. Electrical energy to kinetic energy
B. Electrical energy in light energy D. Chemical energy to electrical energy
25. A ball of 1kg bounced off the ground to a height of 2m after falling from a height of 5m. Find the
energy lost.
A. 5J B. 20J C. 30J D. 50J
26. A boy pulls a block of wood with a force of 30N through a distance of 300m in 2 minutes . Find the
power he develops, if he pulls the block at a constant speed
A. B. C. D.

27. An electric motor of efficiency 90% operates a water pump. If it raises 0.9 kg of water through 10m
every second, calculate the electrical power supplied to the motor.
A. 8.W B. 81W C. 90W D. 100W
28..A bullet of mass 5g is fired at a speed of 400m/s. How much energy does it have?
A. ½ x 5 x 102 x 400J C. ½ x 5 x 10-3 x 400 x 400J
B. ½ x 5 x103 x 400J D. ½ x 5 x 102 x 400 x 400J

90
29. An object of mass 2kg , dropped from the top of a building hits the ground with kinetic energy of
900J. The height of the building is
A. 30m B. 45m C. 90m D. 180m
30. A force of 50N moves an object through a distance of 200m in 40s. The power expended is
A. 100N B. 160N C. 200N D. 250N
31. A thermopile is an instrument which converts
A. Heat energy to electrical energy C. Light energy to electrical energy
B. Electrical energy to light energy D. Chemical to heat energy
32. A car of mass 1.5 x 103 kg climbs a hill in 900s. If the top of the hill is 50m above the starting point,
find the average power output of the engine.
A. 1.38 x 10W B. 8.33 x 102W C. 5.00 x 103W D. 7.50x105W
33. A man of mass 50kg climbs 40 steps up stairs. If each step is 0.2m high , the potential energy gained
is;
A. 100J B. 400J C. 4000J D. 20,000J
34. A body of mass 20kg falls freely from a height of 5m. Find the velocity with which it hits the ground.
A. 3.2m/s B. 4.5m/s C. 7.1m/s D. 10m/s
35. 106 kg of water falls from a height of 50m in every second. Calculate the power generated.
A. 2 .0 x 104W B. 2.0 x 105W C. 5.0x107W D. 5.0 x 108W
36. The production of electrical energy in a nuclear reaction follow the sequence
A. Nuclear energy – chemical energy – kinetic energy – electrical energy
B. Nuclear energy – heat – chemical energy – electrical energy
C. Nuclear energy –heat – kinetic energy – electrical energy
D. Nuclear energy – kinetic energy – heat – electrical energy
37. A stone of mass 20g falls through a distance of 10m . Calculate the kinetic energy it loses.
A. 0J B. 2J C. 200J D. 2000J
38. A fly wheel connected to an internal combustion engine is made heavy in order to
A. Store rotational kinetic energy C. Produces a spark
B. Store kinetic energy D. Help values to open at regular intervals.
39. Which of the following is the correct order of energy changes at the hydro electric power station?
A. Kinetic energy – potential energy – electrical energy
B. Potential energy – kinetic energy – electrical energy
C. Potential energy – heat energy – electrical energy
D. Heat energy – potential energy – electrical energy

91
40. In a four – stroke internal combustion engine, the work required for initial induction and
compression comes from.
A. The rotational kinetic energy stored in the fly wheel.
B. The movement of the steering wheel.
C. The separate starter motor.
D. The sparking plug.
41. When a force of 30N is applied to a stationary trolley, the trolley moves through a distance of 10m
in 20s in the direction of the force. The average power developed by the trolley is
A. 6.67W B. 60W C. 15W D. 7.5W.
42. A machine lifts a load of 500N through a distance of 10m in 5s. The average power of the machine is
A. 0.1kW B. 10kW C. 50kW D. 250kW
43.

5m 3m
2kg
4m
A brick of mass 2kg is lifted to a height of 3m along a smooth inclined plane 5m long as shown
above. The work done is
A. 10J B. 60J C. 100J D. 6J
44. A boy pulls and releases an elastic rubber band to project a stone. Which one of the following gives
the correct order of the energy changes?
A. Chemical energy – elastic potential energy – kinetic energy
B. Kinetic energy – elastic potential energy – kinetic energy
C. Elastic potential energy – chemical energy – kinetic energy
D. Chemical energy – kinetic energy – elastic potential energy.
45. Water flows over a large fall of height 50m at a rate of 200kg /s and runs a generator of efficiency
80%. The power of the generator is;
A. 2.5 x 104w B. 8.0 x 104w C. 2.5 x 105w D. 8.0 x 105w
46. A 5kg mass is projected vertically upwards with a speed of 15m/s. To what height does the mass
rise?
A 8m B. 3m C. 11.25m D. 25m
47. 120J of useful work is done by the machine when 150J of energy is supplied. The efficiency of the
machine is
A. 60% B. 75% C. 80% D. 125%
EXERCISE;15 (Objectives)
92
1. A man lifts a weight of 30kg through a height of 2m in 6s. Determine the power he develops.
A. 100W B. 25W C.600W D. 900W
2. A man lifts amass of 300kg through a vertical height of 10m in 12s. What power does he expend?
A. 250W B. 2500W C. 360W D. 360W
3. A boy of mass 50kg runs up a stair care consisting of 20steps each 30cm high in 5s. Calculate the
power he generates.
A. 15W B. 600W C. 375W D. 150W
4. A bullet of mass 20g is fixed with a speed of 40ms-1. Calculate its kinetic energy
A. 32J B. 0.8J C. 16J D. 0.4J
5. A crane lifts 4 bricks per minutes through a height of 1.5m. Find the power that is expended if each
brick weight 100N.
A. 600.0W B. 150W C. 10.0W D. 2.5W
6. A stone mass 1000g is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15ms-1.
What is the kinetic energy of the stone on reaching the ground?
A. 112.5J B. 11.25J C. 56.25J D. 5.625J
7. What energy changes take place when a switch of the electric bell is pressed?
A. Chemical - Electrical - kinetic - magnetic
B. Chemical – Electrical – sound
C. Chemical - electrical - magnetic - kinetic - sound
D Electrical - magnetic - sound
8. A block of wood is pulled with a force of 30N through a distance of 300m in 2minutes. If the block is
pulled at uniform speed, calculate the power developed.
A. 1.25W B. 5.00W C. 75.00W D. 300.00W
9. A body of mass at a height h from the ground has.
A. Total gravitation potential energy
B. The greatest gravitational potential energy when at a height h.
C. The greatest potential energy when it just drops from the ground
D. The least potential energy when at a height of ½ h to the ground.
10. At what height above the ground must a mass of 5kg be to have energy equal in value to the kinetic
energy possessed by a mass of 5kg moving with a velocity of 10ms-1?
A. 1m B. 5m C. 10m D. 100m
11. Which of the following devices can change electrical energy into heat energy
A. Bulb B. Cooker C. Dynamo D. Electric bell

93
13. The energy changes that occur when a torch is switched on are.
A. Chemical – heat – electrical – light C. Chemical – electrical – heat – light
B. Electrical – heat – light – chemical D. Electrical – chemical – heat – light
14. The diagram in the figure below shows an oscillating pendulum bob. Which of the following
statements is true about motion? A. The kinetic energy at B is equal to kinetic energy
at A.
B. The kinetic energy at B is less than the potential
energy at A
C. The kinetic energy at B is equal to the potential
A C Highest level energy at A
D. The kinetic energy at B is greater than the
B Lowest level potential energy at A.

15. A microphone converts

A. Electrical energy into sound energy C. Sound energy into electrical energy
B. Electrical energy into heat energy D. Sound energy into heat energy
16. A water pump raises 2000kg of water through a vertical height of 72m in one hour. Calculate the
power of the pump.
A. 40,000W B. 4,000W C. 400W D. 40W
17. Which of the following convert’s electrical energy to sound energy
A. Dynamo B. An accumulator C. Loud speaker D. Microphone
18. A joule is defined as
A. The unit of power
B. Work done to move an electron round a closed circuit
C. The unit of work
D. None of the above
19. A lorry moving at a constant speed of 20ms-1 overcomes a resistive force of 8KN. The power of the
lorry is
A. B C. D.
20. A car of mass 1.50 x 103kg climbs a hill in 700s. If the top of the hill is 50m above a starting point.
Find the average power output of the engine
A. 7.50 x 105W B. 2.10 x 104W C. 1.07 x 103W D. 1.07x 102W

94
 PRESSURE
It is defined as force acting normal per unit area.
Pressure =

S.I units of pressure is or Pa (Pascal’s)

Other units of pressure are;

i) Atmosphere (atm), 1atm = 760mmHg
ii) Millimeter of mercury (mmHg), 1atm = 101325 Pa
iii) Centimeter of mercury (cmHg), 1atm = 76cmHg

Large units of pressure are;

Kilopascals ( ) ( )
Mega Pascal ( ) ( )
Example

1. An object of mass 5kg rests on an area of 4m2. Find the pressure it exerts.

but F= mg P = 12.5
2. A mass of 50kg rests freely on a horizontal ground with circular end of radius 7m. In contact with the
ground, what is the pressure exerted on the ground by the mass
P=

Where F = mg and A = P = 3.25

Note:
At constant force, pressure is inversely proportional to area i.e pressure is greatest when area is
smallest and pressure is least where area is greatest.
Therefore;

Example
A rectangular block of mass 48kg measures . Calculate?
i) Greatest pressure ii) Least pressure

95
 Solution
Maximum area = 4x 3 = 12m2 Greatest pressure = 80
Minimum area = 3 x 2 = 6m2 ii)
i)

= 40
Least pressure = 40
= 80

UNEB section A
1. (1988 Q.13) Calculate the pressure exerted on the road by a car of . If the area of
contact between the road and each of the four tyres is
A. 37 B. 37 x 104 C. 3.7 x 105 D. 1.48 x 106
2. (1991 Q.5) A Hippopotamus can easily walk on mud without sinking while a goat will sink because;
A. Hippopotamus has more weight than a goat
B. The centre of gravity of a hippopotamus is lower than that of a goat .
C. Hippopotamus exerts more pressure on the ground than a goat.
D. A hippopotamus exerts less pressure on the ground than a goat.
3. (1995 Q.15) The diagram below show the possible shapes of water dams

(i) (ii) (iii)

Which shape(s) is are preferable

A. (i) and (ii) only B. (ii) and (iii) only C. (i) and (iii) only D. (iii) only
4. (1996 Q.39) A rectangular block of dimension exerts a maximum pressure of
200 when resting on a table. Calculate the mass of the block.
A. 4g B. 16g C. 40g D. 400g
5. (2002 Q.9) The mass of a cuboid of dimensions is . The minimum pressure it
can exert is.
A. 20 B. 40 C. 60 D. 80
Section B
6. (1994 Q.25) A mass of 2.4kg rests on the floor. If the area of contact with the floor is , what
pressure does the mass exert on the floor ( )

96
7. (2003 Q.10) A rectangular block of metal weighs and measures ( ) what is the
greatest pressure it can exert on a horizontal surface.
8. (1992 Q.33) A rectangular block of mass measures . What is the least pressure
it can exert on a given surface ( )

Pressure in fluids
The pressure in fluids has the following properties;
i) Pressure increases with depth below its surface.
ii) Pressure at any one depth acts equal in all directions.
iii) Pressure is the same at the same depth
iv) It increases with the density of a liquid.
v) It is independent of the base area.

1. Experiment: To show the pressure in liquids depends on depth.

 Make three, A, B, and C of the same diameter along a vertical line on one side of a tall can.
 Fill the can with water and open the holes at the same time and observe

C
Water
B

Observation
 Hole A shoots its water further followed by hole B and hole C shoots its water nearest.
Explanation
 There is because pressure increase with depth i.e. pressure at A >pressure at B> pressure at
C.
2. Liquid finds its own level
When water is poured into a set of connected tubes of various shapes, it flows to the bottom of the
container. The pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the container. The liquid
rises to the same level in all tubes regardless of the shapes.

This confirms that pressure of a liquid at a column depends only on a vertical height and not width
or shape of a tub.
97
 Calculation of pressure in a liquid
Consider a liquid of density put in a cylinder of height h
But M = volume x density x g

Liquid of density ρ
P=
h
P=

P=
Pressure =
P=
Force = Mass x gravitational acceleration
F = mg

Note:
The pressure at any point of a liquid at rest depends only on the depth and density.

Example
1. What is the pressure 100m below the surface of the sea water of density .
Solution
P

2. Find the pressure at the bottom of a cylindrical container containing mercury of density 13600kgm-3
as shown in the diagram below;
Solution
Mercury P=h g
16m

3. A liquid of density .and volume was poured into a container measuring

at its base. Find
i) Mass of the liquid ii) Pressure exerted at the base ( )
Solution ii) P = hg
i) = But volume = area x h P= hg

M=
M= h
M= h = 10m
4. Convert 760mmHg to Pascal’s if the density of mercury is 13600 ( )
98
 Solution h = 0.76m
h 760mm, h m P=h g

5. (2001 Q.10) A metal cylinder contains a liquid of density 1100 . The area of base of the
cylinder and the height of the liquid is 5m. Calculate the force exerted by the liquid on
the base of the cylinder.
Solution P= h g But P =
= 1100 , P = 5 x 1100 x 10
g= , h= 5m, P = 55000
A = 0.005 , F = 275N

Measurement of liquid pressure

Fluid pressure is measured using an instrument called manometer.
A manometer is a U-shaped tube filled with a liquid usually mercury.
One arm of the manometer is connected to a thistle funnel whose base is covered with a thin
membrane and the other end remains open to the atmosphere.
Rubber tubing

H(Atmospheric pressure)

Liquid h
Thistle funnel
B A

Manometer

The difference in the liquid surface levels, h gives the pressure at point and it is called gauge
pressure.

Note:
Gauge pressure is the excess pressure
The actual (total) pressure acting at A is called the Absolute pressure

Where H – is atmospheric pressure

h g – pressure due to liquid column h

99
 Measurement of gas pressure
One arm of the manometer is connected to the gas source whose pressure is to be measured. The
other arm of the tube is left open to the atmosphere.
The U-tube contains a liquid such as mercury, alcohol, water and paraffin etc.
Rubber tubing
H Pressure at B = Pressure at A
Gas
supply

Where h = h2 – h1
h
h2

B A

h1

Mercury U- tube

Examples
1. Find the pressure exerted by the gas in the figure below where density of mercury is 13600 ..
Solution
Gas
supply

= 101325 + ( )
20cm

Gas pressure = 128525

Mercury

2. In the figure before find the gas pressure if the density of mercury is 13600 .and the
atmospheric pressure is 76cm of Hg. Give your answers in;
i) mmHg ii) Pascal’s
h = h2 – h1 = (80 – 20) = 60cm
Gas
supply h = 60 x 10 = 600mm
Gas pressure = H + h
= 760 + 600
80cm
= 1360mmHg

20cm
ii) Gas pressure = H + h g
Mercury
= 101325 + ( )
Solution
Gas pressure = 182925Pa
i) H = 76cmHg = 760mmHg

100
3. Find the gas pressure in the figure below.
If the atmospheric pressure is 1.0 x 105Nm-2
and density of mercury is 1.36 x 104 ..
Gas
Solution
25cm
Gas pressure = H + h g

= 1.0 x 105 +
Mercury
Gas pressure = 134000

Note
 If the closed end of the U-tube was open the trapped gas would escape and the mercury
column on the right arm would fall while one on the left arm would rise until the two levels
become the same level.
 It is not advisable to use water instead of mercury because water is less dense than mercury
therefore to balance the same pressure requires a large volume of water.

Applications of liquid pressure

Liquid pressure is applied in;
i) Measurement of density of liquids
ii) Measurement of relative density of liquids
iii) Water supplies

i) Measuring the density of a liquid very a manometer

Example
1. Find the density of paraffin if the density of cooking oil is 950 .as shown in the diagram
below;
Solution
Cooking oil
Pressure of paraffin = pressure of oil
g = g
Parafin
25cm
23cm x 950 x 10 = x x 10

=
Mercury
= 1033kgm-3
Density of paraffin = 1033 .
2.
101
 Cooking oil Solution
Pressure of water = pressure of oil
Water g = g
20cm
16cm
x 1000 x 10 = x x 10
Mercury

Find density of oil, if density of water is =

1000 . = 800 .

3. Find the value of h

Alcohol of density Pressure of glycerine = pressure of alcohol
500kgm-3
Glycerin of density
g = g
1250kgm-3
h x 1250 x 10 = x 500 x 10
50cm
h h =
Mercury h = 0.32m
Solution h = 32cm

ii) Measurement of relative density of liquid using a manometer

The relative density of liquid is determined by balancing liquid column with water column.

Water
Liquid
hL
hW
A B
Mercury

Pressure exerted on mercury by water at A = pressure exerted on mercury by liquid at B

g = g is density of water
hw is height of water column
hL is height of liquid column

Where is density of liquid

Example (1993 Q. 10)

An open U- tube contains column of water and Kerosene over mercury as shown above. Calculate
the relative density of kerosene.
102
 Water Solution
Kerosene
10cm
8cm

R.D =

R.D = 0.8
iii) Water supply
Water is pumped using a generator to a large tank situated on top of a hill or a tall support. The
difference in heights between the water levels in the reservoir and that in taps to be supplied
creates pressure difference which forces water out when a tap is opened.

Note
Water tanks and dams are made thick (broader) at the base so that it can sustain greater pressure
from the water column.

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS (PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE)

It states that, the pressure exerted at a point in an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally throughout
the liquid in all direction.

Expt: To show that pressure in liquid is transmitted equally throughout the liquid in all
directions
- Fill round bottom flask large holes on the round surface with water.
- Push the plunger in the direction shown in the diagram below;

Round bottom flask

Plunger

Water

Observation
Water sets through the holes with the same speed in all directions

Applications of Pascal’s principle

Pascal’s principle is applied in;
a) Hydraulic press (Braham’s press)
b) Hydraulic brake (car braking system) (c) Hydraulic Jack

103
 a) HYDRAULIC PRESS
It uses Pascal’s principle of equal transmission of pressure in liquids.
The area of the piston where effort is applied is made smaller in order to obtain pressure as large as
possible.
Operation
Effort F1
Load F2 Effort is applied at the smaller piston and the
hydraulic pressure is transmitted equally

Small Piston of area A1 through the liquid to the larger piston resulting
Large Piston of area A2
to a large force which raises a heavy load.
Calculations
Pressure exerted on small piston = pressure
Liquid
exerted or large piston
P1 = P2

1. Find the load

20N Load Using Pascal’s principle

Area = 0.02m2 Area= 0.1m2

Load =

Load = 100N
Solution
2. In the figure below, find the magnitude force F needed for the system to be at equilibrium.
10kg F

r1 = 20cm r2 = 100cm

= 250kg
g
Solution
F = 250x 10N
F = 2500N

104
3. A Hydraulic press has 2 pistons. If a force of 20N is applied on a larger piston of radius 7cm. Find
the radius of the smaller piston given that a force of 0.2N acts on it at equilibrium.
Solution
Using Pascal’s principle

√
= 7 x 10-3m = 0.7cm

HYDRAULIC BRAKE
Pedal
Master cylinder

To other wheel

Brake fluid

Wheel cylinder

Brake drum
Brake lining
Return spring
Brake shoe

Hinge

Operation
 When the brake pedal is pushed, the piston in the master cylinder moves forward and this
squeezes the brake fluid.
 A hydraulic pressure is created and is transmitted to the wheel cylinders equally.
 The force generated force the pistons in the wheel cylinders to push the brake shoes
outwards. This presses the brake linings against the brake drum and prevents the rotation
of the wheels hence the vehicle slows down and comes to rest.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the earth surface due to weight
of air.
Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude e.g. the atmospheric pressure is 101325Pa or earth’s
surface.

105
The blood pressure of a person is always equal to atmospheric pressure. However at high altitudes,
the atmospheric pressure decrease and a person at such an altitude may surfer from nasal bleeding
and this is because the blood pressure exceeds the atmospheric pressure at high altitudes.

Effects of atmospheric pressure on boiling point of liquids

Boiling of liquid occurs when the vapour pressure from boiling liquid equal the atmospheric
pressure and is directly proportional to atmospheric pressure. Therefore, at higher altitudes liquid
boil at low boiling point. As a result cooking takes longer at higher altitude than at lower altitudes.

EXPT: TO SHOW THE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE EXISTS

i) Drinking straw
 When a person sucks using a mouth, a
Atmospheric pressure
partial vacuum is created in a mouth.
 Atmospheric pressure acting at the surface
of the liquid in the bottle then exceeds the
air in the straw and this forces the liquid up
to the mouth.

ii) Crushing can experiment

 Pour water into a can till its half way
 Heat the water in the can until steam issues freely.
 Tightly fit the can with a stopper and then pour cold water on the can.

Steam
Air pressure
Atmospheric pressure

Boiling water

Heat

Observation
The metal can crushes inwards
Explanation
When cold water is poured on this can all the steam condenses causing the atmospheric pressure
outside to exceed the pressure inside, hence the can crushes inwards.

106
 Measurement of atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured using the following instruments
i) Barometer
ii) Bourdon gauge

Simple Barometer
This is an instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
There are two types of barometers namely
i) Mercury barometer ii) Water barometer

Measuring atmospheric pressure using mercury barometer

Torricellian vacuum  Invert the tube and place it vertically with it’s
end below the surface of the mercury in the
beaker and remove the finger.
Atmospheric pressure H
 Mercury in the glass tube falls for awhile and
h =760mm
then stops at a height which is supported by
atmospheric pressure.
 Measure the barometer height (h) of the
mercury column
Mercury  The atmospheric pressure is the
length of the mercury column above the
surface of mercury i.e. h = 760mm.
 Fill a thick walled glass tube with mercury up  Vertical height remains constant even if the
to the brim, tube is felted unless the top of the tube is less
 Cover the open end of the tube with a finger. than 760mm

Note:
It is more convenient to use mercury barometer than water.
Reason
The density of water is low therefore to sustain atmospheric pressure will require large volumes of
water. You may have to get a ladder in order to take readings

Example, (2000 Q.2). The difference between the atmospheric pressure at the top and bottom of a
mountain is 1x104Nm-2. If the density of air is 1.25kgm-3. Calculate the height of the mountain
107
Solution
P = h g 1 x 104 = h = 800m

Applications of atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure is applied in the following;
i) lift pump (common pump) ii) Force pump

i) Lift pump

Up stroke Down stroke

Plunger

Spout

Valve B Piston

Valve A
H H H

Water

Upstroke
During upstroke, the piston moves up, valve A opens and water moves to the space above valve A
due to atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of water.
Down stroke
During down stroke, the piston moves down, valve A closes due to the weight of water on it and
valve B opens due to water pressure allowing water to flow upwards and the water reaches the
spout and pours out

Limitations of the lift pump

Atmospheric pressure can only support a column of water 10m high and this is a maximum height
through which water can be raised by a lift pump. In practice, it is less because of the leakage of the
valves and the piston.

108
(ii) Force pump
Up stroke Down stroke

Air chamber

Piston
Valve B

Barrel

Valve A
H H H

Water

Up stroke
During upstroke, the piston move upwards, valve A opens and valve B closes and because of
atmospheric pressure, water moves into the barrel.
Down stroke
During down stroke, the piston moves downwards, valve A closes due to the weight of water on it,
and valve B opens due to pressure of the water. Water is forced into the air chamber compressing
the air in the chamber that force the water out of the spout.

Note
The compressed air in a force pump forces the water to rise up to height beyond 10m.

Other application of atmospheric pressure

i) Drinking straw iii) Syringe
ii) Bicycle pump iv) Siphon

Pressure due to flow of liquid in a pipe

Liquid flowing in a pipe has three kinds of energies.
i) Kinetic energy ii) Potential energy iii) Pressure energy
The sum of these energies is a constant.

Bernoulli’s principle
It states that; in an incompressible non viscous fluid, the sum of the kinetic energy per unit volume
plus the potential energy per unit volume plus pressure is constant.

109
 Consider water flowing in a pipe with a constriction at one point as shown in the diagram below;

The speed of the water is greater at the constriction (narrow part of the tube) but the pressure is
low. i.e. pressure decreases with increase in speed of fluid flow.

FLUID FLOW
a) Steady flow/laminar flow
A steady flow is the type of fluid flow in which all the fluid particles that pass any given point follow
the same path at the same speed.
It can be obtained by making
 The diameter of pipe wide  The fluid to flow slowly and uniformly

b) Turbulent flow/disorderly flow

A turbulent flow is the type of fluid flow in which the speed and direction of the fluid particles
passing any point vary with time.
It can be obtained by;
 Making the diameter of the pipe narrow  Making the pipe lie steeply

UNEB (Section A)
1. (1990 Q.17). If mercury barometer reads 760mm of mercury, what is the atmospheric pressure in
Nm-2. ( Density of mercury is 1.3 x 1 .).
A. 1.03 x 104Nm-3 B. 1.36 x 104Nm-2 C. 1.03 x 105Nm-2 D. 1.36 x 105Nm-2
2. (1991 Q.3).
The diagram shows air trapped by a column
of mercury in a j-tube. The atmospheric
66cm
Air
pressure is 76cmHg at what pressure is the
enclosed air;

Mercury
A. 10cmHg B. 66cmHg
C. 76cmHg D. 142cmHg

110
3. (1993 Q.2).
as in the figure below. If a steady flow of a
Y Z
X
liquid is maintained in the direction indicated
by the arrows, the height of the liquid will be
A. Greatest in X B. Greatest in Y

A uniform tube with a narrowed middle part C. Greatest in X and Z D. Equal in X,Y & Z
has three identical manometers attached to it
5. (1993 Q. 20)
When the handle, H of the force pump shown
H
in diagram below is moved upwards, the
valves at
A. F and G will both close
F
B. F will close and G will open
G
C. F and G will both open
D. F will open and G will close

6. (1994 Q.16). In a hydraulic press, the area of the piston on which the effort is applied is made smaller
in order to
A. Facilitate the movement of the piston downwards
B. Transmit a force as large as possible to the load
C. Transmit pressure equally throughout the liquid
D. Obtain a pressure as large as possible
7. (1997 Q. 11). Which of the following is true about pressure in liquids. It
A. Increases with the area of the liquid C. Depends on the shape of the container
B. Is directly proportional to the depth D. Is the same at equal depths in all liquids?
8. (2002 Q.9). The mass of a cuboid of dimensions 4m x 2m x 3m is 48kg. The minimum pressure it can
exert is.
A. 20Nm-2 B. 40Nm-2 C. 60Nm-2 D. 80Nm-2
9. (2007 Q.27). In the crushing can experiment the can collapses because
i) The can contracts on cooling
ii) Pressure outside is greater than pressure inside.
iii) The steam condenses to produce water and water vapour at high pressure
A. (ii) only B. (iii)only C. (ii) and (iii) only D. (i) (ii) and (iii)
111
10. (2007 Q.30) A hydraulic brake works on the principle of
A. Transmission of pressure in a liquid C. Existence of viscosity in a liquid
B. Distribution of force in a liquid D. High density of a liquid
11.(2009Q.34). A wheel barrow that is used to carry a load across a soft ground should have
A. narrow wheel because it exerts a greater pressure on the ground
B. narrow wheel because it exerts less pressure on the ground
C. wide wheel because it exerts greater pressure on the ground
D. wide wheel because it exerts less pressure on the ground
12. (2010 Q.34). Which one of the following is an advantage of a force pump over a lift pump?
A. A force pump does not use atmospheric pressure to raise water.
B. A force pump raises water to a level higher than a lift pump
C. A force pump uses less energy to raise water than a lift pump
D. The length of a force pump is less than that of a lift pump
13.(2010 Q.38). Figure below shows a cone of mass 4 kg and base radius of 50 cm resting on a table
Solid cone Find the pressure it exerts on the table
Table
A. B.

C. D.
50 cm

14.(2011 Q.2). Sucking a drink out of a bottle using a straw is only possible if the atmospheric
pressure on the surface of a liquid is
(i) less than the air pressure inside your mouth
(ii) equal to the air pressure inside your mouth
(iii) greater than the air pressure inside your mouth
A. (i) only B. (iii) only C. (ii) only D. (i), (ii) and (iii)
15.(2011 Q.7). The variation of pressure in a liquid contained in a measuring cylinder depends
only on
A. depth B. density C. area of contact D. diameter of the cylinder

Section B
16. (1994 q. 3)
a) The diagram below shows a gas trapped by mercury column in a j-tube

112
 25cm If the atmospheric pressure
Gas
and the density of mercury is .
Find the pressure of the gas ( )
Mercury

b)What would happen if the closed end of the j-tube was opened?
c) Would it have been better to use water instead of mercury in the j-tube? Give a reason for your
answer
17. (1999 Q. 17).
In the diagram, a fixed mass of dry air is
h
trapped in bulb A. If the atmospheric
pressure is 76cm of mercury. Calculate the
38cm
Mercury 68cm total pressure of air in A in;
i) mmHg ( ii) Pascal’s
(Atmospheric pressure = 101325Pa, ρ of
Rubber tubing mercury , )

18. (2000 Q.2)

a) Define the term pressure
b) (i) Describe how a simple mercury barometer can be set up to measure the atmospheric pressure
(ii) The difference between the atmospheric pressure at the top and bottom of a mountain is
. If the density of air is 1.25 ., calculate the height of the mountain
c) (i) State the principle of transmission of pressure in fluids
ii) State two applications of the principle
iii) In figure, piston A has diameter of 14cm while B has diameter of 280cm. If a force of 77N is
exerted on piston A, calculate the force exerted by piston B.

113
 Piston A
Piston B

liquid

18. (2003 q.43)

a) State any two factors which affect pressure in liquids
b) The diagram below shows an instrument used for measuring gas pressure in a laboratory. Find
the pressure in Nm-2 of the gas if the atmospheric pressure is 76cmHg
( of Hg = .)

Gas pressure

To gas
supply 10cm

Mercury

19. (1995 Q.2)

a) (ii) Explain way large water reservoirs are much wider at the base than at top
b)The diagram below shows the structure a force pump

Spout
Air chamber

Piston

0.4m2
H H

Water

i) Describe the action of the pump

ii) If 500N is exerted on the plunger whose surface area is 0.4m2. Calculate the pressure which
forces water into cylinder P

114
 MOMENTS OF A FORCE
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of a force.
A magnitude of moment of a force depends on;
(i) Size of the force
(ii) The perpendicular distance of the point of application of a force from the pivot.

MOMENTS:
The moment of a force is defined as; the product of the force and its perpendicular distance from
the pivot to the line of action of the force.

N.B: The S.I unit of moments is Newton metre (Nm)

The principle of moments

It states that when a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the Anti-clockwise moments about any point
is equal to the sum of clockwise moments about the same point.

Verification of the principle of moments

Apparatus:
 Meter rule
 Masses and mass holders
 Knife edge

d1 O d2

W1 W2

 Balance a meter rule on a knife edge about center O.

 Suspend 2 different masses of weight W1 and W2 on the meter rule using a thread such that
W1 is on one side of the pivot O and W2 on the other side.
 Adjust their position until the meter rule is in equilibrium (balances) in a horizontal
position.
 Note the distances d1 of W1 and d2 of W2 from the pivot.
 The experiment is repeated for various values of W1 and W2 and corresponding distances
d1 and d2 from the pivot are measured and tabulated below;-
W1 d1 W1d1 W2 d2 W2d2

 Its noted that for each set of values i i.e.

Clockwise moments Anti clockwise moments,
Hence principle of moments is verified

115
 Consider a wooden plank AB, balances at O and 2 masses of 2.5kg placed 20cm from the pivot and
1kg placed 50cm from the pivot on the other side.
20cm O 50cm

2.5kg 1kg
A.C.M C.M

Clockwise moment Anti-clockwise moment =

Since the clockwise moment is equal to eh anti-clockwise moment, the plank will be in equilibrium.
(Remain horizontal)

Examples:
1. Lincoln who has a mass of 50kg sits on the left side of the sea saw at a distance of 2.4m from the
pivot. His son can balance the sea saw by sitting at a distance of 3m from the pivot. Calculate the
weight of his son.
Solution At equilibrium:
2.4m O 3m Sum of c/w moment Sum of a c/w moment

50kg W
A.C.M C.M

2. Given the diagram below in equilibrium

3m
1m x At equilibrium:
Sum of c/w moment Sum of a c/w moment
300N 50N 500N (500 x ) (300 x 3) + (50x 1)
Find x
Solution
1.9m
3. Given the diagram below.
10N 1.5m 3m Sum of c/w moment = Sum of a c/w moment
4m 2m ( 3 x W ) + (20 x 2) + ( 10 x 1.5) = 120 x 4
120N 20N W
3W + 40 + 15 = 120 x 4
Find the value of W.
=
Solution
At equilibrium: = 141. 67N

4. Given the meter rule below

T
O 20cm 30cm 50cm 80cm
100cm
2.5N 4N 6N

116
Find the value of T if the meter rule is balancing.
At equilibrium:
Sum of c/w moment = Sum of a c/w moment
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
80 + 300 = 70T + 25

=5.07N
Exercise:
1. A uniform meter rule of mass 80g is pivoted at the 30cm mark, a force of 10N is placed on
the meter rule at the 80cm mark and a string is tied at the 60cm mark so that the meter rule
balances. Find the tension in the string. (An 17.2N)

A COUPLE (PARALLEL FORCES)

A couple are two equal and opposite parallel forces whose line of action do not meet.
Properties of a couple:
 The resultant force on the body is zero.
 The turning effect of a couple causes a rotational effect.
 The forces act in opposite direction.

MOMENT OF A COUPLE OR TORQUE

It is defined as the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of the forces.
F Moment of a couple or torque of couple

d
F

6.3.2: Work done by a couple

Consider two opposite and equal forces acting tangentially on a wheel of radius r.
F Work done by each force

d
But
Total work done by the couple
F

PARALLEL FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

Condition for a body to be in equilibrium
When a system of parallel forces act on a body then it will be in equilibrium when;

117
1. Sum of the forces acting in one direction cancels with the sum of forces acting in opposite direction.
No net force acts on the body(translational equilibrium).
2. Sum of the clock wise moments about a point are equal to the sum of the anti clock wise moment
about the same point. No net turning effect exists i.e. (rotational equilibrium).

Examples:
1. A uniform meter rule of weight 1N is pivoted on a wedge 5cm away from one end and suspended
by a string 30cm from the other end as shown below;

30cm 5cm 25cm 5cm

10cm
2N 5N
10N

If the meter rule is in equilibrium when weights of 10N, 2N and 5N are attached to it as shown above.
Calculate;
(i) Tension in the string
(ii) Normal reaction R at the wedge.

Solution
R
T
30cm 35cm 5cm 25cm 5cm

10cm 15cm
2N 5N
10N
1N

i) At equilibrium: (Moments about the pivot) T = 16. 62N

Sum of c/w moment = Sum of a c/w moment ii) Also T + R = 10 + 1 + 2 + 5
T x 65 = (10 x 85) + (1 x 45) +(2 x 30) + (5 x 25) R=
T= R = 1.38N

2. labourers A and B carry between them a load of weight 500N on a uniform pole of weight 50N. If
the pole is 2m long and the load is 50cm from A towards B;
(i) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the pole.
(ii) Find the fraction of the total weight that is supported by B.
Solution
R
A R
B
Also: RA + RB = 500N + 50N
A 0.5m 0.5m 1m B
RA + RB = 550.
Since RA = 400N
400 + RB = 550
500N
50N RB = 150N
At equilibrium: (Moments about B) Fraction =
Sum of c.w.m = Sum of a.w.m
RA x 2m = 50N x 1m + 500N x 1.5m
2RA = 50 + 750

118
 Exercise:
1. A uniform wooden lath AB, 120 cm long and weighing 1.20 N rests on two sharp edged
supports C and D placed 10 cm from each end of the lath respectively. A 0.20 N weight hang
30 cm from A and a 0.90 N weight hangs 40 cm from B. Find the reactions at the support.
RC RD
20cm 30cm 20cm 30cm
10cm 10cm
A C D B
0.20N 1.20N 0.90 N

An(RC= 1.03N,RD=1.27N)
2. A light half meter rule is tied as below.

0 5cm 15cm 30cm 40cm 45cm 50cm

B 100N 40N 20N

(i) Tension in the string

(ii) Normal reaction at the wedge (An T =80N, RB =80N)
3. Two boys are carrying a uniform ladder of weight 800N, if the boys hold the ladder at 2m
and 3m respectively from the center of gravity, calculate the weight that each boy support.
(A n RA = 480N, RB =320N)
4. A painter of weight 330N trestles on a 4m plank of weight 60N on which he is to stand while
painting a wall. He puts a tin of paint of weight 20N at a distance of 0.5m from the left end of
the plank and stands at 1.5m from the right end of the plank. If the trestles are at a distance of
1m from both ends. Find the reactions at the trestles.
(An R1 =137.5N, R2 =272.5N)

Application of the principle of moments

The principle of moments is applied in;
 Beam balance (weighing scale)
 See Saw
 The determination of mass of a uniform meter rule using a standard mass or weight.
 The determination of mass or weight of an object using a uniform meter rule and
standard(known) mass or weight

a) To determine the unknown weight using a standard weight.

 Balance the uniform meter rule on a knife edge and record the centimeter mark at the
balance point.
 Suspend the standard weight W1 at one end of the meter rule and the unknown weight
W2 from the other end.
 Adjust the weights until the meter rule balances horizontally as shown below.
d1 O d2

W1 W2

 Measure the perpendicular distances d1 and d2

 At equilibrium; W2 x d2 = W1 x d1
W2 =

119
 Examples:
1. What weight placed 15cm from the pivot will balance a 2kg mass placed 12cm from the pivot?
Solution:
15cm 12cm

W 2kg

At equilibrium:
Sum of c/w moment = Sum of a c/w moment
2 x 10 x
2.
10cm 50cm 80cm 100cm

10N P 5N E

i. Calculate the anti-clockwise moment about P.

Anti clockwise moment

ii. What is the total clockwise moment about P?

Total clockwise moment about
( ) ( )

iii. Determine the value of E.

Sum of A c/w moment = Sum of c/w moment

3. The figure below shows a uniform rod of negligible mass that balances when a weight of 3N is at A,
a weight of 3N is at B and weight W is at C.
2m 1m 3m
A B P C

3N 3N W

a) What is the value of W?

Solution
At equilibrium: Sum of a c/w moment = Sum of c/w moment
(3 x 3) + (3 x 1) = Wx3

b) To determine the mass of meter rule using a standard weight W1

 Balance the uniform meter rule on a knife edge and record the centimeter mark at the
balance point.
 Suspend the standard weight W1 at one end of the meter rule adjust the meter rule until
it balances horizontally as shown below.

120
 d1 O d2

W1 mg

 Measure the perpendicular distances from the pivot to the standard weight and the
center of gravity of the meter rule
 At equilibrium
m=
Example:
1.
10 cm 40 cm 50 cm 100 cm

W
20 N

A uniform meter rule is pivoted at 40cm mark as shown. A meter rule is in equilibrium under its
weight ,W and a 20N force acting at 10cm mark. Calculate W.
Solution:
At equilibrium: Sum of a c/w moment = Sum of c/w moment
( ) ( )
W
W 60N
2. A uniform meter rule with 200g mass suspended at the zero mark is balanced on a knife edge when
the pivot is at the 18.0cm mark as shown below.
0cm 18cm 100cm

200g
a) Calculate the mass of meter rule.
b) If the 200g mass was placed at the 5.0cm mark, where would the knife edge be?
Solution
a) Note: For a uniform meter rule its COG is at 50cm mark.
0cm 18cm 50cm 100cm

200g
m

At equilibrium:
Sum of a c/w moment = Sum of c/w moment
m x (50-18) = 200 x 18
m =
Mass of meter rule m = 112.5g
b) Let the perpendicular distance from 200g to the pivot
Then the perpendicular distance from 112.5g to the pivot ( )
5.0cm 50cm 100cm
y 45-y
200g
112.5g
At equilibrium:
Sum of a c/w moment = Sum of c/w moment
( )

121
 16.2cm
The knife edge would be at 5 + 16.2 = 21.2cm mark.
3. The diagram in the figure shows a uniform half- meter rule suspended at point C. If the
perpendicular distance AC is 5cm, find the mass of the half- meter rule.

A C D B

0.1kg M

Solution
Note: For a uniform half meter rule its COG is at 25cm mark
At equilibrium: Moments about C
Sum of a c/w moment = Sum of c/w moment
M x CD = 0.1 x AC
M x 20 = 0.1 x 5
M=
M = 0.025kg
Exercise
1. The diagram in the figure below shows a uniform ½ meter rule suspended at point C. Calculate the
mass of the rule. (An 0.025kg)
50cm

A 5cm D 20cm B
0.1kg mkg

2. A uniform meter rule AB balances at F, when the mass at A is 35g. Calculate the mass (m)of the
meter rule. (An0.14kg )
60cm
A F B

35g

3. A uniform meter rule pivoted at 10cm mark balances when a mass of 400N is suspended at the
0cm mark as shown below.
0cm 10cm 50cm 100cm

400N

If the system is in equilibrium. Find the mass of the ruler.(An =10kg)

4. A non uniform rod of weight 10N is balanced on a pivot by a weight of 4N as shown

20cm
10N 4N
Calculate the distance of the centre of gravity of the rod from the end where 4N force is acting.
(An 28cm)

122
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point through which the resultant (total) weight of the
body acts.

DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR LAMINA

Requirements
Retort stand, cardboard, thread, mass and  Make holes at three points at the edge of
nail the card board and hung the card board on
nail the nail through one of the hole.

Irregular object  Tie the thread on a mass to make a plumb

line. Tie the plumb line on the nail allow it
to rest freely with its thread tacking the
Thread
card board
mass Retort stand
 Trace the thread using a pencil.
 Repeat the procedure when the plumb line
is suspended from the other holes.
 Clamp a nail on the stand so that the  The point of intersection of the three lines
pointed end is free. is the centre of gravity of the board.

Stability and Equilibrium:

Stability is the ability of a body to return to its original state after a disturbance.
Equilibrium is the state of a body in which the resultant force on it is zero and the net turning effect
is zero.

Types of Equilibrium

1. Stable equilibrium. A body is in a stable equilibrium when it returns to its original position
after being displaced slightly.
Characteristics of a body in stable equilibrium
 Large base area.
 The center of gravity is in the lowest position.
 When slightly displaced, the centre of gravity of the body rises and the body returns
to its original position after displacement.
Note:
A body is more stable when it has a wide base and low center of gravity.

2. Unstable equilibrium. If the body does return to its original position after a slight
displacement, the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

123
 Characteristics of a body in un stable equilibrium
 Small base area.
 The center of gravity is in the highest position.
 The body does not return to its original position because; its centre of gravity is
lowered when slightly displaced.

3. Neutral equilibrium. The body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium if the center of gravity is
neither raised nor lowered during displacement and the body remains in the displaced
position.
e.g; when a ball or sphere placed on a level surface, is displaced, its centre of gravity in all
cases remains at the same height and directly above the point of contact.

Characteristics of a body in Neutral equilibrium

 The area in contact is very small.
 The center of gravity is always at the same height directly above the point of
contact.
 The body does not return to its original position because; its centre of gravity is
lowered when slightly displaced

Illustration of the three types of equilibrium using a wooden cone.

a b c

c c c
c c
c

Stable equilibrium Stable equilibrium Neutral equilibrium

C.O.G is raised C.O.G is lowered C.O.G is unchanged
Observation:
In the third case (c) any type of push makes the cone roll on the table. This is Neutral equilibrium.
The center of gravity is already at its lowest and hence any push neither rises nor lowers it. The
cone just rolls to maintain this position of the center of gravity.

To decide the type of equilibrium

c

c c c c

Unstable equilibrium Stable equilibrium Neutral equilibrium

How to increase stability of a body.

i) The base area should be made wide
ii) More weight should be put at the base.

124
 Applications of stability
(i) Manufacturing of products. Manufacturers enhance the stability of the goods they produce
by making them with broad bases and lowering their center of gravity as much as possible.
This is achieved by making the goods heavy at the base.
(ii) A man carrying a jerry can or bucket full of water bends his body to the opposite side.
This additional weight shifts the position of the centre of gravity either on one side or a little
backwards.
In this case, the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls outside the base.
Unless the man bends his body, so as to adjust the position of the centre of gravity of his
body and the load, he will tend to fall.
(iii) Stability of a bus. The position of the centre of gravity in vehicles such as buses, trucks, etc is
very important. When a bus is negotiating a bend, it is tilted.
If the c.o.g is higher than the vertical line through it is likely to pass out of the base and the bus
may overturn so to come over (prevent) toppling, the position of c.o.g of a body can be shifted
towards the lower parts by placing the engine very low.

Revision questions: Section A

1. (a) Define moments of a force.
(b) State two quantities upon which the moment of a force depends.
2. (a) (i) State the Principle of moments.
(ii) Describe an experiment how the principle can be verified.
(iii) State two practical applications of the principle of moments.
3. (a) (i) Define centre of gravity of a body.
(ii) Show how the centre of gravity of an irregular lamina can be obtained
(b) (i) Describe an experiment to determine mass / weight of a metre rule
(ii) How would you use a metre rule of mass 100g and some thread in order to
find the mass of an apple.
4. (a) (i) What is meant by couple?
(ii) What is meant by moment of couple?
(b) (i) State the conditions under which a body may be in equilibrium.
5. (a) What is meant by
(i) Stable equilibrium
(ii) Unstable equilibrium
(iii) Neutral equilibrium
(b) How can the stability of a double deck bus be achieved?
(c) State two conditions under which a body can be stable.
6. Explain the following observations.
(a) It is dangerous to stand up in a moving boat.
(b) Lorries loaded with bags of coffee well high up often fall over when negotiating a corner.
(c) You are likely to be easily knocked over when standing on one foot.
(d) A laboratory retort stand has a heavy base.
(e) Empty cargo vessels are often loaded with sand bags on their return journey.
(f) Rally and racing cars are always loaded with cement bags.

125
 7. (a) Define moment of a force
(b) Describe an experiment to determine the mass of a uniform meter rule using the principle of
moments
(c)
R1 R2 Figure above shows a uniform pole AB of
length 2m and weighs 50N, supported at the
50cm ends of A and B. A load of weight 500N is
A B
suspended at a point 50cm from A.

500N Calculate the reaction forces R1 and R2 at the

support
(d) (i) Explain what is meant by unstable equilibrium
(ii) State two ways of increasing the stability of a body
8. (a) (i) Define moment of a force
(ii) State the principle of moments
(b) Describe an experiment to determine the mass of an object using the meter rule and a single
known mass
(c)

20N
Forces of 20N, 10N and P act on a uniform rod
0.3m
pivoted at its centre as shown above. Find the
P 10N magnitude of P if the system is in equilibrium.
0.1m 0.6m

(d) (i) State two applications of the principle of moments

(ii) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on an object resting on a table.
SECTION B
1.
A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the 40cm
0 10cm 40cm 50cm 100cm marks as shown above. The metre rule is in
equilibrium under its weight W and a 20N
20N W
force acting at the 10cm mark. Calculate W

2.
A uniform beam of weight 2.5N is pivoted at (ii) The reaction at the pivot.
its mid- point P as shown below. The beam
remains in equilibrium when force R and S 0.3m P 0.6m
act on it. If R is 5N. Find the;
(i) Value of S R S

126
1. A uniform metre rule is balanced at the 30 cm mark when a load of 0.8N is hang at the zero mark.
Find the weight of the metre rule.
2. A uniform metre rule of weight 1N is pivoted on a wedge 5cm away from one end and suspended
by a string 30cm from the other end as shown below.
R
T
30cm 25cm 5cm

10cm 15cm
2N 1N 5N
10N

If the metre rule is in equilibrium when weights of 10N, 2N and 5N are attached to it as shown
above, calculate;
(i) The tension in the string
(ii) The normal reaction, R, at the wedge

3. A uniform metre rule , pivoted at the 10cm mark, balances when a mass of 400g is suspended at the
0 cm mark as shown below.
0cm 10cm 100cm Calculate the mass of the metre rule.

400g

4. A uniform metre rule is balanced at the 30cm mark when a load of 0.8N is hung at the zero mark.
Find the mass of metre rule.
5. Two labourers A and B carry between them a load of weight 400N on a uniform pole of weight 40N.
If the pole is 2m long and the load is 40 cm from A towards B,
(i) Draw a diagram to show the forces.
(ii) Find the fraction of the total weight that is supported by B
6. A non- uniform metal bar which is 4.0m long has its centre of gravity 1.0m from the heavy end.
The bar is balanced when it is pivoted from the middle and weight of 750N is suspended from
the light rod.
(a) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the bar.
(b) Calculate the weight of the bar.
7. A uniform metre rule is balanced at 30cm mark when a mass of 60g is hanging from its 0cm
mark. Calculate the weight of the rule.
8. A sea –saw is balanced at its centre. A girl weighing 300N is 2m from the pivot.
A boy weighing 200N at one end of the sea – saw balances the girl. Find the length of the Sea – saw.
9. A meter rule is balanced by masses 18g and 12g suspended from its ends. Find the position of its
pivot.
10. A uniform metre rule weighing 1.2N has a weight of 0.8N suspended at the 90cm mark. At what
mark is rule supported on a knife – edge?
11. A metre rule is found to balance at 49cm mark. When a mass of 100g is suspended at the 10cm
mark, it balances at the 36cm mark. Calculate the weight of the rule.
12. A metre rule is pivoted at its centre. A glass block is hung from one end and the rule is balanced
horizontally by hanging masses of 50g and 25g at 60cm and 80cm marks respectively. Calculate the
mass of the glass block.

127
13. A teacher of mass 75kg sits 1m from one end of a sea –saw which 5m long is. The
Sea – saw is in equilibrium when two form 2 students each of mass 40kg sit on the opposite side.
Determine how far a part the boys must sit, given that one of them is 0.5m from the end of the sea –
saw.
14. A uniform metal tube of length 5m and mass 9kg is suspended horizontally by two vertical wires
attached at 50 cm and 150cm respectively from the ends of the tube. Find the tensions in each wire.
15. It is found that a uniform wooden lath 100cm long and mass 95g can be balanced on a knife – edge
when a 5g mass is hung 10cm from one end. How far is the knife – edge from the centre of the lath?
16. A uniform half metre rule is freely pivoted at the 15cm mark and it balances horizontally when a
body of mass 40g is hung from the 2cm mark.
Draw a clear force diagram of the arrangement and calculate the mass of the rule.
17. A uniform wooden lath AB, 120cm long and weighing 1.2N rests on two sharp edged supports C
and D placed 10cm from each end of the lath respectively. A 0.20N weight hangs from a loop of
thread 30cm from A and a 0.90N weight hangs similarly 40cm from B. Find the reactions at the
supports.
18. The metre rule below balances at 0. Using the information given in the
0.1m O diagram, calculate the weight of metre
rule. Calculate also the upwards force
4N acting at 0
19.
A uniform of plank of weight 200N balances
at two supports A and B as shown above.
A 1m 3m B
Calculate the reactions at A and B.
500N

20.
The diagram below shows a uniform metre rule, of weight W pivoted at the 75cm mark and balanced
by a force of 2N acting at the 95cm mark.
(a) Calculate the moment of the 2N force about
0 50cm 75cm 95cm the pivot.
(b) Calculate the value of W in N using the
W 2N principle of moments.

21. The diagram below shows a balance in use. The object on the right is balanced by the mass on the
left.
16cm 16cm (b) Calculate the moment of the
weight of the object about
pivot.
200g (c) What would the object weigh
on the moon where
(a) Calculate the weight of the g =1.7m/s2?
object.

128
 22. A uniform half – metre rule AB is pivoted 15cm from A. A weight of 7N is hanging from the end A to
keep the rule balanced horizontally. Calculate the weight of half – metre rule.
23. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the 40cm mark and a down ward force of 0.5N is applied at the
20cm mark to balance it. Calculate the weight of the metre rule.
24. A uniform bar weighing 20N and measuring 0.3m is hinged at one end so that it can move up and
down, it is held horizontally by a spring balance attached to it, 0.1m from the hinge. Determine the
reading of the spring balance.
SECTION C OBJECTIVES.
1.
A light beam AB is in equilibrium
30cm 10cm 20cm when forces of 2N, 2N and P act on it
A B
as shown above. Find the magnitude
P of P
2N 2N
A. 5N B. 4N
C. 2N D. 1N
2.
4N
3N
Five forces of 5N, 3N, 4N, 3N and 3N
act on a body as shown above. Find
3N 3N the resultant force of on the body.
A. 2N B. 7N
5N C. 12N D. 18N
3.
X L A. B.

R W C. D.

The figure above shows a uniform beam in

equilibrium when a force R acts on it at one
end. Find the weight, W, of the beam.
4.
10N Forces of 60N, 10N, 40N and 10N act on a
body as shown above. In which direction does
40N 60N the body move?
A. upwards B. down wards
10N C. to the left D. to the right.

5.
The diagram above shows a uniform half
metre rule suspended at point C. The mass m
5cm C D B of the ruler is
A. 0.020kg B. 0.025kg
Mkg C. 0.100kg D. 0.125kg
0.1kg

129
6. The diagram below shows forces of 8N, 6N The magnitude of the resultant force is
and 16 N acting on a particle x . A. 10N B. 14N
6N C. 18N D. 30N

8N X 16N

7.
5N forces of 4N and 5N as shown above. The
A B force exerted by the pivot on the beam is;
A. 16 B. 15
4N W C. 10 D. 8
A uniform wooden beam of weight W is
pivoted at a distance 1/5th of its length from
end A and kept in equilibrium by applying
8.
O 90cm 100cm mass of 200g is suspended at the 100cm
mark as shown above. The mass of the rod is
200g
A. 40g B. 50g
A uniform rod 100cm long pivoted at the C. 400g D. 800g
90cm mark, balances horizontally when a

9. Which of the following statements are true (i) The resultant force on the bar is zero.
about two equal forces F acting on the bar of (ii) The forces cause a rotational effect
length L below. (iii) The forces act in opposite directions
(iv) The forces produce different turning
F
effects
A. (i) only B. (i) and (ii) only
L
C. (i),(ii) and (iii) only
F D. (i),(ii) and (iv) only.

10. The figure below shows a uniform metre rule

of mass 0.1kg pivoted at the 80cm mark. It 80cm 95cm
balances horizontally when a mass P is hang
P
at the 95cm mark. Find the value of P.
A. 0.08kg B. 0.2kg
C. 0.4kg D. 1kg
11. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its centre If the rule is in equilibrium, find the value of
as shown below. F.
20cm A. 4N B. 33.3N
20N
C. 50N D. 100N
F

130
12. The shaft in an engine is subjected to two A. Two forces of 500N acting at right angles to
parallel but opposite forces of 500N each as each other.
shown below. B. Two parallel but opposite forces of 500N
500N C. A single force of 1000N
D. A single force of 250N
500N

The rotation is best stopped by applying

13.
30cm 20cm balances it as shown above.
A. 24N B. 40N
W 60N
C. 90N D. 100N
Find the weight, W, of a uniform metre rule if
a force of 60N at one end
14. If the system below is in equilibrium find the A. 30N B. 50N
value of x. C. 60N D. 90N
30N

4m 6m
2m
60N X

15. The stability of a bus is reduced when a heavy load is placed on its roof rack because.
A. The total weight is increased C. The maximum speed is reduced
B. The pressure upon the tyres is increased D. The centre of gravity is raised.
16.
10cm 20cm Two weights are balanced on a rule of
5N W
negligible mass as shown above. What is the
value of W?
A. 2. 5N B. 10N C. 30N D. 40N
17. A uniform metre rule pivoted at the 25 cm mark balances when a mass of 0.15kg is hung at the 8cm
mark. Calculate the mass of the metre rule.
A. 0.020kg B. 0.048kg C. 0.102kg D. 1.020kg.
18.
40cm P, required to keep the metre rule in
equilibrium if a force of 4N acts at the end of
P 4N the metre rule as shown above.
A uniform metre rule of weight 2N is pivoted A. 2N B. 5.5N
at the 40cm mark. Find the value of the force, C. 6N D. 6.5N
19. An object in unstable stable equilibrium continues to fall when slightly displaced because its
1. Centre of gravity is lowered 2. Centre of gravity is raised
3. Potential energy is reduced 4. Potential energy is increased.

A. 1, 2, 3 correct B. 1, 3 correct C. 2, 4 correct D. 4 correct

20. When a body in stable equilibrium is tilted slightly,
A. The position of its centre of gravity is B. The position of its centre of gravity is
lowered. raised

131
 C. The position of its centre of gravity does
not change
D. It topples over
21.
horizontal by a mass of 120g hung from one
end as shown above. Find the mass of metre
120g rule.
A uniform metre rule is suspended with a A. 80g B. 120g
string at the 20cm mark and is kept C. 30g D. 24g

22. The metre rule in the figure below is X Y

supported at its centre . 20N

12N

If the rule is balanced, the values of x and y respectively are

X Y
A. 3cm 5cm
B. 5cm 3cm
C. 6cm 10cm
D. 12cm 20cm
23. A man weighing 80kg walks along a uniform P Q
plank resting on two supports, 1m from each A. 200N 1200N
end. The plank is 10m long and weighs 50kg. B. 1150N 150N
P Q C. 800N 500N
D. 150N 1150N
80kg 50kg
Find the force on each support when the man
is at one end of the plank as shown above.
24. A metre rule balances at the 49cm mark. When a mass of 100g is suspended at 10cm, it balances at
36cm mark. What is the mass of the metre rule?
A. 200g B. 160 g C. 150g D. 100g
25. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its mid point . A 0.6N weight is suspended from one end. How
far from the other end must a 1N weight be suspended for the rule to balance?
A. 80cm B. 40 cm C. 25cm D. 20cm

132
 MOTION
Motion is change of a body’s position from one place to another.
Terms used:
a) Distance
This is the length between 2 fixed point .
Distance is a scalar quantity and measured in meter.
b) Displacement
This is the distance covered in a specific direction
Displacement is a vector quantity and measured in meter.
c) Speed
This is the rate of change of distance with time
OR
It is the distance covered by an object per unit time.
Speed is a scalar quantity and the SI unit of speed is
N.B: 1.
2. Uniform speed. This is when the rate of change of distance with time is constant.
OR; This is when the rate at which an object covers equal distances in
equal time intervals is constant
d) Velocity
It is the rate of change of displacement with time
OR
It is the distance covered per unit time in a specific direction
Velocity is a vector quantity and the SI unit of velocity is
N.B:

1) Uniform velocity
Is the velocity of a body which covers equal displacement in equal time intervals.
Examples:
 A car covers 72km in 2hours. Find its speed in
Solution
Speed Speed

Speed
 A train covers 360km in 4hours. Find its speed in
i) km/h ii) m/s
Solution
i) S= ii) S=
S= S = 25m/s
S = 90km/h

2) Non uniform m velocity.

Is the velocity in which the rate of change of displacement with time is not constant.

133
 e) Acceleration
It is the rate of change of velocity with time
It SI unit is
Acceleration

Examples:
1. A car from rest moves to a velocity of 20 in 4s, find its acceleration.
Solution
Acceleration Acceleration
– Acceleration
Acceleration
2. A train has a speed of 72km/h and its speed after 4s is 144km/h. Find its acceleration.
Solution
Final velocity = 144km/h Acceleration
Final velocity = 40m/s Acceleration
Initial velocity = 72km/h= Acceleration
Initial velocity = 20m/s

3. A body is brought to rest from a speed of 90km/h in 10s. Find its acceleration.
Solution
Initial velocity 90km/h Acceleration
–

Initial velocity
Acceleration
Initial velocity 25m/s
Acceleration
Acceleration

UNIFORM ACCELERATION & EQUATIONS

Uniform acceleration
Its type of motion in which the velocity of a body changes by equal magnitudes in equal time
intervals no matter how small the intervals may be.
Or
A body is said to be moving with a uniform acceleration if the rate of change of velocity with time is
constant.
Equations of motion
1 equation
st

Suppose a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration , increases its velocity from
to in a time , then from definition of acceleration

Acceleration

…………………………….1

134
 2nd equation
Suppose an object with velocity u moves with uniform acceleration for a time t and attains a
velocity v, the distance s travelled by the object is given by
S = average velocity x time ( )

( )

But
( )
……………………2

3rd equation
( )
From S= +
Since ( )
S=

S=
S = u( )+ ( )

S= +
( ) ……………………3

Examples
1. A car travelling at is brought to rest in 10s. Find the distance it has travelled.
Solution
u= , = , t = 10s S

S 100m
0 = 20 + 10a
Alternatively

2
( )
( ) S 200 100
S 100m

2. A car moving with a uniform acceleration of increases its velocity from 10m/s to 80m/s.
Calculate;
a) The time taken during this change
b) The total distance covered.

135
 Solution

10 , , 2 t = 35s
t = ?, s = ? b)
a)
( )
80 10 + 2t
S = 350 +1225
S = 1575m
Exercise:
1. A car started from rest and accelerated uniformly for and attained a velocity of Find the
acceleration of a car.
2. An object started from and decelerated uniformly for and attains a velocity of .
Calculate;
(i) Acceleration (ii) Deceleration
3. An object started from rest and accelerated uniformly for with an acceleration of Find
the final velocity.
4. A girl started running from point A with a velocity of with a uniform deceleration of
She passed point B after 10s. Calculate the girls velocity at B.
5. A body started from rest and moved with a uniform acceleration of .
a) What is its velocity after ?
b) How far has it travelled in this time?
c) After how long will the body be 100m from its starting point.
6. A car started from with an acceleration of
a) What is its velocity after ?
b) How far has it travelled in this time?
7. The speed of a car is increased from 10m/s to 30m/s, after travelling a distance of 40m. What is the
acceleration of the car?

GRAPHS OF MOTION
1. Uniform velocity

a) Displacement-time graph (b) Velocity-time graph (c) Acceleration-time graph

Velocity Acceleration
Displacement (m/s) m/s2
(m)

No acceleration

Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

136
 2. Non-uniform velocity

Displacement (m)
Displacement (m)
OR

Time(s) Time(s)

3. Uniform acceleration and uniform deceleration

a) Velocity-time graph (b) Acceleration-time graph (c) Constant deceleration
Acceleration Velocity
Velocity m/s2 m/s
(m/s)

Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

Examples:
1. A car started from rest and attained a velocity of 20m/s in 40s. It then maintained the velocity
attained for 50s. After that it was brought to rest by a constant breaking force in 20s.
(i) Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion.
(ii) Using the graph, find the total distance travelled by the car.
(iii) What is the acceleration of the car?
Velocity ( ) ( ) ( )
m/s
20

Method II(Area of a trapezium)

0
40 90 110 Time/s ⁄ ( )
⁄ ( )
( )
= ⁄ ⁄
2. A car from rest accelerates steadily for 10s up to a velocity of 20m/s. It continues with a uniform
velocity for a further 20s and then decelerates so that it stops in 20s
a) Draw a velocity-time graph to represent the motion
b) Calculate;
(i) Acceleration (iii) Distance travelled
(ii) Deceleration (iv) Average speed
Solution
a) (i) Acceleration OA:
Velocity
m/s A B
20

C
0
10 30 50 Time/s

137
 (ii) Deceleration BC: Method II(Area of a trapezium)
⁄ ( )

( )
( )
= 700m

(iii) Distance =Area under graph (iv) Average speed =

( ) Average speed =
( ) ( )
Distance = 700m

3. The graph below shows the motion of the body

Velocity a) Describe the motion of the body
m/s
20 b) Calculate the total distance travelled

15 A B C

4 10 12 Time/s

Solution
a) A body with initial velocity of 15m/s accelerates steadily to a velocity of 20m/s in 4s, it
then continues with a uniform velocity for 6s and its brought to rest in 2s.
b) Distance travelled;
=( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= 210m
4. A car travelling at a speed of 90km/h for 20s and then brought to rest in 8s. Draw a velocity time
graph and find the distance travelled.
Velocity
Distance travelled;
ms
25 =( ) ( )
= 600m

20 28 Time/s

5. The graph below shows the motion of the body

Distance i) Describe the motion of the body
(m)
80 ii) Find the distance traveled

0
5 8 10 Time/s

Solution
i) A body from rest moves a distance of 80m in 5s, it stays at that distance for 3s and then
brought to rest in 2s

138
 ii) Distance travelled
= 80 +80
=160m
Exercise.
1. A car from rest accelerates steadily for 5s up to a velocity of 10m/s, it continues with the uniform
velocity for a further 5s and then decelerates so that it stops in 7s.
a) Draw a velocity –time graph to represent this motion
b) Calculate ;
(i) Acceleration (iii) Distance travelled
(ii) Deceleration (iv) Average speed
2.
Velocity
m/s B C
a) Calculate;
(i) Velocity at B if acceleration is
20 A
D
(ii) Deceleration
10 15 17 Time/s (iii) The distance covered
Describe the motion
3. A racing car starts from rest and accelerates at a rate of 3ms-2, then moves with a uniform velocity
for 2s and is brought to rest in a further 2s.
i) Draw a velocity time graph for this motion
ii) Find the total distance travelled

4. Two vehicles X and B accelerate uniformly from rest. Vehicle A attains a maximum velocity of
30m/s in 10s while B attains a maximum velocity of 40m/s in the same time. Both vehicles
maintained these velocities for 6s. They are then decelerated such that X comes to rest after 6s
while B comes to rest after 4s.
(i) Sketch on the same axes a velocity-time graph for the motion of the vehicles.
(ii) Calculate the velocity of each vehicle 18s after the start.
(iii) How far will the 2 vehicles be from one another during this moment in (ii) above?
5.
Velocity (i) Find the Acceleration of the cyclist
m/s B C
20 between A and B.
(ii) Describe the motion of the cyclist
5 A
D
between B and C.
3 10 14 Time/s (iii) Explain what is happening along CD.
The figure above shows a speed-time graph of (iv) Calculate the distance travelled by
a cyclist. the cyclist during the first 10s.
6. The figure below represents a velocity-time graph for the motion of a car.
Velocity
(i) The distance it has travelled from the start
ms
30
of its motion.
(ii) The time it takes to get back to the
0
12 starting point if its then maintained constant.
5 10 Time/s
-10

139
 TICKER-TAPE TIMER
A ticker timer is a device used to investigate speed, velocity and acceleration.
 A ticker timer has a steel strip which consists of a rapidly vibrating harmer which vibrates
at the frequency (f) of the a.c supply.
 The vibrator prints dots onto a length of paper tape pulled through it.
 The time interval between any two successive dots is called a tick
 A tick(T) is equal to the reciprocal of the frequency of the vibrator

Motion of ticker tape

State of motion Sample of tape Direction of motion
Uniform velocity

Uniform acceleration

Uniform deceleration

Examples:
1. The ticker tape shown in the figure was pulled through aticker timer, which makes 50 dots per
second. Calculate the speed at which the tape is pulled.
E
10cm
F time = x(No. of spaces btn reference points)
time 0.02x5
Solution time 0.1s
Note; 50 dots per second means f 50Hz
d 10cm 0.1m
T 0.02s

2. The figure below shows dots made on a ticker tape pulled by a trolley through a ticker timer.
Describe the motion of the trolley if the frequency is 50Hz.

4cm 8cm
Solution:
For first stage of motion For second stage of motion
f=50Hz = 4cm, No. of spaces =2, =? f=50Hz = 8cm, No. of spaces =5, =?
( ) ( )

140
 Description of motion
In the first 0.04s, the body was travelling with a speed of 100cm/s and then decelerate to a speed of
80cm/s in the next 0.1s.

3. The tape shown in the diagram below was made by a trolley moving with a constant acceleration.
If the frequency of the ticker-timer is 100Hz, Find the acceleration.
2cm 4cm

M N
Solution:
For first stage of motion
f=100Hz = 2cm=0.02m, No. of spaces =2,
=?
( )

Total time
t= ( )

t=
t =0.05s
For second stage of motion
f=100Hz = 4cm=0.04m, No. of spaces =2,
=?
( ) a 20m/s2

Exercise
1. The figure below shows dots produced on a tape pulled through a ticker timer by a moving body.
2cm 5cm

M N
The frequency of a ticker-timer is 50Hz. Calculate the acceleration of the body.

2.
10cm

The ticker tape shown above was pulled through a ticker timer which makes 50 dots per second;
the speed at which the tape was pulled is;
A. 10cm/s B. 25cm/s C. 50cm/s D. 100cm/s

141
 MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
1. Vertical motion
a) When a body is projected vertically upwards its acceleration (a) is a=
“ ”means the velocity of a body decreases by after every second till
the time when the velocity is zero (maximum height) and the body falls down again with a
positive direction due to gravity.
b) An object freely falling vertically downwards has an acceleration of .
This implies that its velocity increases by after every second.
Definition
Acceleration due to gravity is rate of change of velocity with time for an object falling freely.
OR
The force of attraction due to gravity which is exerted on a body of 1kg.

1. Scalar graphs for an object falling freely

a) Speed-time graph (b) Distance-time graph

Distance
Speed (m)
(m/s)

Time(s) Time(s)

2. Motion graph for an object thrown vertically upwards from the top of a cliff

a) Displacement-time graph (b) Velocity-time graph

B Velocity A
Displacement
(m/s)
(m)
A
B C

O C
Time(s) Time(s)

3. Scalar graph for an object thrown upwards from a cliff

a) Distance-time graph (b) Speed-time graph

Speed
Distance
(m/s)
(m)

O
Time(s) Time(s)

Note
For a body thrown vertically downwards, For a body projected vertically upwards
becomes becomes
ecomes ecomes

142
 Numerical examples
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial speed of . Calculate.
i) Time taken to return to the thrower
ii) Maximum height reached
Solution
i) But the total time taken to return to the
since its projected upwards thrower = 2t
V=0

Smax
ii) at max
U=20m/s

From
At max height

Time taken to reach maximum height

2. A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity of . Find
i) The greatest height attained
ii) Time taken by the particle to reach maximum height
iii) Time of flight
Solution
V=0 Hint the particle was projected vertically
upwards therefore
Smax
U=10m/s

At greatest heigh
t

t ≈ 1 s Time to maximum height = 1 s

=
5m iii) Time of flight
ii) From Time of flight = 2x time to max height

at max height Time of flight

3. A ball is dropped from a top of a building 20m high. Find the;

i) Time the ball takes to hit the ground
ii) Velocity with which the ball hits the ground.
Solution
i)

143
 ii)

4. A man stands on the edge of a cliff and throws a stone vertically upwards at 15ms-1. After what time
will the stone hit the ground 20m below the point of projection
Solution
V=0
When the ball begins to return down from
Smax
max height and
U=15m/s

20m
31.25

at max
√
height

Method I Total time ( )

Time taken to hit the ground

Method II
t=
The height of the cliff = 20m which is below
the point of project therefore
Time to maximum height = 1.5s

11.25m
Maximum height 11.25m
Total height = (11.25+20) = 31.25m Time taken to hits the ground

5. A car decelerates uniformly from 20ms-1 to rest in 4s, then reverses with uniform acceleration back
to it original starting point also in 4s
a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the motion, and use it to determine the displacement and
average velocity
b) Sketch the speed-time graph for the motion and use it to determine the total distance covered
and the average speed.
Solution
a)Velocity-time graph

144
 V(m/s)
20
s= 0m
0 4 8 t/s Average velocity =
-20
=
= 0m/s
Displacement s
b) Speed-time graph
Total distance
= 40+40
V(m/s)
= 80m
20

Average speed =
=
4 8 t/s = 10ms-1

6. The graph below shows a ball which is thrown up into the air and then caught

V(m/s)
12
a)Describe the motion briefly
0 2.4
b) Calculate the acceleration
t/s
c) Find the height reached
-12 (above the point where the ball starts)

Solution
a) The ball decelerates uniformly from 12ms-1 to rest in 1.2s and then it reverses with uniform
acceleration back to its original position in another 1.2s

b) v=-12ms-1 u=12ms-1 t=2.4s c)

s
S =0m

Exercise:
1. A body is thrown upwards with an initial velocity at 2m/s. Calculate;
(i) The maximum height attained
(ii) Time taken to reach the maximum height.
2. An object is dropped from a helicopter. If the object hits the ground after 2s. Calculate the height
from which the object was dropped.
3. A stone falls from rest, from the top of the tower. Calculate its velocity after 5s.
4. A body is thrown upwards with an initial velocity of 12m/s
(i) Calculate the maximum height it attained.
(ii) Time taken by the body to return to the ground.
145
 PROJECTILES
This is a motion that involves both horizontal as well as vertical eg shells and bullets, football kicked
etc.
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
An object projected horizontally from a height above the ground
1. A ball rolls off the edge of a table top 1m high a bove the floor with a horizontal velocity 1ms-1.
Find;
i) The time it takes to hit the floor
ii) The horizontal distance it covered
iii) The velocity when it hits the floor
Solution u= 1m/s(constant speed)
U=1m/s

1m

vx
x α
vy v
iii) velocity when it hits the ground
,
i) For vertical motion

√ √

√( ) ( )

ii) For horizontal motion The velocity is 4.6m/s

2. A ball is thrown forward horizontally from the top of a cliff with a velocity of 10m/s. the height of a
cliff above the ground is 45m. calculate
i) Time to reach the ground
ii) Distance from the cliff where the ball hits the ground
iii) Direction of the ball just before it hits the ground
Solution
U=10m/s
√
45m

vx
x α
vy v

ii) For horizontal motion

i) For vertical motion u= 10m/s(constant speed)

iii) velocity when it hits the ground

,

146
 √

√( ) ( )

The velocity is 31.62m/s

Exercise:
1. A particle is projected horizontally at 36cm/s from a point 125cm above a horizontal surface. find
the time taken by the particle to reach the surface and the horizontal distance travelled in that time.
2. A particle is projected horizontally with a speed of 14.7m/s. Find the horizontal and vertical
displacements of the particle from the point of projection after 2s. Find also how far the particle
then is from point of projection.
3. A particle is projected horizontally from a point 45m above a horizontal plane. The particle hits the
plane at a point which is horizontally 39m from the point of projection. Find the initial speed of the
particle.
4. A particle is projected horizontally with a velocity of 39.2m/s. find the horizontal and vertical
components of the velocity of the particle 3s after projection. Find also the speed and direction of
motion of the particle at this time.
5. A body of mass 2kg is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 10m/s, find the maximum
height reached.
6. The velocity of a body of mass 2kg changes from 10m/s to 20m/s in 4s. Find the resultant force that
acts on the body.

Questions: objectives
1. A ball falls from rest through a height of 92.5cm in 0.45s. Find the acceleration due to gravity.
A.

2. A body which is accelerating

A. Experiences zero force C. Travels with increasing velocity
B. Decreases its velocity to zero D. Travels in a straight line.
3. The slope of a velocity-time graph is the?
A. Speed of body C. Acceleration of the body
B. Velocity of the body D. Distance travelled by the body.
4. A body has a constant velocity when?
(i) Acceleration is increasing (ii) It is moving in a straight (iii) The net force on the body is
line zero
A. (iii) only B. (i) and (ii) only C. (i) and (iii) only D. (ii) and (iii) only.

5. The rate at which distance covered by a body in a particular direction changes with time is called;
A. speed B. velocity C. acceleration D. displacement
6.

147
 The velocity-time graph in the figure above
shows the motion of an object moving with;

Velocity(m/s)
A. a decreasing acceleration
B. a constant acceleration
C. an increasing acceleration
Time(s)
D. a constant velocity

7. A body moves with uniform acceleration if

A. Its momentum remains constant
B. It covers equal distances in equal times
C. The velocity changes with equal amounts in equal times
D. The net force of the body is 0.
8. Which one of the following statements is true when a stone of mass 2kg and that of 1kg are
released from the same point at the same time?
A. Both masses will hit the ground at the same time
B. The 2kg mass will hit the ground first.
C. The 1kg mass will hit the ground first.
D. They fall with different speeds.
9. A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity when the rate of change of?
A. acceleration with time is constant B. velocity with time is constant
C. distance with time is constant D. displacement with time is constant
10. A boy throws a ball in the air and it goes up and falls back in his hands, which one of the following
sketches of velocity-time graph represents the motion of the ball up to the time it is received back.
A B C D
V V V V

t t t t
11. When a stone is thrown horizontally from a high tower, which of the following explain sits motion?
(i) Vertical acceleration is constant
(ii) Vertical acceleration is increasing
(iii) Horizontal velocity is constant.
A. (i) only C. (iii) only
B. (i) and (ii) only D. (i) and (iii) only

148
 CIRCULAR MOTION
This is the motion of the body with a uniform speed around a circular path of fixed radius
about a centre.

Note: For a body moving in a circle;

 Its direction and velocity are constantly changing
 It has an acceleration called centripetal acceleration
 It has a force called centripetal force and always directed towards the center

Centripetal acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity of a body moving in a circular
path and is always directed towards the centre.
Centripetal force is a force which acts on a body moving round a circular path and keeps the body
maintaining the circular motion about a centre and this force is directed towards the direction of
the acceleration i.e. towards the centre.

Examples of centripetal forces

1. A car moving around a circular truck: For a car negotiating a corner or moving on a circular path,
the frictional force between the wheels and the surface provides the necessary centripetal force
required to keep it on the truck.
2. A car moving on banked track:
For a banked track, the centripetal force is provided by the frictional force and the horizontal
components of the normal reaction.
3. a) Tension on the string keeping a whirling body in a vertical circle.
The tension force in the string provides the necessary centripetal force
b) For the conical pendulum, the horizontal component of the tension in the string provides
the necessary centripetal force
4. Gravitational force on planets
For a planet orbiting round the sun or satellite revolving about the earth, the gravitational force
between the two bodies provides the necessary centripetal force required to keep the satellite in
the orbit.
5. Electrostatic force on the electrons
For electrons moving round the nucleus, the electrostatics force provides the necessary centripetal
force.

149
 A diagram showing a bob tied at the end of a string being whirled in a horizontal circle
Direction of P
movement of P
Tension
Q T

Direction of W =mg
movement Q

Forces acting on a body whirled in a horizontal or vertical circle

Three forces act on a body being whirled in a horizontal or vertical circle;
 Centripetal force.- acting towards the center of the circle
 Weight.- acting downwards towards the center of the earth
 Tension in the string,- acting towards the center

Note;
 If the speed of whirling is increased the string will most likely break at the bottom of
the circle and the body will take off (fly off) with an initial horizontal velocity ( )
which is tangential at the point
 When the object is released, it moves in a straight line. The direction of motion is a
long the tangent to the circle as shown in the diagram above.

Revision question
A body attached to a string is swung in a vertical circular path in air as shown below.

string
body

(a) Copy the diagram above, on it indicate and name all the forces acting on the body if the body is
moving in a clockwise direction.
(b) Explain why the weight of an object on the Earth’s surface may vary from one place to
another.

150
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s 1st law of motion (Law of inertia)
It states that everybody will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
Note;
 This Newton’s 1st law of motion is known as the law of inertia.

 Inertia is the tendency or reluctance of a body to remain at rest if it is at rest or to continue

moving in a straight line.
 Newton’s 1st law explains why passengers are jacked forward when a sharp brake is applied
or when two vehicles collide.
1. When a moving train or car stops suddenly, passengers are thrown forward; the passenger in a
moving vehicle is also in a state of motion, part of its body is contact with the seat comes to rest but
the upper part of his body continues to move with the same velocity due to inertia and hence is
thrown forward.
2. When a driver of a car suddenly applies brakes he is thrown forward because of the same reason as
in 3 above. He may hit the steering wheel, the dashboard or wind screen and get injured. Hence the
need of a safety belt. It reduces the effect of the forward throw.

MOMENTUM
Momentum is defined as a product of mass and velocity of a body.

The SI unit of momentum is or

Momentum is a vector quantity.

Momentum is determined by 2 factors namely;-

 Velocity  Mass
Examples
 An object of small mass moving very fast may be just difficult to stop or as dangerous as a
large mass moving slowly.
 A small mass such as a bullet can kill when fired from a gun because it moves with a very
high speed.
 A motorcar even when it is moving slowly can also kill a person standing in its path.
 A car with high speed is more difficult to stop than a slow moving car because it has more
momentum.
 A loaded lorry has more momentum than an empty one and it causes heavy damage to an
object into which it crashes.

Numerical Examples:
1. Find the momentum of the following;
a) An object of mass 50kg moving at 20m/s

151
 Solution:

b) An object of mass 100g moving at 30m/s

Solution:

c) A tones oil tank moving at 18km/hr

Mass tones = 5m/s
100000 x 1000
100,000,000kg 5x100,000,000
Velocity 5 kgm/s
2. What is the momentum of a racing car of mass 300kg driven at 360km/hr
Solution

Velocity

100m/s
3. A body of mass 60kg starts moving with initial velocity of 15m/s and accelerates at a rate of 4ms-2
for 5s, then maintains a constant velocity for another 5s and then brought to rest in 10s.
a) Draw a velocity – time graph for this motion.
b) Find;
(i) A body’s momentum during the eighth second
(ii) The total distance travelled.
Solution
a)
Velocity
m/s
35

15 A B C

5 10 20 Time/s

i) Body’s

ii) Total distance travelled

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= 475m

152
 Newton’s second law of motion
It states that the rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction of force.

Consider a body of mass m with an initial velocity u and final velocity v, and the time taken be t.
Initial momentum ( )
Final momentum
( )
Change in momentum –
Rate of change of momentum = Assume , ,
From the Newton’s 2nd law of motion
F Rate of change of momentum
F

Examples:
1. A body of mass 15kg rests on a frictionless horizontal plane and is acted on by a horizontal force of
30N. Find;
i) The acceleration produced
ii) Distance moved by the body in 10s
iii) The velocity at the end of 10s
Solution
i)

iii)

ii)
2. A small truck of mass 20kg is at rest. A force of 100N acts on it and propels it in a straight line for a
distance of 90m. Calculate,
i) Acceleration of the truck
ii) Final velocity of the truck
iii) Time for which the force is acted
Solution
i)

iii)

ii)

153
 Exercise:
1. What force is needed to stop a 500kg car moving at 180km/hr and covered a distance of 12.5m
2. A resultant force of 25N acts on a mass of 0.5kg starting from rest. Find;
a) The acceleration
b) Final velocity after 20s.
c) The distance moved in m
3. A constant horizontal force of 40N acts on a smooth horizontal plane. The body starts from rest and
is observed to move 100m in 5s;
i) What is the mass of the body
ii) If the force ceases to act at the end of the 5s. Find the distance moved by the body

IMPULSE
This is the product of the force and time for which the force acts on a body
i.e. ( ) ( ) ( )

The unit of impulse is .

An impulse produces a change in momentum of a body. If a body of mass(m) has it velocity changed
from u to v by a force F acting on it in time t, then from Newton’s 2nd law.

Examples
1. A body of mass 5kg is initially moving with a constant velocity of 2ms-1, when it experiences a force
of 10N is 2s, find
i. The impulse given to the body by the force
ii. The velocity of the body when the force stops acting
Solution

2. A body of mass 50kg jumps onto the ground from a height of 2m. Calculate the force which acts on
him when he lands
i) As he bends his knees and stops within 0.2 seconds
ii) As he keeps his legs straight and stops within a shorter period of time of 0.05s
Solution
i) Using ii) ii)
2 F=
- iii) F=
√ ( - )
F=
( - ) F=

F = 1573N F=6300N

154
Newton’s third law of motion
It states that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Examples of third law of motion

Newton’s third law in practice is under the following circumstances;
1. For a swimmer in water. He pushes the water backwards with his hands and there is an
equal and opposite reaction of the water resulting in the forward movement of the
swimmer.
2. Propulsion of a bullet from a gun
In a gun, explosion occurs inside and the action force makes a bullet or shell to leave the gun
with a very high velocity which is called muzzle velocity and the reaction force makes the
gun to kick backwards with a velocity called recoil velocity. The person firing the gun
absorbs the recoil momentum and causes a jerking movement.
3. A man jumping from a boat.
The man jumping from a boat exerts an action force on the boat and the also exerts a
reaction force on to the man. This causes the man to move forward to the river bank and
the boat moves backwards to the water body.
4. Rocket engine propulsion
It is a container containing a chemical inside it and the oxidant (liquid oxygen) to be used to
burn the chemical. . When the fuel burns, the compressed hot gases are thrown out with a
high a force and momentum in the downward direction, the reaction of this force acts on
the Rocket in the upward direction and the Rocket is thus accelerated upwards.
5. Jet engine
This is a device (container tube) with two outlets. It contains a chemical which burn, the
gaseous products are thrown out through the exhaust pipe with high force and momentum.
By Newton’s third law of motion, the reaction acts on the jet and makes it to acquire an
equal momentum. This causes the jet to move forward in the opposite direction to that of
the exhaust gas.
6. Inflated balloon
Inflate a toy balloon and then release it when it neck opens. The balloon flies off in the
direction opposite to that of the escaping air.
The pressure of air molecules inside the balloon is greater than the external air pressure
and so air rushes out of the open neck of the balloon. The backward movement of escaping
air is responsible for the forward movement of the balloon.
The escaping air molecules gain momentum in one direction. The balloon gains the same
amount of momentum in the opposite direction.

155
 THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
It states that when two or more bodies collide, their total momentum remains constant provided no
external force acts on the colliding bodies.
Or;
When two or more bodies act upon one another, total momentum before collision is equal to total
momentum after collision provided no external forces acts on the colliding bodies.
In calculations momentum before collision = Momentum after collision.

Equation of the principle of conservation of momentum

Consider two bodies A and B with body A having a mass of , initial velocity , and body B
having a mass of , initial velocity , after collision body A has a final velocity and body B has
a final velocity
Momentum before collision = +
Momentum after collision = +

By law of conservation of momentum

Types of collision
There are two (2) types of collision namely;
1. Elastic collision
2. Inelastic collision
1. Elastic collision.
This is a type of collision in which all kinetic energy is conserved.
Eg collision between molecules, electrons.

Consider two bodies A and B with body A having a mass of , initial velocity , and body B
having a mass of , initial velocity , after collision body A has a final velocity and body B has
a final velocity
Momentum before collision = +
Momentum after collision = +

By law of conservation of momentum

2. Inelastic collision
This is a type of collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved and the bodies stick
together after impact and move with a common velocity and kin
Eg a bullet embedded in a target.
Consider two bodies A and B with body A having a mass of , initial velocity , and body B
having a mass of , initial velocity , after collision body A and body B stick together and move
with a common velocity
Momentum before collision = +
Momentum after collision =( )
156
 By law of conservation of momentum
( )
Summary
Elastic collision Perfectly inelastic
- Linear momentum is conserved - Linear momentum is conserved
- Kinetic energy is conserved - Kinetic energy is not conserved
- Bodies separate after collision - Bodies stick together and move with a
common velocity
Note: Gun and a bullet
When a bullet of mass is fired with a muzzle velocity of from a gun of mass , the gun jerks
back ward with a recoil velocity of

Examples:
1. A trolley of mass 3kg travelling at a velocity of 4m/s collide with another trolley of mass 1kg which
is at rest . At what velocity do the two bodies move together after collision
Solution
uA=4m/s uB =0m/s V
MA MB MA MB
Before collision After collision

By the principle of conservation of

momentum
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2. An object of mass 10kg collides with a stationery object of mass 5kg. If the objects stick together
and move forward with a velocity of 4m/s. What was original velocity of the moving object?
Solution
uA=? uB =0m/s 4m/s
MA MB MA MB
Before collision After collision

By the principle of conservation of momentum The original velocity of the moving object
( ) was 60m/s
( ) ( ) ( )
= 150x4
3. A truck of mass 1 tone travelling at 4m/s collides with a truck of mass 2 tones moving at 3m/s in
the same direction. If the collision is perfectly inelastic, calculate;
i. Common velocity
ii. Kinetic energy converted to other forms during collision
Solution
Before impact After impact
1000kg uA uB 1000kg 2000kg V
2000kg

157
 By law of conservation of momentum = 8000 + 9000
( ) 17000J
( )+( ) ( )
Final ( )

( )( )

16666.67J
Common velocity is
Kinetic energy converted –
ii) + –

4. Two bodies of masses 200kg and 100kg travel towards each other with velocities of 20m/s and
25m/s respectively and join to form one body on collision. Find the common velocity.
Solution

Before impact After impact

200kg uA uB 200kg 100kg V
100kg

( )
( )+( ) ( )

Common velocity is
5. Two particles of masses 0.2kg and 0.4kg are approaching each other with velocities 4ms-1 and 3ms-1
respectively. On collision, the first particle reverses, its direction and moves with a velocity of
2.5ms-1. find the
i. velocity of the second particle after collision
ii. percentage loss in kinetic energy
Solution

A B A B
0.2kg uA uB 0.4kg vA 0.2kg vB
0.4kg
Before impact After impact

By law of conservation of momentum

The velocity of the second particle is 0.25m/s
in opposite direction
– ii) +

[ ( ) ]

158
 + 3
2.7625J
+
% .
= 0.625 + 0.0125
0.6475J
% 81.25%
Loss in kinetic energy –
6. A bullet of mass is fired from a rifle of mass with a muzzle velocity of
100km/h. Find the recoil velocity of the rifle.
Solution
= =27.78m/s =

=0.14m/s
8
7. A bullet of mass 20g is fired into a block of wood of mass 400g lying on a smooth horizontal surface.
If the bullet and the wood move together with the speed of 20m/s. Calculate
i) The speed with which the bullet hits the wood
ii) The kinetic energy lost
Solution

uB =0m/s 20m/s
uA=?
MA MB MA MB
Before collision After collision

By the law of conservation of momentum

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) (0.02 + 0.04) ( )

The original velocity of the bullet was Loss in kinetic energy –

420m/s
+

8. A pick-up of mass 2000kg moving with a velocity of 18m/s collides with a car of mass 800kg
approaching at a velocity of 30m/s. If the pickup moves backwards along its original path with a
velocity of 2m/s and a car with 20m/s, find its impulse on the impact.
Solution

159
 P C
P C
uP uC vP 2000kg 800kg vC
2000kg 800kg
Before impact After impact

Initial momentum of a pickup

Or;
Initial momentum of a car
Final momentum of a pickup
=
= Final momentum of a car
–

–
N.B: shows that the pickup lost some
momentum.

Exercise

1. A 2kg object moving with a velocity of 8m/s collides with a 3kg object moving with a velocity 6ms-1
along the same direction. If the collision is completely inelastic, calculate the decrease in kinetic
energy collision. An [2.4J]

2. Two bodies A and B of mass 2kg and 4kg moving with velocities of 8m/s and 5m/s respectively
collide and move on in the same direction. Object A’s new velocity is 6m/s.
i. Find the velocity of B after collision
ii. Calculate the percentage loss in kinetic energy. An(6m/s, 5.26%)

3. A particle of mass 2kg moving with speed 10ms-1 collides with a stationary particle of mass 7kg.
Immediately after impact the particles move with the same speeds but in opposite directions. Find
the loss in kinetic energy during collision. An(28J)

4. A 2kg object moving with a velocity of 6ms-1 collides with a stationary object of mass 1kg. If the
collision is perfectly elastic, calculate the velocity of each object after collision. An[2ms-1, 8ms-1]

5. A 16kg mass travelling to the right at 5m/s collides with a 4kg mass travelling to the left at 5m/s.
a) What is the momentum of each?
b) What is their total momentum?
c) If the masses stick together when they collide, what is their final velocity?
6. A truck of mass 2.5 x 103kg moving at 0.5m/s collide with another truck of mass 2.0 x 103kg moving
at 1.2m/s in the opposite direction. If the trucks couple together after collision, find the common
velocity with which they will move after collision.
7. A has a mass of 2kg and B has a mass of 4kg. A moves in opposite direction of B with a velocity of
4m/s and B moves with a velocity of 1m/s. Find the final velocity of B if A moves backwards with a
velocity of 2m/s.

160
 8. A bullet of mass 150g is fired with a speed of 400m/s. The riffle recoils with a velocity of 10m/s.
Find the mass of the riffle.
9. A gun of mass 1.5kg fires a bullet of mass 5g. if the bullet leaves a gun at a velocity of 600m/s,
determine the recoil velocity of the gun.
10. A bullet of mass is fired from a gun of 6kg with a muzzle velocity of 300m/s. Calculate
the recoil velocity of the gun.

Weight of a body in a lift

1. A Lift accelerating upwards
Consider a lift moving up from rest with an acceleration ams-2 and it consists of a person of
mass mkg standing on the floor of the lift.
Resultant force is R – mg
R

a ms-2

m By Newton’s seond law R – mg = ma

mg

The resultant force on the body is

Resultant acts upwards in the direction of
therefore the body feels heavier than usual
the acceleration. when the lift moves upwards.
2. A lift moving downwards
With acceleration a being less than g, the lift floor cant apply a down force on a body so part of the
force ma and the force of gravity mg is used to accelerate the body downwards.
From 2nd law mg - R = ma
R

a ms-2

The resultant force on the body is

mg
therefore the body feels lighter than usual
Resultant force downwards (mg - R) when the lift moves downwards.
Question:
A man of mass 80kg stands in a lift. Calculate the force exerted on the man by the lift if the lift is;
a) Moving upwards at a constant velocity of 2m/s
b) Moving downwards at a constant velocity of 2m/s.
c) Moving upwards at 2m/s2.
d) Moving downwards at 2m/s2

REVISION QUESTIONS: SECTION A

1. The product of mass and acceleration is;
A. Force B. Inertia C. Velocity D. Momentum
2. The ticker – timer tapes below show the motion of four trolleys moving from left to right. Which
one of them is accelerating?
Direction of motion

A B C D

3. A body of mass 2kg initially moving with a constant velocity of 10m/s is subject to a force of 5N for
2s. The change in momentum of the body in Kgm/s is;
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 A. 10 B. 20 C. 30 D. 50
4. A straight line through the origin of a velocity – time graph shows that;
A. Velocity is uniform C. Acceleration is uniform
B. Distance is increasing uniformly D. Motion is a retardation
5. When a steadily increasing force is applied to a moving object, all the following change except;
A. Acceleration B. Momentum C. Speed D. Mass
6. When a car is suddenly brought to rest, a passenger jerks forward because of ;
A. Inertia B. Friction C. Gravity D. Momentum
7. A body moves with uniform acceleration if;
A. Its momentum remains constant
B. It covers equal distance in equal times
C. The velocity changes by equal amount of equal time
D. The net force on the body is zero.
8. Which one of the following statements is true when a stone of mass 2kg and that of 1kg are released
from the same point at the same time?
A. Both masses hit the ground at the same time
B. The 2kg mass will hit the ground first
C. The 1kg mass will hit the ground first
D. They fall with different speeds.
9. Force is given by the product of ;
A. Displacement and velocity C. Acceleration and mass
B. Displacement and mass D. Velocity and mass
10. A cyclist traveling at a constant acceleration of 2m/s passes through two points A and B in a
2

straight line. If the speed at A is 10m/s and the points are 75m a part, find the speed at B.
A. 15.8m/s B. 17.3m/s C. 20.0m/s D. 400m/s
11. A body moves with a uniform acceleration of P m/s . If its initial velocity is X m/s and it travels for t
2

s to attain a final velocity of y m/s, find the value of P in terms of x,y and t.
A. x + yt b. c. d. y + xt
12. A car of mass 1200kg moving with a constant velocity of 60m/s is retarded uniformly to
rest in 12 s. calculate the retarding force.
A ( ) B. ( ) C.( ) D. ( )
13. A car of mass 1200kg moving with a velocity of 60m/s, collides head on with another car of
mass 1000kg at rest and they stick together. Calculate their velocity after collision.
A. B. C. D.
14. The gradient of a velocity – time graph represents the
A. Speed of the body B. Velocity of the body
C. Acceleration of the body D. The distance covered by the body
15. A Newton is defined as the;
A. Unit of force
B. Force which produces an acceleration of 1m/s2
C. Force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s2
D. Force which gives any mass an acceleration of 1m/s2
16. The figure below shows forces applied on each of the identical blocks of the same mass.
Which block has the greatest net force.

162
 10N 10N 10N 10N

15N 5N 25N 500N 510N 205N 200N

A B C D

17. A ticker tape shown below was pulled through a ticker timer which makes 50 dots per
second
E 10cm F

The speed at which the tape was pulled is

A. 10cm/s B. 25cm/s C. 50cm/s D. 100cm/s
18. Which one of the following sketches represent uniformly accelerated motion?
Velocity Velocity Velocity
Velocity

A Time Time Time Time

B C D

19. A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity when the rate of change of;
A. Acceleration with time is constant.
B. Velocity with time is constant
C. Distance with time is constant
D. Displacement with time is constant.
20.
In the diagram above, the magnitude of the
5N

resultant force acting on a body P is

4N P
A. 1N B. 5N
2N
C. 7N D. 11N
21. A force of 1N acts on a mass of 0.05kg initially at rest. Its acceleration is
A. 0.05m/s2 B. 0.5m/s2 C. 2.0m/s2 D. 20m/s2
22. A lift accelerates uniformly from rest for 3s. It then moves at uniform velocity for 15s then
decelerates uniformly for 2s before coming to rest. Which of the following velocity – time
graphs represents the motion of the lift.
V V V V

0 3 18 20 t/s 0 3 18 20 t/s 0 3 18 20 t/s 0 3 18 20 t/s

A B C D

23. Which of the following displacement - time graphs shows a car moving away from traffic
lights at a steady speed?
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement

Displacement

Time Time Time Time

A B C D

24. The figure below shows a velocity – time graph for a moving body. Which of the following
statement is true about the motion of the body?
Velocity
A B

O time

A. Velocity of the body is constant between O and A

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 B. Velocity of the body is constant between A and B
C. The body is accelerating between A and B
D. The body is not accelerating between O and A
25. A boxer while training noticed that a punch bag is difficult to set in motion and difficult to
stop. What property accounts for this observation
A. Size B. Inertia C. Weight of the bag D. Friction
26. A body of mass 25kg falls freely from a height of 10m to the ground. Calculate its velocity as
it hits the ground in m/s
A. 4.47 B. 14.14 C. 10 D. 2500
27. Find the force required to give a mass of 500g an acceleration of 2 x 10-2 m/s2
A. 1 x 10-2N B. 1 x 101N C. 1 x 102N D. 1 x104N
28. The graph below describe the motion of a particle;
Between which points is the particle at
Distance/m
rest?
Q R

P A. O and PB. P and Q

O
Time/s
C. Q and R D. R and S
29. Eggs packed in a soft, shock – absorbing box are placed in a car. When the car suddenly
starts or stops moving, the eggs do not crack because.
A. No force acts on them
B. The force acts on them for only a short time.
C. The force is small and acts for longer time
D. The force causes fast change in momentum
30. A body of mass 20kg moves with a uniform velocity of 4m/s from rest. Find its momentum
in Kgm/s.
A. 5 B. 80 C. 160 D. 320
31. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at the rate of 2m/s2 for a minute, find the
velocity of the car after this time.
A. 0.5m/s B. 12m/s C. 15m/s D. 30m/s
32. The graph below shows a speed – time graph of a body.
Speed(m/s)
Calculate the distance traveled during a
40 retardation .
20
A. 20m B. 40m
10
C. 80m D. 100m
2 4 6 8 Time/s

33. A boy throws a ball up in the air and it goes up and falls back to his head. Which one of the
following sketches of velocity – time graph represents the motion of the ball up to the time it is
received back.
V V V V

t t
34.
t t
A B C D

The period of a simple pendulum

A. Decreases as the length of pendulum decreases
B. Increases as the mass of the pendulum bob decreases
C. Increases as the mass of the pendulum bob increases
D. Decreases as the length of the pendulum increases.

164
35. The velocity time graph for a car is as shown below.
100
Find the total distance the car travels.
Velocity
m/s
A. 2.5 x 103m B. 3.0 x 103m
20 C. 4.0 x 103m D. 7.0 x103m
40 80 100 t/s

36. Which of the following best describes the motion represented by the velocity – time graph
shown below.
A Decelerated motion
Velocity
m/s B. Uniformly accelerated motion
C. Non- uniformly accelerated motion
t/s D. Uniform velocity motion.
37. When a stone is thrown horizontally from a high tower, which of the following explains its
motion.
(i) Vertical acceleration is constant
(ii) Vertical acceleration is increasing
(iii) Horizontal velocity is constant
A. (i) only B. (i) and (ii) only C. (iii) only D. (i) and (iii) only
38. A car is uniformly accelerated from rest and after 10s, acquires a speed of 20m/s. How far
does it move during the eleventh second?
A. 20m B. 21m C. 100m D. 121m
39. An object of mass 2kg moving at 5m/s, collides with another object of mass 3kg which is at
rest. Find the velocity of the two bodies if they stick together after collision.
A. 1.0m/s B. 2.0m/s C. 2.5m/s D. 5.0m/s
40. Which of the graphs below best describe the motion of a stone which falls freely from a
height of 20m?
Distance Distance Distance Distance
(m) (m) (m) (m)
20 20 20

Time/s Time/s Time/s Time/s

A B C D

41. A stone is released from a height of 20m above the ground. Find its height above when its
speed is 10m/s
A. 5m B. 10m C. 15m D. 20m
42. A stone of mass 2.5g is thrown with an average force of 5.0N. Find the average acceleration
in m/s2
A. 5.0 x 10-4 B. 2.0 x10-3 C. 1.25 x 102 D. 2.0 x 103
43. A bullet of mass 0.1kg is fired from a riffle of mass 5kg. The rifle recoils with a velocity of
16m/s. calculate the velocity with which the bullet is fired.
A. 66m/s B. 110m/s C. 210 m/s D. 800m/s
44. A block of mass 10kg accelerates uniformly at a rate of 3m/s along a horizontal table when
2

a force of 40N acts on it. Find the frictional force between the block and the table.
A. 10N B. 13.3N C. 30N D. 70N
45. Use the velocity – time graph to find the distance over which there is deceleration

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 Velocity A. 4m B. 6m
(m/s)
4 C. 8m D. 10m

0 2 4 7 Time/s

46. Which of the following quantities is the odd one out?

A. Force B. Velocity C. Momentum D. Kinetic energy
47. Which one of the following is not true about a body moving with constant velocity?
A. Its acceleration is zero C. Its kinetic energy is constant.
B. Its momentum is constant D. There is a resultant force on it.
48. Find the force that acts on a body of mass 0.05kg accelerating at 20m/s2.
A. 1.0N B. 10N C. 100N D. 400N
49. A car traveling at 20m/s is brought to rest in 10 seconds. Find the distance it travels.
A. 100m B. 200m C. 300m D. 400m
50. A body dropped from the top of a high building falls with uniform velocity when
A. The pull of gravity slops acting on it
B. The resultant force is towards the ground
C. The pull of gravity is balanced by air resistance
D. The resultant force is equal to the pull of gravity
51. A car of mass 500kg starts from rest and gains a speed of 80m/s in 5s. calculate the force
applied on the car.
A. 16N B. 5000N C. 8000N D. 80,000N
52. The body of mass 20kg falls freely from a height of 5m. find the velocity with which it hits
the ground.
A. 3.2m/s B. 4.5m/s C. 7.1m/s D. 10m/s
53. A stone thrown vertically upwards returns to the ground after some time. Which of the
following graphs describes its motion.
Velocity velocity Velocity Velocity

time time time time

A B C D

54. Two particles each of mass m, travel in opposite direction along the same path towards each
other with a velocity v. which of the following statements is / are true about the motion of
the particles?
1. Each particle has a momentum of mv
2. Each particle has kinetic energy of mv2
3. The total momentum of the two particle is zero
4. The kinetic energy of each particle will increase on collision.
A. 1, 2,3only correct B. 1,3 only correct
C. 2,4 only correct D. 4 only correct
55. The diagram below shows two perpendicular forces acting on an object of mass 5kg.
Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of
3N
the object.
A. 0.6m/s2 B. 0.8m/s2
Object 4N C. 1.0m/s2 D. 1.4m/s2

166
56. An aeroplane of mass 5000kg moves into an initial velocity of 10m/s on a run way. It then
accelerates at 4m/s2 for 25s before it takes off. Calculate the change in momentum before
take off.
A. 2.5 x 105 B. 3.0 x 105 C. 5.0 x105 D. 5.5 x 105
57. The diagram below represents a velocity time graph for the motion of a body.
Velocity
(m/s)
Calculate the distance the body covers in 8s.
20
A. 50m B. 80m
15

10
C. 100m D. 160m
5

2 4 6 8 10 Time/s

58. A charge of mass 9.1 x 10-31 kg experiences a force of 9.1 x 10-28N in a electric fied. What is
the acceleration of the change ?
A. 8.3 x 10-59 B. 1.0 x 10-3 C. 8.3 x 10-3 D. 1.0 x 103m/s2
59. A car of mass 1000kg traveling at 45km/h is brought to rest by a constant braking force.
Calculate the braking force if the car comes to rest in 15s.
A. 720N B. 1000N C. 15,000N D. 58,000N
60. A stone thrown vertically upwards . At the highest point, the stone
A. Has maximum velocity
B. Is starting to move downwards with no acceleration
C. Is starting to move downwards with maximum velocity
D. Has zero speed.
61. The graph below shows how a boy moves between two places.
Distance
Between which times is the boy at rest?
A. 0 and 2 B. 2 and 4
C. 4 and 6 D. 6 and 8
2 4 6 8 Time/min

62. A ball thrown vertically upwards returns to the point of projection 12 seconds later.
Calculate the speed with which the ball was thrown.
A. 10m/s B. 30m/s C. 60m/s D. 120m/s
63. A car P moving with a velocity of 6m/s hits a stationary car Q of twice its mass and both cars
continue travelling in the same direction. If the velocity of car P reduces to 2m/s, which of
the following is true about the motion of the two cars after collision?
1.P moves with same momentum as Q 3.P moves with less velocity than Q
2.P moves with less momentum than Q 4.P moves with the same velocity as Q
A. 1,2,3 only correct B. 1,3 only correct
C. 2,4 only correct D. 4 only correct.
64. Which one of the following graphs describes the motion of a body moving with uniform
acceleration?

Displacement Displacement Velocity Velocity

time time time time

A B C D

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65. A bullet of mass 150 g is fired with a speed of 400m/s. The rifle recoils with a speed of
10m/s. Find the mass of the rifle.
A. 60kg B. 6.0kg C. 3.0kg D. 0.6kg
66. A stone is thrown horizontally from a high tower. Which of the following explains its
motion?
(i) Vertical acceleration is constant
(ii) Vertical acceleration is increasing
(iii) Horizontal velocity is constant.
A. (i) OnlyB. (iii) Only C. (i) and (ii) D. (i) and (iii)
67. A block of wood of mass 4kg is placed on a smooth table and two forces applied on it as
shown below.
F 4kg 10N in the direction of the 10N force, find F
A. 2N B. 2.5N
If the acceleration of the body is 2m/s2 C. 6N D. 30N
68. A car moves from a point x to y at a constant velocity.
It remains stationary for some time and then returns to x at a constant velocity. Which of
the following graphs describes the motion?

Displacement Displacement Displacement Displacement

time time time time

A B C D

69. A bullet is fired vertically upwards from the ground . If it reaches its maximum height in 4s,
find the total distance it covers by the time it hits the ground .
A. 40m B. 80m C. 160m D. 280m
SECTION B
1. (a)
Velocity The diagram represents a velocity time graph
(m/s)
30 of a body in motion.
(i) Describe the motion of a body
10 (ii) Calculate the total distance travelled.
6 12 18 Time/s

(b)
3N Forces of 3N,6N and 10N act a body of mass
6N 10N
of 2kg , initially at M. Find the acceleration
with which the body moves.
2. A car traveling with uniform velocity of 25m/s for 5s brakes and then comes to rest under a
uniform deceleration in 8 seconds.
(i) Sketch a velocity time graph of the motion.
(ii) Find the total distance travelled.
3. (a) State the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
(b) A trolley P of mass 150g moving with a velocity of 20m/s collides with
another stationary trolleys Q of mass 100g. If P and Q move together after collision,
calculate:
(i) The momentum of P before collision.
(ii) The velocity which P and Q move after collision

168
 (b) The figure below represents velocity- time graph for the motion of a car.
(i) The distance it has travelled from the
Velocity
start of its motion.
m/s 30 (ii) The time it takes to get back to the
starting point if its velocity is then maintained
0 12 constant.
10
-10
5 Time/s
(iii) The momentum of the car just before
If the mass of the car is 500g, find deceleration.
4. (a) What is uniform velocity?
(b) A car traveling at 20m/s is accelerated for 10s at 2m/s2. Calculate the total distance
covered during this time. What is the speed of the car after this time?
5. Two vehicles A and B accelerate uniformly from rest. Vehicle A attains maximum velocity of
30 m/s in 10s while vehicle B attains a maximum velocity of 40m/s in the same time. Both
vehicles maintain these velocities for 6s. They are then decelerated such that A comes to
rest after 6s while B come to rest after 4s
(a) Sketch on the same axes a velocity – time graph for the motion of the vehicles
(b) Calculate the velocity of each vehicle 18s after the start
(c) How far will the two vehicles be from one another during this moment in (b)
above.
6. The figure below shows dots made on a ticker tape pulled by a trolley through a ticker tape timer.

4cm 8cm

(a) Describe the motion of the trolley, if the frequency is 50Hz.

(b) Two forces of 6N and 10N act at the same time on a body P of mass 500g as shown below.
6N P 10N

Find ;
(i) The resultant force on P
(ii) The acceleration of P
(c) (i) Sketch a distance - time graph for a body falling freely from rest.
(ii) An object is released from rest at a height of 0.5km. How long does it take to reach
the ground?
7. The table below shows the variation of velocity with time for a body which has been thrown
vertically upwards from the surface of a planet.
Velocity(m/s) 8 6 4 2 0 -2
Time(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
(i) What does the negative velocity mean?
(ii) Plot a graph of velocity against time
(iii) Use the graph to find the acceleration due to gravity on the planet
(iv) If the body weighs 34N, on earth , what is its weight on the planet?
8. (a) The graph below shows a speed – time graph of a cyclist.
Velocity i) Find the acceleration of the cyclist
m/s
20
B C between A and B.
(ii) Describe the motion of the cyclist
5 A between B and C.
10
D
14
(iii) Explain what is happening along CD.
2 Time/s

169
 (iv) Calculate the distance travelled by the cyclist during the first 10seconds
(b) A 7 tone truck initially moving at a velocity of 50m/s accelerates to 80m/s in 3
seconds. Calculate the force on the truck that caused the velocity change.
9. (a) What is the difference between speed and velocity.
(b) The graph below shows the variation of distance with time for a body
Distance
(m)
Describe the motion of the body.
300

200

100
O
8 16 24 32 Time/s

(c) A moving ball P of mass 100g collides with a stationary ball Q of mass 200g after
collision , P moves backward with a velocity of 2m/s while Q moves forward with a
velocity of 5m/s. calculate
(i) The initial velocity of P
(ii) The force exerted by P on Q if the collision took 0.03 seconds.
10. The figure below shows the displacement – time graph of the motion of a body.
Displacement (m) (a) Sketch the speed – time graph for the
30
motion
15 (b) Calculate the average speed for the
5
O
journey.
10 20 30 Time/s

11. (a) A body of mass 60kg starts moving with an initial velocity of 15m/s and
accelerates uniformly at a rate of 4m/s2 for 5s, the maintains a constant velocity of
another 5s and comes to rest after 7s.
(i) Draw a velocity - time graph for the motion
(ii) Calculate the momentum of the body during the eighth second.
(iii) Calculate the retarding force.
(b)
18N 6N

Two force of 18N and 6N act in opposite directions on an object of mass 3kg as shown above.
Calculate the acceleration of the object.
12. (a) State the difference between mass and weight .
(b) A man of mass 80kg stands in a stationary lift on earth. Calculate his apparent weight the
lift.
(i) Accelerates upwards at rate of 2m/s2
(ii) Falls freely under gravity.
(c) A body is fired horizontally with a speed of 30m/s from a cliff 500m above the ground.
Calculate.
(i) The time taken before the body hits the ground.
(ii) The horizontal distance traveled.
13. (a) (i) Define the term velocity
(ii) Sketch a velocity time graph for a body moving with uniform velocity.
(b) A vehicle traveling at a velocity of 90km/h is uniformly brought to rest in 20s.
(i) Calculate the acceleration of the vehicle

170
(ii) If the vehicle had originally been travelling at a velocity of 90 km/h for 60s, calculate the
total distance traveled before it finally stopped.
14. The velocity – time graph represents the motion of a small sphere dropped centrally down
a tall column of a liquid.
Velocity (i) Name the force which act on the sphere and
A B
state their directions.
(ii) What happens to the sphere between A and
Time B
15. (a) Sketch a velocity – time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration from
5m/s to 25m/s in 15 seconds.
(b) Use the sketch graph to find the values for
(i) The acceleration
(ii) Total distance travelled during this acceleration.
16. Draw a velocity time for a body which starts with an initial velocity of 4m/s and continues
to move with an acceleration of 1.5m/s2 for 6s. Show how you would find from the graph.
(a) The average velocity (b) The distance moved in 6s.
17. A car travels at uniform velocity of 20m/s for 5s. The brakes are then applied and the car
comes to rest with a uniform retardation in a further 8 second.
(a) Draw a velocity graph for the motion.
(b) How far does the car travel after the brakes are applied?
18. A body starts from rest and accelerate at 3m/s2, for 4s. Its velocity remains constant at the
maximum value so reached for 7s and it finally comes to rest with uniform retardation
after another 5s.
(a) Sketch a velocity time graph for the motion
(b) Find the total distance covered at each stage
19. A bullet , fired vertically upwards from a gun held 2m above the ground, reaches its
maximum height in 4s. Calculate
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet
(ii) The total distance the bullet travels by the time it hits the ground.
20. A motorist, traveling at 90km/h , applied his brakes and comes to rest with uniform
retardation in 20s. Calculation the retardation .
21. A small iron ball is dropped from the top of a vertical cliff and takes 2.5s to reach the sandy
beach below. Find
(a) (i) The velocity with which it strikes the sand.
(ii) The height of the cliff.
(b) If the ball penetrates the sand to a depth of 12.5cm, calculate the retardation
22. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30m/s from the top of a
tower 20m high . Find.
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height.
(b) The total time which elapses before it reaches the ground.
23. (a) A car travelling at 90km/h can stop in 4s with uniform deceleration . What is its
deceleration?
(b) A car starts from rest with uniform acceleration of 10m/s2 for 3s what is
(i) Its final velocity
(ii) The distance traveled
24. (a) A car traveling at 22km/h decelerates uniformly at 4m/s2. In what time will it come
to rest?
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(b) A train traveling at 50km/h increases its velocity steadily to 68km/h in 50s. Calculate its
acceleration.
25. An object accelerates uniformly at 3m/s2 and attains a velocity of 19m/s in 5s
(i) What was its velocity ?
(ii) How far does it travel in this time?
26. If a car accelerates uniformly from rest at 0.2m/s2 over a distance of 1000m,
(i) Calculate the velocity it reaches.
(ii) How much time does it take to attain this velocity?
27. A particle travelling in a straight line at 2m/s is uniformly accelerated at 2m/s for 8s.
Calculate the displacement of the particle.
28. A marble is rolling down a slope with uniform acceleration at 2m/s2. If its starting velocity
was 3m/s.
(i) Calculate its velocity after it rolls 12m down the slope.
(ii) How long does it take to roll down this distance?
29. A rocket lifts off from rest and attains a speed of 600m/s at an altitude of 3km.
(i) What time after the lift off does it attain this speed?
(ii) At what rate must it accelerate from the lift off?
30. (a) A uniformly accelerated object covers a distance of 12m in 3s and then a
further 30m in the next 3s. What is its acceleration?
(b) A car traveling at 18km/h accelerates uniformly at 3m/s. calculate its speed after it
has travelled 100m.
31.
Velocity (a) Briefly describe the motion
m/s
15
A B represented by OA,AB and BC
(b) Use the graph to calculate
(i) The acceleration of the lift
C (ii) The total distance traveled by by the
0
6 9 21 Time/s lift.

32.A car starting from rest travelling at a uniform acceleration attains a velocity of 30m/s after 20s.
Its velocity then remains constant for 2 minutes. The brakes are then applied and the car
comes to rest with uniform deceleration in further 10s.
(a) Sketch a velocity – time graph of its motion
(b) Find the initial acceleration and the final deceleration.
(c) What is the total distance traveled?
33. A car on a level road starts from rest with a uniform acceleration of 2.5m/s2 which is
maintained until its speed is 20m/s . After continuing at this speed for half a minute, it is
brought uniformly to rest in 2.0s.
(a) Draw a speed – time graph of the car’s motion.
(b) Determine the final deceleration.
(c) What is the total distance traveled by the car?
34. A train starts form rest and accelerates uniformly at 5m/s2 for the first 6s. It then travels at
the maximum speed attained for 25s before decelerating uniformly at 3m/s2 to rest.
Calculate graphically or other wise.
(a) The maximum speed of the train.
(b) The time taken to decelerate to rest.

172
 (c) The total distance travelled by the train during this period
35. A firework rocket starts form rest and accelerates uniformly upwards to a velocity of 20m/s
in 0.5s. It maintains this velocity for a further 0.5s and finally decelerates uniformly to rest
after a further 2 s.
(a) Sketch a velocity - time graph of the rockets motion and calculate the acceleration
during the first 0.5s.
(b) At what time does the rocket reach it s maximum height?
(d) Calculate the maxim height.
36. A stone of mass 2kg is dropped vertically from rest from the top of a cliff. If it strikes the
ground 2.5 s later, what is the height of the cliff?
37. A gun is held horizontally at a height of 1.25m above the ground and is fired at a velocity of
400m/s. find the horizontal distance traveled by the bullet before it hits the ground.
38. A stone projected from the top of a building at a horizontal velocity of 20m/s strike the
ground 50m from the building. Find the height of the building .
39. A stone of mass 1kg is dropped from rest flow window 20m above the ground.
Another stone of mass 0.5kg is dropped from a height of 5m above the ground. If both
stones are dropped at the same time. Find the time interval that elapse between the stones
hitting the ground.
40. An object is released from an air craft traveling horizontally with a constant velocity of
200m/s at a height of 500m. Ignoring air resistance , find.
(a) How long is takes the object to react the ground?
(b) The horizontal distance covered by the object between leaving the air craft and
reaching the ground.
41. (a) A body falls from a cliff 125m high.
(i) Find the time of fall.
(ii) How far did the body fall in half of this time?
(b) A mass is projected upwards with a velocity of 10m/s. If the acceleration due to
gravity is 10m/s2, what is the maximum height reached?
42. (a) A body starts form rest and reaches a speed of 5m/s after traveling with
uniform acceleration in a straight line for 2s. Calculate the acceleration of the body.
(b) A body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of 2m/s2 in a straight
line.
(i) What is its velocity after 5s?
(ii) How far has it traveled in this time?
(iii) After how long will the body be 100m from its starting point?
43. (a) A motor cycle traveling at 10m/s accelerates at 4m/s for 8s
(i) What is its final velocity?
(ii) How far does it travel during the 8s2?
(b) A car accelerates from 8m/s to 20m/s in 10s.
(i) What is its acceleration?
(ii) How far does it travel during the 10s.
44. A train is traveling at 40m/s when its brakes are applied . This produces a deceleration of
2m/s2
(a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
(b) How far does the train travel before stopping
45. (a) A rock falls from a height of 45m.
173
 (i) How long does it take to reach the ground?
(ii) What is its velocity as it hits the ground?
(b) A stone is thrown upwards from the ground with a velocity of 40m/s
(i) How long does it take to reach its highest point?
(ii) What is its height at this point?
46. A resultant force of 25N acts on a mass of 0.5kg starting from rest. Find
(a) The acceleration in m/s2.
(b) The final velocity after 20s.
(c) The distance moved in m.
47. A resultant force of 12N acts for 5s on a mass of 2kg. What is the change in momentum of a
mass of 10kg under the same conditions?
48. It is required to cause a body of mass 500g to accelerate uniformly from rest across a
smooth horizontal surface so that it will cover a distance of 20m in 4s. Determine
(a) The acceleration which must be imparted to the body
(b) The magnitude of the minimum force required to produce this acceleration.
(c) The momentum of the body at the end of the 4s.
49. A bullet of mass 0.06 kg traveling at 120m/s penetrates deeply into a fixed target and is
bought to rest in 0.01s. Calculate
(a) The distance of penetration of the target
(b) The average retarding force exerted on the bullet.
50. (a) A wooden trolley of mass 1.5 kg is mounted on wheels on horizontal rails.
Neglecting friction and air resistance, what will be the final velocity of the trolley of the
trolley if a bullet of mass 2g is fired into it with a horizontal velocity of 400m/s along the
direction of the rails?
(b) An arrow of mass 100g is shot into a block of wood of mass 400g lying at rest on the
smooth surface of an ice rink. If at the moment of impact the arrow is travelling horizontally at
15m/s, Calculate:
(i) The common velocity after impact.
(ii) The common velocity if the block if struck by a second similar arrow traveling in the
same direction but with a horizontal velocity of 12 m/s
51. A man whose mass is 70kg stands on a spring weighing machine inside a lift. When the lift
starts to ascend, it’s acceleration is 2.5m/s2
(a) What is the reading of the weighing machine?
(b) What will it read:
(i) When the velocity of the lift is uniform
(ii) As it comes to rest with a retardation of 5m/s?
52. A car of mass 500kg accelerates steadily from rest to 40m/s in 20s
(a) What is its acceleration?
(b) What resultant force produces this acceleration?
(c) The actual force will be greater. Why ?
53. A block of mass 500g is pulled from rest on a horizontal friction less bench by a steady force
F and travels 8m in 2s. Find
(a) The acceleration. (b) The value of F.
54. Starting from rest on a level road, a boy can reach a speed of 5m/s in 10s on his bicycle. Find
(i) The acceleration.
(ii) The average speed during the 10s.
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 (iii) The distance he travels in 10s.
55. (a) What is the momentum in kgm/s of a 10kg truck traveling at
(i) 5 m/s? (ii) 36 km/h?
(b) A ball x mass 1kg travelling at 2m/s has a head on collision with a identical ball y at rest . X
stops and Y moves off. What is Y’s velocity?
(c) A boy with a mass 50kg running at 5m/s jumps on to a 20kg trolley traveling in the
same direction at 1.5m/s. What is their common velocity?
(d) A 50kg girl jumps out on a rowing boat of mass 300kg on the bank with a horizontal
velocity of 3m/s . With what velocity does the boat begin to make back wards?
56. A car has a mass of 900kg . It accelerates from rest at a rate of 1.2m/s2
(a) Calculate the time taken to reach a velocity of 30m/s
(b) Calculate the required force to accelerate the car at rate of 1.2m/s2
(c) Even with the engine working at full power, the car’s acceleration decreases as the
car goes faster. Why is this?
57. Find the momentum of
(a) An object of mass 100g moving at 20 m/s
(b) A 105 tonne oil tanker moving at 18km/h
(c) An object if a force of 20N is applied to it for 6.0s, the object moving from rest.
(d) An object of mass 2.0kg which falls from rest for 10s.
58. Calculate the force needed to make a mass of
(a) 4kg to accelerate at 5m/s2
(b) 1kg, starting from rest, to acquire a velocity of 12.5m/s after 5s.
(c) 500g, starting from rest, to acquire a velocity of 24m/s in 8.0s
59. A car of mass 500kg is brought to rest, by uniform retardation of 2.5m/s2. Calculate
(a) The braking force.
(b) The time the car took to come to rest
(c) The distance moved by the car before coming to rest.
60. A man of mass 80kg stands in a lift. Calculate the force exerted on the man by the lift if the
lift is
(a) Moving upwards at 2m/s (c) Moving upwards at 2m/s2
(b) Moving downwards at 3m/s (d) Moving down wards at 2m/s2
61. A bullet of mass 10g gets embedded into a plasticine of mass 130g stuck to trolley of mass
860g. The whole mass moves along a track a distance of 1.20m in 0.65. Calculate their total
momentum.
62. A toy car of mass 250g is pushed from rest along a straight line so that it collides with and
rebounds from a wall at the end of the runway. Its speed just before it collides with the wall
is 1.2 m/s and when it rebounds from the wall, it is 1.1m/s. the car and the wall are in
contact for 0.5s. Find
(a) The change in the momentum of the car.
(b) The force exerted on the car by the wall.

175
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Mechanical property of matter is the behavior of a material when subjected to an external force.
The external force can be stretching, compressing, bending, twisting or any combination of them.
Mechanical properties of matter include; strength, stiffness, ductility, brittleness, elasticity and
hardness.
STRENGTH
Strength is the ability of a material to withstand a large force without breaking.
It is the measure of breaking stress.

Factors that affect strength of a material

(i) Diameter(cross-sectional area) of a material. This is because for a larger diameter ,a
large force is needed to bend it
(ii) Nature of the substance
(iii) Magnitude of the force applied

STIFFNESS
It is the ability of a material to resist a force which tries bending it.

DUCTILITY
Is the ability of a material to be hammered or bent into any useful form without breaking.
A ductile material is a material which can be modeled into a wire.
Examples of a ductile material are all metals except mercury.

BRITTLENESS
Brittleness: it is the ability of the material to break immediately it is stretched beyond to
elastic limit.
A brittle material is a material which bends a little and breaks suddenly.
Examples include; glass, bricks, chalk and bronze etc.

ELASTICITY
Is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and size when a force causing deformation is
removed.
Elastic material: This is a material which regains its original shape and size when the
deforming load has been removed. E.g. Rubber band, spring.
If a material is not elastic, it is said to be plastic.

PLASTIC MATERIALS
A plastic material doesn’t regain its original shape and size when a force causing deformation is
removed.

HARDNESS
Is the measure of the difficulty of marking or scratching a material.

176
 HOOKE’S LAW
It states that the extension of an elastic material is directly proportion to the force provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
AN EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY HOOKE’S LAW
Procedure:
 A spring is damped on a retort stand and a meter rule put besides it as shown below.
 A pin is placed at the bottom of the spring to act as a pointer and the scale reading L 0 is
noted for the original position.

Meter rule
Spring

Retort stand

pointer
Mass hunger

 Then a known mass M is suspended from the spring and new reading L1 of the pointer is
noted.
 The extension e, which is equal to L1 – L0 is obtained.
 The procedure is repeated for about five increasing values of the mass.
 The values are tabulated.
New position Extension
Mass(kg) Force(N)
Of pointer e =L1-L0

 A graph of extension against force is plotted.

Extension
(m)

Force
(N)

 A straight line through the origin shows that extension is proportional to the stretching
force and this verifies Hooke’s law .

STRETCHING A WIRE (Extension – force relationship) OR (strain-stress relationship)

D A-Prportional limit
Force (stress) E
A B
C
B-Elastic limit
C-Yield ponit
O (extension)strain
D-Breaking stress
E-Breaking point
Region OA: Force is proportional to extension and the wire regains its original length when the
force is removed. It is Hooke’s law region and Young’s Modulus can be defined only in this region.

177
 Region OB. Up to B, the wire regains its original length when the force is removed. It is elastic
deformation region but does not obey Hooke’s law along AB
Point C; yield point, beyond this point, plastic deformation occurs. A given increase in force gives a
greater increase in extension than before.
Point E: without any further increase in force, the wire begins to under go physical changes, it
thins out at some point and finally breaks

Examples:
1. A spiral spring extends 3cm for every 2N force that is applied to its end. A stone which extends the
spring by 18cm has a weight W. Find W;

F = 2N, e 3cm 0.03m F = W, e 18cm 0.18m

2. The upper end of a light spiral spring is fixed, when an object of mass 0.25kg is attached to its lower
end, the spring extends by 5cm. What force is needed to produce an extension of 1cm in the spring?
Mass = 0.25kg
.

is needed

Exercise
1. A mass of 0.20kg produces an extension of 6cm in a spiral. Find the force required to produce an
extension of 1cm.
2. A force of 0.5N causes a spring to extend by 4cm. What force would cause an extension of 6cm.
3. A force of 12N causes the wire to extend from 0.08m to 0.09m. What force would cause an
extension from 0.04m from 0.06m
4. A weight of 5N produces an extension of 2.5 m in a wire . What extension would a weight of
15N produce.
5. A mass force of 40N is necessary to extend a spring by 20mm. If the acceleration of free fall is
100ms2, the extension in mm when a mass of 0.5kg is attached to the lower end of the spring is;
A. 0.20 B. 1.00 C. 2.50 D. 5.00 E. 10.00

Factors affecting spring constant

1. The type of material used. Different materials have got different stiffness e.g steel is stiffer
than copper.
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 2. Diameter of the spring. A wider spring is less stiff than a spring of a smaller diameter.
3. Thickness of the wire used to make the spring. A thicker wire is stiffer than a thin wire.
4. The length of the spring. The shorter the spring the stiffer it is.
5. The number of turns per unit length.
N.B: The stiffer the spring, the greater the spring constant.

TENSILE STRESS, TENSILE STRAIN AND YOUNG’S MODULUS

a) Tensile stress: Is defined as the force per unit area of a material.
Tensile stress:
The S.I unit of stress is Newton per metre squared ( ) or Pascals.

b) Tensile strain: Is the ratio of extension to original length of a material.

Strain has no units

c) `Young’s modulus: Is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain

The SI unit of Young’s modulus is Newton per metre squared ( ) or pascals.

Examples:
1. A wire of length 0.1m is subjected to a force of 2N. If the cross section area of the wire is
and the force of 2N causes an extension of 0.002m; Calculate;
(i) Tensile stress (ii) Tensile strain (iii) Young’s modulus
Solution:
i)

Tensile strain
iii) Young’s modulus

ii) Young’s modulus = 200,000

2. A mass of 200g is placed at the end of a wire 15m long and cross sectional area 0.2m 2. If the mass
causes an extension of 1.5m, calculate;
(i) Tensile stress (ii) Tensile strain (iii) Young’s modulus
Solution
= ii)

Strain = 0.1

iii) Young’s modulus

i)

Young’s modulus = 100Nm-2

179
3. A metal bar has a circular cross section of diameter 20mm. If the maximum permissible tensile stress
is 8x107Nm-2, calculate the maximum force which the bar can withstand.
Solution =
d = 20mm = 20x10-3m
* ( ) +
stress= =

Force = 2.513x104N
Force = stress x area
4. Find the maximum load which may be placed on steel of diameter 1mm if the permitted strain must
not exceed and young’s modulus for steel is Nm-2

Solution
Young modulus Force = stress x area

Stress = E x strain =

= * ( ) +
Stress = Nm-2
But stress = Force = 1.571x102N

Exercise
1. A wire of 10cm is subjected to a force of 2N. If the cross sectional area of the wire is 5cm2 and the
force produces an extension of 0.2cm; calculate
(i) Tensile stress (ii) Tensile strain (iii) Young’s modulus
2. A wire of length 10m is subjected to a force of 2N. If the tensile strain is 0.5, Tensile stress 20Nm -2.
Calculate;
i) Extension ii) Young’s modulus
3. A metal specimen has length of 0.5m. If the maximum permissible strain is not to exceed 10-3,
calculate its maximum extension An ( 5x10-4m)
4. A metal bar of length 50mm and square cross-sectional side 20mm is extended by 0.015mm under
a tensile load of 30kg, calculate
a. Stress
b. Strain in specimen
c. Value of young’s modulus for that metal. An[7.25x10-3Nm-2, 3x10-4, 24.5Nm-2]

SHEAR FORCE
A shear force is one that changes the shape of the body by making the layers to slide over each
other.
Or;
A force that fractures a material in the direction parallel to the applied force.

180
Effect of a shear force of a body

No force acting Shear force acting

If two equal forces that are opposite and not in the same line of action act on the body they twist it
and the shape changes as shown above, this is an effect of a shear force.

RIGID STRUCTURES
A structure is defined as rigid when it is able to withstand forces without collapsing.
Structures used in constructions are usually designed to carry a heavy load and to remain stable for
a long period of time.

Factors that affect stability of a structure

(i) The nature of material used
(ii) Shape of the structure used
(iii) The arrangement of the materials
Note
 Triangular shaped structures are strong and provide better support. This is applied on
roofs, support for water tanks, door and window reinforcement.
 If the structure is rectangular it can be strengthened by using diagonal so that it becomes
rectangular

BEAM AND GIRDERS

A beam is a large and long straight piece of material with uniform cross-section
When a beam is subjected to a bending force e.g. loading it in the middle, the beam will experience
both tensional and compression forces.
Force
Compression

Neutral axis
Tension

Region under compression Region under tension

 The particles become closer  The particles become further apart
 The diameter increases (becomes thick) The diameter decrease (becomes thin)
 The length decreases slightly The length increases slightly

However, the middle section of the beam neither experiences tension nor compression forces
The middle section is then said to be neutral.

Girders are smaller pieces of materials used to strengthen beams in structures.

Girders may be under tension or compression.
Ties and Struts
Strut: Is a girder under compression
Tie: Is a girder under tension
How to identify a tie and a strut
 Remove the girder and if the length increases then it’s a tie
 Remove the girder and if the length decreases then it’s a strut

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APPLICATION OF TIES AND STRUTS
1. Bridges. A bridge is made up of a network of girders; some of the girders are ties while others
are struts.
B C Among these are ties and struts.
Ties include; AD, AE, ED
A D Struts include; AB, BE, EC, CD, BC.
E

The girders identified in the bridge structure

are AB, BC, CD, BE, EC, AE, ED and AD.
Girders are used to give strong structure, the weight of the water tank and the contents,
otherwise having two stands only would not be sufficient.

2. Support of Roof
D
Qn. Identify the ties and struts in the figure
B
C E
F
above;
A
J I H G Struts; BJ, CI, IE, EH, HF
The structure should be strong enough to Ties; AJ, JI, IH, HG, AG
support the weight of the roof as shown Struts; AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG
above. Ties; AJ, JI, IH, HG, AG

3.
D C
indicated. Identify one strut and one tie from
A B the structure
Strut; AB, EB
Tie; DC, CB
Load
E

The diagram in the figure besides shows a

structure fixed on a wall so that it stands in a
vertical plane and supports a load as

4.
Q The diagram above shows the arms of a crane
used for lifting heavy loads. Name the forces
K acting on structures:
R K: Tension N: Compression
N Q: Tension R: Compression
Crane

5.

X Y The diagram above shows a framework of a

bicycle. Which of the girders are ties?
A. XQ, QY, PX, YR B. PQ, QR, XY
P
Q R C. XQ, QY D. PX, YR.

182
6.
1
The figure shows an arrangement of three planks on a
2
3 vertical frame. Which planks can be replaced by a
rope?
A. 1 and 3 B. 1 and 2
weight

C. 3 and 2 D. 1, 2 and 3.

Hollow beams
Solids easily break because they are weak, it has a material in the neutral zone.
It is made stronger and lighter by removing the material in the neutral zone eg a bicycle frame.

A NOTCH
A notch is a crack or a cut on a given material.
The strength of a material under tension is greatly reduced when the material has a notch.
However, the material doesn’t show weakness if it is under compression as the force tends to close the
notch.
Notch
A B
AB- Tension
C D CD- Compression

Note: A notch increases under tension

CONCRETE:
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, gravels and water in definite proportions.
It is used to provide strong material for construction of buildings and bridges.

N.B: It is the amount of cement in concrete that determines its strength.

`
Characteristics of concrete
The following are the properties that make a concrete a suitable material for building;
1. It resists compression forces 3. It is durable
2. It is weather resistant 4. It doesn’t decompose.

Reinforcement of concrete
Reinforcement of concrete is the act of strengthening concrete when it is being used for construction.
This can be done in the following ways;-
1. By use of wire nets
2. By adding more cement
3. By using iron or steel bars corrugated for firm grip.
4. By using iron or steel bars with hooks at the end also for firm grip.

Advantages of reinforced concrete

1. It can with stand compression forces.
2. It is a better fire and weather resistant
3. Much more ductile when wet.
4. It is not easily destroyed by notch growth.
183
 Revision questions: Section A
1. A concrete bridge develops a notch when overloaded because it is,
A. Stiff B. brittle C. elastic D. ductile
2. The strength of a material is its ability to resist
(i) Compression (ii) Shearing forces (iii) Change in size or shape
A. (i) only C. (i) and (ii) only
B. (ii) only D. (i), (ii) and (iii)
3. A force of 20N extends a spring by 10mm. Find the extension, in mm caused by a mass of 0.5kg
A. 0.25 B. 1.00 C. 2.50 D. 10.00
4. A material that can be rolled into sheets or drawn into wires without breaking is said to be
A. Strong B. elastic C. ductile D. brittle
5. A ductile material is that which
A. Is fragile C. Can be molded into any shape
B. Is not elastic D. Easily breaks under compression
6.
D Point B represents
Force E
B
A C A. Proportional limit
B. Elastic limit
extension C. Breaking stress
Figure shows how the extension of copper wire D. Yield point
varies with the applied force.
7. An object is to behave elastically when
A. Its elastic limit is exceeded
B. Its breaking point is reached
C. Equal increase in the force applied to it produce equal change in length
D. The potential energy stored in it is used to permanently deform the object
8. In a wire supporting a load, stress is given by

A. C.

B. D.

9. Which of the following are brittle materials?

A. Leather, rubber, thread C. Glass, cast iron, stone
B. Clay, glass, wood D. Rubber, polyster, copper wire
10. A beam may be designed with much of its central part removed in order to improve on its
A. Brittleness B. stiffness C. ductility D. stability
184
11. A load of 4N stretches a spring by 0.5cm. Calculate the extension when a load of 8N is applied
A. 0.25cm. B. 1.0cm. C.2.0cm. D. 4.0cm
12. A notch on a material spreads more rapidly when the material is
A. In tension B. in compression C. prestressed D. reinforced
13. A rod of cross-sectional area 40 needs a tensile force of 2N to break it. What is its breaking
stress?
A. 0.005 B. 0.05 C. 5 D. 500
14. Reinforced concrete is stronger than ordinary concrete because concrete and steel
A. both brittle materials
B. both ductile materials
C. strong in tension and compression respectively
D. strong in compression and tension respectively
Section B
1) a) State Hooke’s law
b) When a boy of 50kg stands at the end of a spring board, it is depressed by 15cm. What would be
the depression of the spring board when a man stands at the end.
2) A steel rode of cross-sectional area 32 is 4m long. When a force of 1.6 N is applied to the
rod, its length increases by 1mm. Calculate the;
(i) Stress in the rod (ii) Strain produced
3. (a) Define the following terms
(i) Strain (ii) Tensile stress
b) With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment to verify Hooke’s law using a spring.
c) Explain why tea cups are usually made of clay materials and not metals
4. (a) what is a ductile material?
(b) give two examples of ductile materials
5. (a) state Hooke’s law of elasticity
(b) Different loads, w, are applied to the end of an elastic wire and the corresponding extension,
e, of the wire recorded.
(i) sketch a labeled graph of e against w
(ii) describe briefly the features of the graph in (b) (i)
(c) A spring of natural length 5.0 m extends by 2.0 m when a force of 1.8N acts on it.
Calculate the extension when a force of 10N is applied to the spring
6) (a) With the aid of a diagram describe the effect of a shear force on a body
(b) (i) What is meant by strength as applied to a material

185
 (ii) State the factors on which strength of a material depends
(c) Describe a simple experiment to verify Hooke’s law using a spring
(d) (i) What is concrete
(ii) State any three characteristics f concrete which makes it a desirable building material

186
 HEAT ENERGY
Heat is a form of energy which is transferred one place to another due to temperature difference.
Temperature
It is the number which expresses the degree of hotness of a body in a given scale
Differences between heat and temperature
Heat Temperature
Is a form of energy when absorbed by a is the number that expresses the degree of
body, it becomes hotter. hotness of a body on a given scale.
The S.I unit is Joule The S.I unit is Kelvin
It’s the measure of the total internal energy It’s the measure of the average kinetic
in a body energy of an individual atom in a body

Temperature measurement
Temperature is usually measured in degrees Celsius ( ).
Other units include;-
 ( ) degrees Fahrenheit  Kelvin.
The temperature of melting ice is or 273K and any temperature below is written with a
negative i.e. .
Temperature is measured using an instrument called thermometer
Thermometers use a physical property which is called thermometric property to measure
temperature.
A thermometric property is a physical property which varies linearly and continuously with
temperature.

1.1: QUALITIES OF A GOOD THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY

-It should vary linearly and continuously with temperature
-It should vary over a wide range of temperature
-It should correspond to a unique or single value of temperature
-It should respond to small unit temperatures (Sensitive)
TYPES OF THERMOMETERS AND THEIR THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY
Thermometer Thermometric property
Liquid in glass Length L of liquid column
Thermocouple E.M.F “ E”
Resistance eg Platinum Electrical resistance “R” of a wire
Constant Volume gas Pressure “P” of a fixed mass of a gas
Constant pressure gas Volume “V” of afixed mass of a gas
Pyrometer Wavelength λ(quality)

The common thermometers use expansion of liquids to show change in temperature. The liquid
used in the thermometer include mercury and alcohol. For a liquid to be used in the thermometer, it
should have the following properties;-
1. It should be opaque or readily visible
2. It should be a good conductor of heat
3. It should have a good uniform expansion.
4. It should not stick the walls of a glass

187
 5. It should have a high boiling and a low freezing point.
The most used liquids are mercury and water

Reasons why mercury is used as thermometric property .

-It doesn’t wet the glass -It expands uniformly
-It is opaque -It is a good conductor of heat

Reasons why water is not used as thermometric property

-It wets the glass
-It is not opaque
-It is a bad conductor of heat
-It is has non uniform expansitivity
-It has high freezing point (-39oC). This makes it difficult to measure temperature below 0oC
Though mercury has a high range of expansion i.e. from , it can’t be used to measure
very low temperatures because it freezes and becomes solid at
For very low temperatures, alcohol is better since it freezes and becomes solid at a much lower
temperature of though it can’t be used to measure high temperatures since it has a lower
boiling point of 78

N.B:
Water freezes at and expands irregularly so it is not suitable as a thermometric liquid. It has a
low temperature range.

Advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric liquid.

 It is opaque hence easy to read.
 It is a better conductor of heat than alcohol
 It has a higher boiling point than alcohol

Advantages of alcohol over mercury

 It has a higher expansivity than mercury
 It has a lower freezing point than mercury

LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

Diagram
This contains a quantity of liquid trapped
Bore/Stem
inside it. It has a thin glass wall. The liquid
Glass
expands more than the glass as the
Liquid temperature increases.
Capillary bore
Bulb
It is long, narrow and connected to the bulb.
These kinds of thermometers take an When the liquid expands it moves along the
advantage of the fact that most liquids expand bore. It is narrow to increase the sensitivity
when their temperature is increased. such that a small change in temperature
Bulb produces a significant movement of the liquid
in the bore.

188
SENSITIVE THERMOMETER
Is one which can record very small changes in temperature.
It has:
i) A narrow bore so that a small change in volume of the liquid fills a greater length of
the stem.
ii) A large bulb, the greater the volume of the liquid the greater the expansion to a
given change in temperature.

THE FIXED POINTS OF A THERMOMETER

When preparing a thermometer two reference temperatures called fixed points are chosen. The
higher temperature is called the upper fixed point and the lower one is called the lower fixed point.
 Lower fixed point: Is the temperature at which pure melting ice is in equilibrium with water
at standard atmospheric pressure.
 Upper fixed point: Is the temperature at which pure steam is in equilibrium with water at
standard atmospheric pressure.
Note: Ice point is 0 and Steam point is 100

CALIBRATION OF A THERMOMETER
1) Determination of a lower fixed point of a thermometer:
Method:
 Place small pieces of ice in a filter scratch on the tube. This is the lower
funnel and wait fixed point at .
 When ice begins to melt a Stem
thermometer is suspended vertically
so that its bulb is completely Lower fixed point (0 C ) 0

surrounded by melting ice in a funnel.

Melting ice
 The level of mercury falls rapidly at
first and then slowly. When it is Funnel

steady, mark its level by making a

2) Determination of upper fixed point of a thermometer:

Method:
 Fill a flask with pure water. Upper fixed point at (1000C)

Stem
 Clamp the flask on a retort stand .
 Heat the water until it boils and steam
escapes freely from the side tube. The
Steam at 1000C
level of mercury in the tube rises
gradually and then stops. This level is
Boiling water
also marked by scratching the tube. It
Heat
is the upper fixed point at .
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 Note: The bulb is kept in steam and not in boiling water. This is because impurities affect the
boiling point of water and not the temperature of steam.
Calibration of thermometer continues
 Divide the fundamental difference (the difference between the upper and lower fixed
points) in to 100 equal parts then label the marks in Celsius scale.

HOW TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE WITH A THERMOMETER

When a Celsius thermometer is graduated, the stem between the two fixed points is divided into a
hundred equal parts by means of a special dividing engine. However, this is beyond the resources
of the ordinary laboratory but a thermometer can still be used to measure the unknown
temperatures.

Steps:
1. Measure the distance between the upper and lower fixed points (y)
2. Find the distance x of the mercury thread above the lower fixed point.
3. Determine the unknown temperature from the equation
Examples:
The ice and steam fixed points on an un graduated thermometer are found to be 192mm apart.
What temperature is recorded in degrees Celsius when the length of the mercury thread is 67.2mm
above the ice point?
Solution

ALTERNATIVELY
192mm represents 100 67.2mm represents ( )
1mm represents ( ) = 35

EXERCISE:
1) When a thermometer is placed in boiling liquid, a mercury thread rises by 22cm. What is the
boiling point of that liquid if the fundamental distance is 25cm (An 88 )
2) (UNEB 1997 Paper 2 Q.3)
a) Describe an experiment to determine the fixed points of a thermometer.
b) (i) Mention any three reasons for not using water as a thermometric liquid
(ii) When a Celsius thermometer is inserted in a boiling liquid, the mercury thread rises above the
lower fixed point by 19.5cm. Find the temperature of boiling liquid if the fundamental interval is
25cm (An 78 )

TEMPERATURE SCALES
This is a scale used to measure the degree of hotness of the body basing on a thermometric
property.

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 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SCALE
 Centigrade or Celsius temperature scale
 Kelvin scale or absolute scale or thermodynamic scale

CENTIGRADE/ CELSIUS SCALE

Is a temperature scale which uses ice point (00C) as it lower fixed point and steam point
(1000C) as its upper fixed point

KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE

This is a temperature scale which uses triple point of water as a fixed point.

Conversion of temperature from one scale to another

 Changing form Kelvin to Celsius

 Changing from Celsius to Kelvin

Example:
1. Convert the following temperature readings to Celsius
(a) 1500K (b) 133K
Solution
a) , T =1500K ) , T =133K

= 1227 = - 140

2. Convert the following temperature readings to Kelvin

(a) 59 (b) - 40
Solution
) 59 T =? ) - 40 , T =?

= 332K = 233K

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

Expansion is the increase in size of a substance when it gets hotter.
Most substances expand when they are heated this is known as thermal expansion.
Contraction is the decrease in size of a substance when it gets colder

a) Expansion of solids
When a solid is heated it increases in size, surface area and volume except ice which melts and its
volume reduces.

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The molecules of a solid are in constant random motion but in their closely packed positions. As the
temperature is increased, these particles vibrate with increased speed pushing the particles apart
(from their mean positions). This causes the increase in the size of the solid.

Experiment to show expansion in solids when heated

This can be demonstrated using a metallic ball and ring experiment.
Procedure:
 A cold ball is passed through a ring as shown in diagram below.

Ball
Handle Ring
Observation: The ball passes through the ring
 The ball is then heated strongly and when one tries to pass it through the ring again, it
doesn’t go through.
Explanation: The ball does not pass through the ring when its heated because it expands
 After the ball cools it goes through the ring again.

APPLICATION OF EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

The expansion of solids when heated is applied in construction of many things; for example,
1. Railway construction.
2. Bi-metallic strip.
3. Electric thermostat.
4. Riveting. (Joining of two metals plates or rods using bolts).
5. Tight fitting of wheels on to axles.

Expansion of various substances

When rods of the same length and thickness but made of different substances are heated through
the same range of temperature experiments Show that their expansions are not equal.
Aluminum expands twice as much as steel. Invar shows a much less expansion when its
temperature rises, invar is an Alloy of steel and Nickel.

Factors which affect expansion of solids

1. The temperature
2. Nature of the substance.

BIMETALLIC STRIP
This is a strip made up of two strips of metals of different expansion rates tightly held together e.g.
a bimetallic strip of Invar and Brass.
When heated, Brass expands more than invar. The bimetallic strip expands forming a curve with
Brass on the outside.
Brass

Invar

When the same bimetallic strip is cooled, Brass contracts at a higher rate compared to invar.
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 Brass

Invar

Note:
Metals with a high expansion rate also have a high contraction rate.
Other common bimetallic strips used are:
a) Brass and Iron – Brass has a higher expansion rate than Iron.
b) Aluminum and Steel – Aluminum has a higher expansion rate than Steel.
The Bimetallic strip is commonly used in electric thermostats, mechanical switches, bimetallic
thermometers, etc.

THERMOSTAT
A thermostat is a device used for regulating temperature of a system by maintaining it steady or
vary it over a given range.
The thermostat helps devices like cookers, iron boxes, heaters, kettles etc, to maintain steady
temperature.

1. AN ELECTRIC THERMOSTAT
Knob

Insulating material
To heater
Contact

Bimetallic strip

A bimetallic strip is connected to the electric circuit which heats up the flat iron. When the iron is
cold, the bimetallic strip is in contact with the metal strip and circuit is completed such that current
flows in the device when switched on.
As the temperature rises, the strip bends downwards as brass expands more than invar breaking
the circuit at the contacts.
The circuit is completed again when the device cools that’s when the bimetallic strip is straight
again. The device is now kept at the required working temperature by the bimetallic thermostat.
The size of the gap between the contacts is altered by the temperature control knob. This
determines the temperature reached by the device.

2. RIVE TING
A two metal plates/bars may be joined together using a rivet. A red-hot rivet is pushed through a
hole made in the plates/bars. The end of a rivet is hammered.
On cooling the rivet contracts pulling the plates or bars tightly together. This is useful in strip
building, manufacture of boilers, riveting bus bodies, etc.
Alternatively
A bolt is cooled in liquid air so that it contracts and just fit into a nut. When the temperature of the
bolt rises to room temperature, it tightly into the nut.

3. STEEL BRIDGES
These are made with ends resting on rollers. This allows for expansion and contraction during hot
and cold days. it is made fixed at the ends it can break or bend.

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 4. TELEPHONE AND ELECTRIC WIRES
Telephone and electric wires are not tightly fixed by 6ft to say. This allows for contraction during
cold days without breaking.

5. WEATHERING OF ROCKS
On hot weather, the outside of a rock expands and pieces break off under the force of expansion.
Sometimes when cool rains fall on the hot rocks, the outside parts contract and the force of
contraction breaks the rock.

6. Railway construction
When a railway line is constructed, gaps are left in-between the metals to allow expansion and
construction of the metals during hot and cold days respectively.

7. Pipelines that convey hot gas or steam are fitted with loops or Expansion joints to allow
room for expansion and contraction

Problems caused by expansion in solids

Expansion in solids causes the following problems;
 Collapsing of steel bridges
 Buckling of railway lines
 Cutting of Electricity and Telephone wires
 Breaking of pipe lines
LINEAR EXPANSIVITY

Linear expansivity is the increase in length of a unit length of a material for a degree rise in
temperature.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Where is length at temperature

S. I Unit of Linear Expansivity ( )
The S.I unit of is or

Note
Linear Expansion can be obtained from:
( )

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT LINEAR EXPANSION

 The length of the material L
 The change in temperature
 The linear expansivity of the material

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 Example
1. A steel bridge is 2.5m long. If the linear expansivity of steel is 1.1 x how much will it
expand when temperature rises by 5 .
Solution
1.1 x
5
( )
= 1.1 x x 2.5 x 5
=1.375 x m
2. A brass rod of length 10cm at a temperature of is heated to a temperature of . Its new
length is found to be 10.9cm. Find its linear expansivity.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Like solids, most liquids expand when they are heated. But there are exceptions.

Demonstration of expansion in liquids

The expansion of a liquid may be shown by means of a flask fitted with a rubber bung and a length
of glass tubing.
Procedure:
 The flask is filled with water or other liquid and the bung pushed in until the level of the
liquid comes a short distance up the tube.
Liquid level after heating
Liquid level before heating

 Plunge the flask into a can of hot water and observe.

Observation: It is noticed that the level of the liquid at first falls slightly and then starts to rise
steadily.
Explanation: The initial fall in level is caused by the expansion of the glass which becomes heated
and expands before the heat has had time to be conducted through the glass into the liquid.

Comparison of expansion of different liquids

Different liquids expand by different amounts when equally heated. To demonstrate this, several
fairly large glass bulbs with glass stem are filled to a short distance above the bulb with various
liquids eg Water, Alcohol, Benzene, Ether.
Procedure:
 Fill flasks of the same type and size with the liquid to the same level and then placed in a
large trough as shown below
Water Alcohol Benzene Ether

Trough

Hot water

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  Fill the trough with hot water while stirring and observe the levels of the liquids in the
flasks.
Observation: The liquids rise by different amounts.
Conclusion: The liquids have different rates of expansion

N.B: In order to make a fair comparison, the bulbs and stems must all be of the same size.
 Liquids expand more than solids when equally heated. As we have seen before, the
molecules in liquids are relatively far apart and the cohesion force is less than that in solids.
If the two are equally heated, the molecules in liquids will expand more because they need
less energy to make them move apart.
 When liquids expand as a result of being heated, their containers also expand. If we have to
measure the amount by which they expand, allowance must be made for the expansion of
the container.

REAL AND APPARENT EXPANSION OF A LIQUID

Unlike solids, liquids have no fixed length or surface area but always take up the shape of the
containing vessel. Therefore in the case of liquids, we are concerned only with volume changes
when they are heated.
Real (Absolute) Expansivity:
The real (absolute) expansivity of a liquid is the fraction of its volume by which it expands per
Kevin rise in temperature.
Any attempt at direct measurement of the expansion of the liquid is complicated that the containing
vessel itself expands. However, since liquids must always be kept in some kind of a vessel, it is just
as useful to know the apparent expansion of a liquid which is the difference between its real
expansion and the expansion of the vessel.

Apparent Expansivity:
The apparent expansivity of a liquid is a fraction of its volume by which the liquid appears to
expand per Kelvin rise in temperature when heated in an expansible vessel.
N.B:
Apparent expansion = Real expansion – Expansion of a vessel

THE UNUSUAL EXPANSION OF WATER (THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER)

Most substances expand steadily when heated and contract when cooled.
At a particular temperature of water is unexceptional of this rule.
 As hot water cools from 100 , it contracts, its volume decreases and it becomes
denser . This contraction continues until the temperature of is reached.
 But when water cools further from it expands instead of contracting. Its volume
increases and becomes less dense than when it was at .
 This behavior is called the anomalous behavior of water.

Note:

196
  The unusual expansion of water as it cools from is due to formation of a new
arrangement of molecules which requires a large volume.
 Water therefore has a maximum density ( ) at . This expansion
continues until is reached when the water begins to change into ice. Consequently, solid
ice occupies more volume than the water from which it is formed.
Question: Why does ice float on water?
It is because it is less dense than water.
A graph of variation of volume A graph of variation of density
of water with temperature of water with temperature
Density/gcm-3
Volume/cm3
1.00

Minimum volume

4 T0C 0 4 T0C

Advantages of Anomalous expansion of water

(i) It allows continuity of aquatic life.
Explanation
During winter, water in lakes freezes and ice floats . The ice insulates the bottom layer thus leaving
the water at the bottom in liquid state hence continuity of aquatic life.

EXPANSION OF GASES
When gases are heated, they expand just as solids and liquids do. But gases expand more than
liquids and solids for the same amount of heating.

Experiment: To show expansion in gases

 Fill a glass trough with water
 Insert a glass tube through a cork and cork up a round bottom flask
 Clamp the flask on a retort stand and adjust it such that the end of the tube is under the
water level as shown in the figure below
Round bottom flask

Air
Water

Heat

 Heat the flask and observe the water in the tube

Observation: The water level in the glass tube falls and air bubbles escape from the flask

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Explanation: When the flask is heated, air inside expands. This causes the air to escape from the
flask in form of bubbles
 Allow the flask to now cool while the tube is still in the water and observe
Observation: On cooling, the water rises up the glass tube into the flask.
Explanation: On cooling, the air left in the flask contracts creating more spaces. This reduces the
pressure inside the flask. Then atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the water in the
trough pushes water up the glass tube and finally into the flask

Questions:
1. State two ways by which the sensitivity of a liquid in glass thermometer can be increased.
2. Water is cheaper than both alcohol and Hg. Why is it not used as a thermometric liquid?
3. Explain how a solid expands when heated.

4. (i) Show how expansion of solids may be useful

(ii) What are the problems of expansion?
(iii) Using the principle of operations of a bimetallic strip, explain the working of a thermometer.
(iv) Describe an experiment to show that a liquid expands when heated.
(v) How would you compare the expansion of liquids?
5. (i) Explain why water is not used as a thermometric liquid.
(ii) Draw graphs to show the variation of volume with temperature and the variation of
density with temperature for anomalous expansion.
6. (i) Describe an experiment to show that a gas expands when heated.
(ii) What are the applications
7. Explain why;
a) The level of mercury in a thermometer first falls and then rises when placed in
warm water.
b) A coca-cola bottle kept in a deep freezer cracks after some time.
8. (a)

Copper
Iron
The figure above is of a stripe of copper and iron bonded together
(i) Redraw the diagram to show what happens when the strip is heated
(ii) Why does the change you have shown in (a)(i) take place?
(b) Why is the freezing compartment of a refrigerator placed at the top

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MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer refers to the flow of heat from a region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature.
Heat travels from one place to another in three ways namely;
1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiation

CONDUCTION
It is the transfer of heat through matter (solids) from regions of higher temperature to those of
lower temperature without the movement of matter as a whole.
Kinetic theory of conduction
Explain briefly, the transfer of thermo energy by conduction in metals.
 When one end of the metal is heated, the free electrons acquire heat energy and convert it
to kinetic energy which makes them move faster towards the cooler end.
 As they move they collide with atoms and electrons in their path and lose some of their
kinetic energy to them.
 Meanwhile, the atoms now begin to vibrate more vigorously when they acquire more
kinetic energy. This vibration is passed on from one atom to the next which result into an
increase in the internal energy of the whole metal and it becomes hotter.

Good and Bad conductors of heat

Some materials conduct heat better than others. The ability of a material to conduct heat is known
as conductivity.
Materials which conduct heat are known as good conductors and those that don’t conduct heat are
known as bad conductors or insulators.
1. Good conductors
These are metals that have atoms with free electrons and allow heat to pass through them
easily.
Examples
 Copper  Iron  Mercury
 Silver  Aluminium  Tin
 Zinc  Lead
Note: Silver is the best conductor of heat however it is very expensive
2. Poor / bad conductors (insulators)
These are materials with atoms that do not have free electrons and they do not allow heat to
pass through easily
Examples
199
  Wood  Water  Plastics
 Wool  Glass  rubber
Note: Most of the liquids and gases are bad conductors of heat.
3. Non-conductors
 Vacuum

Uses (applications) of good conductors

1. Cooking utensils e.g. source pans, folks, etc.
2. Used in soldering of “electronic units” like resistors, capacitors, transistors etc.

Uses of poor conductors of heat

1. Handles of frying pans are made up of insulators such as wood or plastic because they are
poor conductors.
2. Poor conductors are used for lagging.
3. In countries where winter is experienced, the walls of houses are constructed with a
double-layer of brick work with space between them with timber – reason being; vacuum
and timber are poor conductors of heat.
4. The windows are also double glazed.

Factors affecting heat transfer by conduction

The rate of heat transfer along a solid depends on the following factors;-
 Nature of the material
 Length: The shorter the rod, the faster the transfer of heat.
 Cross section area: The rod with the thicker cross section conducts heat faster
 Temperature difference : Heat is transferred faster when the temperature difference is
great.

Nature of a material
Experiment to show that the rate of heat transfer depends on the nature of the material

Hot water
Copper

Aluminium
Iron
Lead
Cork Wood

 Identical rods made of copper, aluminum, iron, lead, and wood are coated with equal
amount of wax.
200
  The rods are passed through corks attached to a water tight trough containing hot water.
 After some time the wax begins to melt along the rods.
Observation
Wax along the copper rod melts faster compared to others and there is least melting rate along the
wood.
Conclusion; different materials conduct heat differently.

CONVECTION
This is the mode of heat transfer in fluids (air and liquid) in which the whole medium moves and
carries heat energy with it.
When a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense hence it rises.
A convection current is set up in which heat energy is transferred by the hot fluid

Convection currents in liquids

 Fill the flask almost to the top with water
 Drop a crystal of Potassium Permanganate to the bottom of a conical flask containing water
and then heat the flask.

Water
Potassium per manganate
crystals
Heat

 Heat gently below the crystal.

Observation
 Purple colour is seen rising with water and then carried down from the side of the flask.
This shows convection currents have taken place
explanation
 The heated water expands. The volume thus increases but not the mass. The density as
such decreases. The less dense water rises and its place is taken by the cold denser water.
This constitutes a convection current.

APPLICATION OF CONVECTION
 Boiling water  Cloud formation  Land and sea
 Ventilation  Chimneys breezes.

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1. ventilation
Ventilators are normally placed high up on the walls in order to remove warm air that rises up in
the room.
Cool air which is denser replaces the warm air through the windows and doors.

2. Land and sea breeze

This is brought about by temperature. Difference between the sea (water mass) and the land along
the sea shore.

a) Sea breeze
 During the day, the land warms faster than the sea because land has a small specific heat
capacity. The air on the land becomes warmer and less dense therefore rises up.
 Cool air from the sea ascends or blows towards the land to replace the warm air that has
risen.

b) Land breeze
 During the night, the land cools faster than the sea. The air above the sea is warmer and less
dense therefore rises up.
 Cool air from the land descends or blows towards the sea to replace the warm air that has
risen.

3. Cooling motor car engine

Engine cooling system in vehicles consists of a radiator, and a water jacket surrounding the engine
connected with pipes. When the engine is working, water in the jacket is heated and rises u p and
enters the top of the radiator. Here, the water is cooled by conduction, forced convection due to
form and radiation.
As it cools, it sinks down and then enters the water jacket from below;
The process then repeats itself.

RADIATION
This is the transfer of heat in vacuum e.g. heat energy from the sun to the earth. It requires no
material medium for its transmission.

Application of radiation

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1. A vacuum (Thermo) flask
Cork  Conduction and convection is eliminated by
the vacuum space between the double
Vacuum walled glass vessel.
Silvered surfaces
 Radiation is prevented by the silvered glass
Vacuum seal walls. I n this way, any heat that tries to
escape through the vacuum is reflected
A thermos flask is a device that is used to back
keep a cold liquid cold and a hot one hot. The  Convection from the hot liquid to outside is
liquid can be kept hot or cold because heat reduced by a cork or a plastic stopper
loss or gain by:

Note: The flask is rendered useless without a seal because the vacuum will no longer exist and heat
can be lost by convection, conduction and radiation through the open seal.

2. THE CHOICE OF DRESSES

The choice of a dress a person can put on can be determined by the season or conditions of the
environment.
During hot days, a white dress is preferred because it reflects most of the heat that falls on it. on
cold days, a dull black, woolen dress is preferred because it can absorb most of the heat that falls on
it and retain the heat.
3. RADIATORS
Radiators for cooling all kinds of engines or any other object such as refrigerators and X-ray tubes
are made of very good conducts such as copper painted black to facilitate loss of heat by radiation.
The conductors are usually made of thin sheets of fins to increase surface area from which heat is
lost by radiation.
4. REFRIGERATED TRUCKS
Such as those transporting fresh milk, liquid air and similar items are silvery in colour to enable
them reflect away radiant energy which could cause rise in temperature.
5. GREEN HOUSE
A green house is a house of glass or transparent plastic material used mainly for growing vegetable
crops and flowers especially in countries where low temperature affects the growth rate of plants.
 The sun emits radiations in form of visible light, infrared and utra-violet which penetrate
the glass wall and roof because of their short-wave length.

203
  These are converted to heat by the plants, soil and other objects inside the house when they
are absorbed.
 The plants and soil then emit long wave length infrared radiations which are unable to
penetrate the glass. The house therefore acts as heat trap and temperature inside increases.

ABSORPTION OF RADIATION
We can show that surfaces of different nature absorb heat at different rates by using the
arrangement below;
Dull black Polished surface
surface

cork

 Absorption of radiation can be investigated using 2-tin plates of the same area. One plate is
painted a dull black and the other is highly polished. A piece of cork is attached by means of
wax behind each plate.
 A source of heat is then placed midway between the plates.
 The wax on the dull black plate melts and falls off earlier than that on the highly polished
plate.
 This shows that dull black bodies are good absorbers of radiation while highly polished
bodies are poor absorbers but good reflectors.

Revision: Section A
1. In a domestic hot water supply system, hot water in a boiler flows to the taps by convection
because
B. hot water is less dense, and therefore rises
C. hot water is denser than cold water, therefore it sinks
D. cold water is prevented from mixing with hot water
E. warm water displaces cold water
2. The mercury thred is 13 cm long at 93 . Find the temperature in degrees centigrade ( ) when
the thread is 5cm long
A 18.6 B. 28.0 C. 35.8 D. 241.8
3. Which of the following statements is true
F. The temperature at which water H. The value of absolute zero is 0
freezes is -273 I. Evaporation is possible at a
G. The boiling point of water is 373K temperature of 0K
14. The rate of evaporation of a liquid increases when
(iii) Temperature increases
(iv) Pressure increase
(v) Its surface area increases
A. (i) and (ii) only C. (ii) and (iii) only
B. (i) and (iii) only D. (i), (ii) and (iii)
15. Which of the following is best conductor of heat
A. Silver B. Iron C. Copper D. Aluminium
16. Radiation in a thermo flask is minimized by
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 A. Cork C. Felt pad
B. Vacuum D. Silver glass wall
17. The fins of a car radiator are painted black because black bodies are poor
A. Transmitters of heat C. Absorbers of heat
B. Reflectors of heat D. Radiators of heat
18. A dull black surface is a good
(i) Absorber of heat energy (ii) Emitter of heat energy (iii) Reflector of heat energy
A. (i) only C. (ii) and (iii) only
B. (i) and (ii) only D. (i),(ii) and (iii)
19. Radiation is the transfer of heat
A. In a liquid which involves the movement of the molecules
B. From one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves
C. Through a material medium without the bulk movement of the medium
D. Through a fluid which involve the bulk movement of the fluid itself
20. The mode of transfer of heat between the boiler and the storage tank of a water supply system is
A. Radiation B. Conduction C. Convection D. Evaporation
21. The distance between the fixed points on mercury in glass thermometer is 25 cm. What is the
temperature in degrees celcius if the mercury thread is 8 cm long?
A. B. C. D.
22. Which of the following fluids is the best conductors of heat
A. Air B. Alcohol C. Water D. Mercury
23. The interval between the ice and steam points on a thermometer is 192mm.Find the temperature
when the length of the mercury thread is 67.2mm from the ice point.

A. 32.8 B. 35.0 C. 65.0 D. 67.2

24. The process of using a material of low thermal conductivity to prevent heat loss is called

A. Cooling B. Lagging C. Absorption D. Contraction

25. Which of the following fluids is the best conductor of heat
A. Air B. Alcohol C. Water D. Mercury
26. The rate of evaporation from a body is increased by
(i) Temperature (iii) liquid with greater cohesive forces
(ii) Pressure (iv) dryness of air a round the body
A. (i) and (ii) only C. (ii) and (iii) only
B. (i) and (iv) only D. (iii) only
13. Plants inside a green house emit radiations which cannot pass through the green house glass
because the radiations are
A. of short wave length C. used to warm up the green house
B. of long wavelength D. absorbed by the glass
14. The particles in a solid at room temperature are
A. close together and vibrating C. far a part and moving at random
B. close together and stationary D. close together and moving at random
15. A dull black surface feels hotter even though it is at the same temperature as a shiny surface
because
A. has more heat than a shiny surface B. reflects more heat than a shiny surface
B. emits more heat than a shiny surface C. conducts more heat than a shiny surface
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16. A bimetallic strip operates on the principle that metals
A. are heat controllers C. have different rates of expansion
B. are good heat conductors D. have the same rates of expansion
17. In order to make a mercury thermometer more sensitive
A. degree markings must be further apart
B. diameter of the capillary tube must be reduced
C. volume of the mercury bulb must be reduced
D. capillary tube must be open to air
18. The temperature at which all the heat energy is removed from a substance is called
A. Kelvin temperature C. Freezing temperature
B. Celsius temperature D. absolute zero temperature
19. The lengths of the mercury column of a thermometer at ice point and steam point are 2.0 cm and
22.0 cm respectively. The reading of the thermometer when the mercury column is 9.0 cm long is
A. 45.0 B. 40.9 C. 35.0 D. 31.8
20. A domestic refrigerator uses a volatile liquid. Which of the following represents the order of the
processes the liquid undergoes
A. Evaporation, cooling, compression, condensation, evaporation.
B. Cooling, condensation, evaporation, compression, evaporation.
C. Compression, evaporation, condensation cooling, evaporation.
D. Condensation, cooling, evaporation, compression, evaporation
27. The rate of evaporation of a body is increased by;n
(i) Temperature
(ii) Pressure
(iii) Liquid with greater cohensive forces
(iv) dryness of air around the body
A. (i) and (ii) only B. (ii) and (iii) only C. (i) and (iv) only D. (iii) only

Section B
1. (a) What is meant by conduction
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a thermos flask and explain how it is able to keep a liquid cold for
along time
(C) With the help of a diagram, describe how you would determine the upper fixed points of an un
calibrated thermometer.
(d) Explain the following observations:
(i) a bare cement floor feels colder than a carpet one
(ii) a bicycle tyre left in sunshine will bursts
(iii) a bicycle handles are coated with plastic material
2. (a) State two reasons why mercury is preferred to alcohol as a thermometric liquid.
(b) In a gas thermometer, the pressure of the gas at 0 is 20 cmHg and at 100 is 27 cmHg.
Determine the room if the pressure at this temperature is 21.4 cmHg
3.

206
 A (a) Name the parts labeled
A and B
(b) State the use of the part labeled A
(c) Why do the contents of the flask
ultimately get cold

Figure above shows a thermos flask

4. (a) (i) Describe the fixed points of a Celsius scale of temperature
(ii) Given two advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric liquid
(iii) Convert -200 to kelvin
(b) Use the kinetic theory to explain the following
(i) cooling by evaporation
(ii) why the temperature of a gas contained in a cylinder increases when it is
compressed.
5. (a) What is meant by conduction
(b) Draw a labelled diagram of thermos flask and explain how it is able to keep a liquid old for
a long time.
(c) With the help of a diagram, describe how you would determine the upper fixed point of an
un calibrated thermometer.
(b) Explain the following observations
(i) a bare cement floor feels colder than a carpeted one
(ii) a beam with a notch that is used for constructing a bridge, lasts longer when
the notch is on its top surface than when the notch is on its lower surface

207
OPTICS
Optics is a branch of science that deals with the study of light.
Light is a form of energy that travels in a straight line.
Some objects produce light on their own and these are called luminous objects e.g sun, fire worms,
fire fly .
Most objects we see don’t produce light on their own but reflect it from luminous objects and these
are called non-luminous objects e.g. moon, the stars, etc.
Some objects do not allow light to go through them and these are called opaque objects e.g. wood,
wall, people, etc.
Some of them allow most of the light to go through them and these are called transparent objects
e.g. glass, clear water, clear polythene.
Other objects allow some light to go through them and these are called translucent objects e.g.
paper, bathroom glasses, tinted glass, etc.

RAYS AND BEAMS

A ray is the direction of the path taken by light.
It is indicated by a straight line with an arrow on it.

A beam is a collection of light rays.

OR: A beam is a stream of light energy.

Types of beams
a) Parallel beam
Rays are parallel to each other.

This is obtained from light from a distant

source and search lights.
b) Convergent beam
Rays start from a common point and separate
into different directions.

E.g. light behind a convex lens after passing

through it.
c) Divergent beam
Rays from different directions meet at a
common point.
E.g. light from a torch and car lights.

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Rectilinear propagation of light states that light travels in a straight line in form of rays.
If an obstacle is placed in the path of light, it will form a shadow indicating that some light rays
have been cut off.

208
EXPERIMENT: TO VERIFY RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
 Obtain three card boards mounted on wooden blocks such that each cardboard stands on its
own. They should have small holes at the same level and this is ensured by passing a string
through the holes.
 A candle is placed at one end and the observer at the other end; the observer will be able to
see the light.
Card board
Candle

Observer

 However, if one card is displaced slightly, the observer will not be able to see the light. This
shows that light travels in a straight line.

Applications of Rectilinear propagation of light.

Rectilinear propagation of light is applied in;
 Shadows  Pin hole camera
 Eclipses

1. Shadows
A shadow is a dark area caused by an opaque object blocking some light rays.

Types of shadows
There are two types of shadows namely;
 Umbra  Penumbra
The type of the shadow formed depends on the size of the source of light and the distance of the
object from the light source.

Formation of shadows
a) Umbra.
Is an area of complete shadow caused by blocking of light rays by an opaque object from
reaching the area.
It is obtained by using a point source of light.

Experiment: To show the formation of umbra using a point source of light

 Place a point source of light in box having a small hole on one side
 Place an opaque object between the source of light and the screen as shown below

Umbra

Source of light Obstacle Screen

Observation: A dark shadow is formed on the screen

209
 b) Penumbra:
Is a partial outer shadow that is lighter than the darker inner shadow.
It is obtained by using an extended source of light.

Experiment: To show the formation of penumbra using an extended source of light

 Place an extended source of light in a box having a wider hole on one side.
 Place an opaque object between the source of light and a screen as shown in the diagram
below.
Penumbra

Umbra
Source of light Obstacle
Screen
2. Eclipse:
An eclipse is the obstructing of light from the sun by the moon or earth.

Types of Eclipse
There are two types of eclipse, namely;
 Solar eclipse  Lunar eclipse

a) Solar eclipse(Eclipse of the sun)

Solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth.

Note:
Solar eclipse occurs ;
 During the day
 When the moon is between the sun and the earth.
 Moon’s shadow falls on the earth

Solar eclipse is divided into two, namely;

 Total solar eclipse and

 Partial (Annular) eclipse

i) Total solar eclipse

It occurs when the moon is near to the earth and both the moon’s umbra and penumbra reach the
surface of the earth.
Penumbra
Moon

Sun Earth

Umbra

210
 ii) Annular eclipse
It occurs when the moon is far from the earth and only the moon’s penumbra reaches the surface of
the earth.
Penumbra
Moon

Sun Earth

Umbra

b) Lunar Eclipse(Eclipse of the moon)

Lunar eclipse is the obscuring of the moon by the earth.
Note:
Lunar eclipse occurs;
 At night.
 When the earth is between the sun and the moon.
 The earth’s shadow falls on the moon.
It’s divided into two, namely;
 Total lunar eclipse  Partial lunar eclipse

P4
Sun P3
Earth P2
P1

i) Total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon is completely obscured, ie when the moon is
in the earth’s umbra(Position P2)
ii) Partial lunar eclipse occurs when only part of the moon is obscured (position P3)

PIN HOLE CAMERA

It consists of a light proof box with a small hole (pin-hole) with a metal plate at one end and a
screen or tracing paper at the other end.

Formation of an image in a pin-hole camera

When an illuminated object is placed in front of the camera, Light rays from the object pass through
the pin hole and form an inverted image on the screen.

B
C
hI ho
D
A

V U
211
 Magnification, m
Magnification is the ratio of image height to object.
Magnification =
M= ………………………1
Magnification is also defined a ration of image distance to object distance.
M = ………………………….2
Equating 1 and 2

Effect of changing the size of the pin hole on the nature of the image
 If the hole is made large, a blurred image which is brighter is formed. This can be explained
by the assumption that the big hole is made up of small number of tiny pin holes close
together each of which produces its own image on the screen. These images over-lap and
resultant effective image is blighter and blurred.
 If a small pin-hole size is used, a sharp clear image is formed.

Effect of changing object distance on the size of the image

If the object is moved closer to the pin-hole, the image is magnified (bigger) and if it is moved away
from the pin-hole, the image is diminished (becomes smaller).

Characteristics of images formed in a pin-hole camera

 They are inverted (upside down)
 They are diminished (smaller than object)
 They are real (formed on the screen).

Example.
An object of height 5cm is placed 20cm from a pin hole camera which is 5cm long. If the height of
the image formed is 1.25cm, calculate the magnification.
Solution
u=20cm, v= 5cm(length of M= M=
the camera),
M= M=
ho =5cm, hI =1.25cm
m =? M = 0.25 M = 0.25
OR

UNEB
1. (1997Q.22). In a pin hole camera, sharper and taller images are obtained by
A. widening the hole and moving the object further
B. narrowing the hole and moving the object nearer.
C. using a longer camera with a wider hole
D. using a shorter camera with a narrow hole
2. (2000Q.34). A man 1.75m tall stands at a distance of 7.0m from pin-hole of pin- hole camera. If the
film is 0.20m behind the pin hole, find the length of the image of the man formed on the film
212
 A. 8.75m C. 0.80m
B. 4.00m D. 0.05m
3. (2002Q.27). When a pin-hole camera is moved near an object, the size of the Image.
A. remains the same B. becomes smaller
C. becomes larger D. becomes diminished
4. (2006 Q.29). When does the eclipse of the moon occur?
A. When the moon is between the sun and earth.
B. When the earth is between the sun and the earth.
C. When the sun is totally eclipsed by the moon.
D. When a bright ring of sun light shows round the age of the moon.
5. (2006Q.27). An object 6cm high is placed 24cm from a tiny hole in a pin-hole camera. If the distance
from the hole to the screen is 8cm, find the size of the image on the screen.
A. 0.2cm C. 18.0cm
B. 2.0cm D. 32.0cm
Section B
6. (1992 Q.1).
a) What is meant by rectilinear propagation of light
b) An opaque object is placed in front of a source of light. Draw ray diagrams to show the
formation of shadows when:
i) A point source is used.
ii) An extended source is used
7. (1997Q.4)
a) With the aid of a diagram, illustrate how shadows are formed when an opaque object is
placed between an extended source of light and the screen.
b) Draw a diagram to show the formation of a partial and total solar eclipse.
8. (1998Q.7).
a) Describe an experiment to show that light travels in a straight line.
b) An object of height 4cm is placed 5cm away from a pin-hole camera. The screen is 7cm from
the pin hole.
i) Draw a scale ray diagram to show the formation of an image by a pin-hole camera.
ii) What is the nature of the image?
iii) Find the magnification.
iv) Explain what happens to the image if the pin-hole is made larger.
c) Draw a diagram to show the formation of solar eclipse.

213
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is the bouncing of light as it strikes a reflecting surface.

Types of reflection
a) Regular reflection. Here, an incident parallel beam is reflected as a parallel beam when light
falls on a smooth surface e.g. plane mirror, paper, clear water, highly polished surfaces.
Reflected
Incident beam
beam

Plane
Reflecting
surface

b) Irregular (diffuse) reflection

Here an incident parallel beam is reflected in different directions when light falls on a rough surface
e.g. iron sheets, unclear water, etc.
Incident beam Reflected beam

Differences between Regular and Irregular reflection of light

Regular reflection Irregular reflection
1. Takes place on a smooth surface Takes place on a rough surface
2. A parallel incident beam is reflected as A parallel incident beam is reflected in
a parallel beam. different directions.

Reflection from a plane mirror

normal
Incident ray
Reflected ray
i r

i = angle of incidence (angle between the normal and incident ray)

r = angle of reflection (angle between the normal and reflected ray)

LAWS OF REFLECTION
Law 1: The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on
the same plane.
Law 2: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

214
 Experiment to verify the laws of reflection
 Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board using pins and draw a horizontal line MM1
and a normal at the point of incidence.
 Measure angle of incidence i on the paper e.g i = and place the optical pins P1 and P2
along the incident ray and place a plain mirror vertically along the horizontal line.

P1 normal P4
P2 P3
i r

M M1
 Locate the images of P1 and P2 using pins P3 and P4 so that P3 and P4 are in a straight line
with P1 and P2
 Measure angle r.
 Repeat the procedures above for different values of i and measure the corresponding values
of r
 It is observed that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of
incidence lie on the same plane.
 It is also observed that the angle of incidence is always equals to the angle of reflection.
Hence this verifies the laws of reflection.

Formation of images by a plain mirror

An image is formed by intersection of at least two rays.
M d2
O d1 I

Eye
M1

PROPERTIES OF IMAGES FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR.

1. The images are the same distance behind the mirrors as the distance of the object in front of
the mirror.
2. The images have the same size as the object.
3. The images are erect (upright)
4. The images are laterally inverted (rotated through 180 in the mirror).
5. The images are virtual (they cannot be formed on the screen.

THE REAL AND VIRTUAL IMAGES

A real image
It is one which can be formed on the screen.

215
It is formed by the actual intersection of rays e.g. images formed by concave mirror and convex
lenses.

A virtual image
It is one that cannot be formed on a screen. It is formed by the apparent intersection of rays e.g.
images formed by plane mirrors, concave lenses and convex mirrors.

IMAGES FORMED BY TWO PLANE MIRRORS INCLINED AT ANGLE

The number of images, n formed by two plane mirrors inclined at an angle is given by

Example
Find the number of images formed when an object is placed between two mirrors inclined at an
angle.
i) 90 ii) 80 iii) 60
Solution

Note
 If by calculations n =2.9, then the number of images is =2
 If the plane mirrors are parallel to each other, the angle between them is hence the
number of images is undefined / infinitely many.

Applications of reflection in plane mirrors

Plane mirrors are used in;
 Periscopes for seeing over obstacles
 Kaleidoscope used by kids for playing
 Saloons and dressing rooms
 Small cars eg taxis to view passengers a board
 Bicycles for seeing traffic behind

UNEB
1. (1996 Q.25). The hands of an image of an un numbered clock face in a plane mirror
indicates 6:20. The actual time is
A. 5:40 C. 6:40
B. 6:20 D. 7:40
2. (1999 Q.28). Objects P and Q are placed at distances of 2m and 3m respectively from a
plane mirror as shown in figure below. Find how far the image of P is from Q.

216
 Q P
2cm Plane mirror

3cm

A. 1m B. 4m C. 5m D.7m
3. (1997 Q.24). A person observes the image of a pin placed in front of a plane mirror as
shown in the figure below. The reflected beam from the pin reaching the observer is a;
Plane mirror

pin
observer

A. Virtual beam C. Parallel beam

B. Divergent beam D. Convergent beam
4. (2005 Q.40). An object is placed 30cm in front of a plane mirror. If the mirror is moved
through a distance of 6cm towards the object, find the distance between the object and it’s
image.
A. 24cm B. 36cm C. 48cm D. 60cm
5. (2007 Q.16). Diffuse reflection occurs when;
A. A parallel beam of light is reflected in all directions.
B. A parallel beam of light falls on a highly polished surface.
C. A parallel beam of light is reflected as a parallel beam.
D. The angle of incidence of the beam are equal to the angles of reflection.

REFLECTION IN CURVED MIRRORS

CURVED MIRRORS ((Spherical mirrors)
Curved mirrors are mirrors whose surfaces are obtained from a hollow transparent sphere.
There are two types of curved mirrors;
i) Concave mirror (converging mirror) ii) Convex mirror (diverging mirror)
Concave mirror
It converges parallel rays of light.
A

C F P

B
f

Convex mirror
It diverges parallel rays of light
A

P F C

B
f
Where;
P is the pole of the mirror r is the radius of curvature.
F is the principal focus (focal point) APB – Aperture
C is the centre of curvature PFC – Principal axis
f is the focal length
217
 Terms used in Curved mirrors
Definition:
1. Principal axis; it is a line joining the centre of curvature, the principal focus and the pole of
the mirror.
2. Pole P; it is the centre of the mirror
3. Centre of curvature
This is a point on the principal axis where the mirror makes part.
Or; is the centre of sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
4. Radius of curvature; distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.
5. Aperture; it is the length of the mirror.
6. Principal focus (focal point) F
a) O f a Converging mirror
This is a point on the principal axis where rays originally parallel to the principal axis
converge after reflection.
A concave mirror has a real (in front) principal focus.
b) Of a Diverging mirror
Point on the principal axis where rays originally parallel to principal axis appear to be
diverging after reflection.
A convex mirror has a virtual (behind) principal focus.
7. Focal length; this is the distance between the pole of a mirror and the principal focus.

IMAGES FORMED BY CURVED MIRRORS

Principles used;
1. Rays are always drawn from the top of the object.
2. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the principal focus.

C F P P F C
Concave
Convex

3. A ray through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis.

C F P P F C
Concave Convex

4. A ray through the centre of curvature is reflected along its own path.

218
 C F P P F C
Concave Convex

5. At least two rays are used i.e. (1 and 2) or (1 & 3). Their point of intersection is where the
image is, and it is always the top of the image.

N.B: Centre of curvature = 2 x focal length

r = 2f
(the centre of curvature is twice the focal length)

RAY DIAGRAMS
a) Concave Mirrors
1. Object between F and P

Nature of images

 Erect

 Virtual

 Behind the mirror

 Magnified
C F O I

2. Object at F

Nature of images

 Real

 Infinity
C F P

3. Object between F and C

Nature of images
 Real
 Inverted
 Beyond C
I  Magnified
C O F P

4. Object at C

219
 Nature of images
 Real
 Inverted
C F P
 At C
 Same size

5. Object beyond C

Nature of images
 Real
 Inverted
I O
C P
F  Between F and C
 Diminished

Convex mirror

O P I F C

The image is; virtual, diminished, erect

Note:
For a convex mirror no matter the position of the object , the image will always be virtual,
diminished and erect.

Exercise:
1. An object of 2cm is placed 15cm from a concave mirror of focal length 10cm. Draw a scale
diagram to locate the image and determine its characteristics.
2. An object 10cm high is placed at a distance of 25cm from a convex mirror of focal length 10cm.
by a ray diagram find the position of the image and state its nature.
3. A converging lens of focal length 10cm is used to view an object placed 8cm from the lens. Find
the position and magnification of the image.
4. Find by means of ray diagrams drawn to suitable scales the size, nature and position of the image
of a small object 2.0cm high which is placed;
a) 50cm c) 20cm
b) 30cm d) 15cm
e) 10cm In front of a concave mirror of focal length 15cm.

220
 Mirror formula
Mirror formula is given as;

From which;

Where
u =object distance f = focal length
v = image distance r = radius of curvature

Note: r = 2f
All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
Sign convention
 Distances of real objects and real images are positive ie u and v for real objects and real
images are positive.
 Distances of virtual objects and virtual images are negative ie u and v for virtual objects and
virtual images are negative.
 Focal length f, for a concave mirror is positive and negative for a convex mirror.

MAGNIFICATION
It is defined as the ratio of the image height to object height.

Magnification can also be obtained by determining the ratio of distance of the image from the
mirror (v) to the distance of the object from the mirror (u)
( )
( )
Example
1. An image formed 48cm from a concave mirror is 7.2cm tall. Calculate the size of the object given
that is placed 12cm in front of the mirror.
Solution:

The height of the object is 1.8cm.

2. An object 1cm tall is placed 30cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20cm. find ;
(i) The position of the image
(ii) The size of the image formed
(iii) The magnification of the image
Solution
ho= 1cm, hi=?, u=30cm, v=?, f=20cm (concave mirror)
221
 M=

hi =2cm
m= =
m =2
Or
V =60cm
M= =
Positive sign means the image is real (60cm
in front of the mirror) M=2
3. An object 10cm tall is placed 30cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 20cm. Find;
(i) The position
(ii) The size of the image formed.
Solution
ho= 10cm, hi=?, u=30cm, v=?, V = - 12cm
f= - 20cm (convex mirror) Negative sign means the image is virtual
(12cm behind the mirror)

M=

hi =4cm

4. A small object is placed on the principal axis of a convex mirror of curvature of 20cm. Determine
the position of the image when the object is 15cm from the mirror
Solution
u=15cm, v=?, r=20cm, f= =
f= - 10cm (convex mirror)

V = - 6cm
Negative sign means the image is virtual (6cm
behind the mirror)

USES OF CURVED MIRRORS

2. Concave mirrors
(i) They are used as shaving mirrors and by dentists to give magnified and upright images.
(ii) They are also used in torches and head lamps of cars.
(iii) They are used for solar concentration.
(iv) They are used in reflecting telescopes.
Advantage
It forms magnified and erect images

Parabolic mirrors
222
 A parabolic mirror has the advantage of reflecting the light source placed at the focus parallel to the
principal axis with undiminished intensity.

Parallel beam

Uses of Parabolic mirrors

They are used as reflectors in search light torches

3. Convex mirrors
(i) They are used as driving mirrors. This is because they always form erect images and have a
wide field of view.
(ii) Used in super markets to observe the activities of customers
(iii) Used in security check points to inspect under vehicles

Advantages of convex mirrors over plane mirrors

i) They have a wide field of view
ii) They form erect images

Plane mirror Convex mirror

Eye Eye
Wide field of view
Narrow field of view

Disadvantages of convex mirrors

It diminished images ,giving a wrong impression to drivers that the object behind is very far

AN EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE FOCAL LENGTH OF THE CONCAVE MIRROR

Wire gauze object
with a screen

lamp

r = 2f
Method:
 An object in this, consists of a hole cut in a white screen made of a sheet of metal illuminated
from behind by a source of light.

223
  A concave mirror is mounted in a holder, and moved to and from in front of the screen until
a sharp image of the object is formed on the screen adjacent to the object.
 When this has been done, both the image and the object are at the same distance from the
mirror, and hence both must be situated in a plane passing through the centre of curvature
and at right angles to the axis.
 The distance between the mirror and the screen is measured and this is the radius of
curvature, r.
 Half of this distance, r, is the focal length, f ( ⁄ ).

UNEB
1. (2002 Q.8). The focal length of a concave mirror is the
A. Distance between the pole of the mirror and the focal point
B. Distance between the center of curvature and the mirror
C. Distance between the object and the image
D. Diameter of the mirror
2. (2003 Q.20). Which of the following information is true about the concave and convex mirror?
Concave mirror Convex mirror
A Converges light Diverges light
B Diverges light Converges light
C Refract light Reflects light
D Has a wide field of view Has a narrow field of view

3. (2005 Q.29). A concave mirror can be used as a shaving mirror because when an object is placed
between the principal focus and the pole, the image formed is,
A. Magnified, virtual and erect C. Diminished, real and inverted
B. Magnified, real and inverted D. Diminished, virtual and erect
4. (2007 Q.2). A concave mirror may be used as
(i) A magnifying mirror (ii) A torch reflector (iii) A driving mirror
A. (i) only C. (ii) and (iii) only
B. (ii) and (ii) only D. (i), (ii) and (iii) only

Section B
5. (1995 Q.5)
(a) Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of an image of an object o placed in front of a convex
mirror shown in the figure below. F is the principal focus of the mirror.

(b) . State two applications of a convex mirror

6. (1997 Q.4)
(C). An object 10cm high is placed at a distance of 25cm from a convex mirror of focal length 10cm.
(i) draw a ray diagram to locate the position of the image
(ii) calculate the magnification
(d) Give reasons for use of a convex mirror a vehicle
7. (2002 Q.5).
(c) With the aid of a diagram explain why a parabolic mirror is most suitable for use in car head lights
(d) List three uses of a concave mirror
224
 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another of different optical
densities.
The bending of light is as a result of the change in speed as light travels from one medium to
another. The change in speed of light usually leads to the change in direction unless if the ray is
incident normally.
The speed of light in air is higher than the speed of light in glass or water.
Glass and water are therefore said to be denser than air also is denser than water.
Consider a ray incident on an air –glass boundary.
Incident ray N

i
air
O
glass

r
Refracted ray

LAWS OF REFRACTION
LAW 1: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

LAW 2: The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
for any given pair of media of different optical densities.

This is called Snell’s law.

This constant ratio is called Refractive index, (n).
where;

Refractive index n
Refractive index of a material is the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction for any given pair of media of different optical densities.

i.e

Examples
1.
60o Find the angle of refraction if the refractive
air index of glass is 1.52
glass
r

225
 Solution
Sin r = r = 34.7

Sin r = 0.569
r= ( )
2. The angle of incidence of water of refractive index 1.33 is . Find the angle of refraction.
Solution
Sin r = r = 34.7

Sin r = 0.531
r= ( )

Exercise
1. The angle of incidence is 30o and angle of refraction is 19o. Find the refractive index of the material
2. A ray of light is incident in air at an angle of 30o. Find the value of angle of refraction, r, if the
refractive index is 1.5.
3. A ray of light is incident on a water- glass boundary at an angle of 41o as shown below.
Calculate the angle of refraction, if the
41o water refractive indices of water and glass are 1.33
and 1.50 respectively
glass
r

N.B:
1. For a ray travelling from a less dense medium to a denser medium e.g from air to glass, it is
refracted towards the normal since there is a decrease in speed of light.
Incident ray N

i
air
O
glass

r
Refracted ray

2. If the ray travels from a denser to a less dense medium e.g. from glass to air, it will be reflected
away from the normal just because there will be an increase in the speed of light.
Normal
Refracted ray
r
air
O
glass

i
Incident ray

3. When the incident ray meets a refracting surface at 90 , it is not refracted at all
4. The speed of light reduces when it travels into a dense medium

Absolute refractive index

Absolute refractive of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in
that material.
226
 Consider a ray of light travelling from water to glass

Generally

Examples:
1. Calculate the refractive index of the glass if a ray of light is incident on it at an angle of and it is
refracted at an angle of .
Solution:
60o
air
glass

35.3o

2. A ray of light travelling from a liquid to air has an angle of incidence of and an angle of refraction
of Find the refractive index of the liquid.
Solution
nl x sin40 = 1 x sin 60
40o liquid

air
60o
( )
nlsinil = nasinra The refractive index of the liquid is 1.3 (1d.p)
3. A ray of light in air makes an angle of incidence of with the normal to glass surface of refractive
index 1.5. What is the angle of refraction?
Solution
60o
air
glass
ng =1.5
rg

( )
( )

4. A ray of light in air makes an angle of 30 with the surface of a rectangular glass block of
refractive index 1.5. What is the angle of refraction?
Solution

227
 30o
air
glass
ng =1.5
rg

VERIFICATION OF SNELL’S LAW

Apparatus:
- A glass block - White sheet of paper
- 4 optical pins - Soft board
- 4 drawing pins - Protractor
Procedure:
 Fix a white sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins
 The glass block is placed on the white paper, its outline A,B,C,D is traced and then the glass
block is removed from the sheet of paper.
 A point O is marked on AB and a normal MN is drawn through it. A line representing the
incident ray is drawn such that it makes an angle of incidence, i of say 30 with the normal.
P1 M
P2
i
A O B

Glass
r

N
D E C
P3
P4

 Two optical pins P1 and P2 are fixed at the line which makes an angle of 30 and the glass
block is put back to its outline A,B,C,D again.
 When looking through the glass block from face C,D two other pins P3 and P4 are fixed such
that they appear to be in a straight line with pins P1 and P2.
 After this, the glass block and the pins are removed and a straight line is drawn through P3
and P4 so that it meets D, C at E.
 A line joining O to E is drawn and the angle of refraction is measured.
 The procedure is repeated with other angles of incidence and their corresponding angles of
refraction are measured and recorded as shown below;
i(0) r(0) Sin i Sin r
30
35
40
45
50

 A graph of sin i against sin r is plotted. And this gives a straight line graph which passes
through the origin.

228
 Sin i

Sin r

This shows that the ratio

Thus, Snell’s law is verified.
The slope of the graph gives the refractive index n of the material (glass).

Effects of refraction:
Refraction of light rays at a plane causes;
(i) A partially immersed stick dipped at an angle in water appears bent at the boundary.
(ii) A pond appears shallower than it really is.
(iii) An object placed underneath a glass block appears nearer to the top.
(iv) A stick placed upright in water appears shorter.

Explanation of Some effects of refraction

1. A stick partially immersed in water

Air

Water

Any stick held in a slanting position in water appears to be bent.

When light rays pass from an object under water to air i.e. from a denser medium to a less dense
medium, they are refracted away from the normal. As a result part of the stick under H 2O appears
to be raised up. The part outside is seen in its normal position and the end result is that the stick
appears bent.
2. A pond appears shallower than it really is

Apparent position
Air

Water
Real position

Light rays proceeding from an object at the bottom of the pond travel from water to air. They bend
away from the normal and reach the observer’s eye. To an observer, the object (at the bottom of
the pond) appears to be in the same straight line along which it entered his eyes, so it appears to be
raised and the pond appears shallower than it really is.
For the same reason a fish swimming in water appears to be nearer to the surface of water than
actually the case.
3. Appearance of the sun when setting in the West
It is another effect of refraction occurring nearly every day.
229
 The rays radiating from the sun enters the denser atmosphere which surrounds the earth and
are hence refracted.
At the time of the actual sunset, what appears to us as the sun is about to set is only a virtual
image of the real sun which is then lowered down in the sky.
Thus the actual sunset really takes place little before the apparent one.
A similar effect is seen when the sun is rising in the morning.

Total Internal Reflection and Critical angle

Total internal reflection if light is a reflection that occurs within the same medium when a ray of
light travels from a more optically dense medium to a less optically dense medium at an angle of
incidence greater than the critical angle of the medium.

Explanation of Total Internal Reflection and Critical angle

 When light travels from a more
optically dense medium to a less r
air
optically dense medium, some light is glass
reflected and some is refracted with
i
the refracted beam being bright
which the angle of refraction is 90 is
 When the angle of incidence, , is called critical angle(C)
gradually increased, the angle of
refraction, also increases. At a
air
certain value of angle of incidence the
glass
angle of refraction becomes 90 and
the ray grazes the air – glass C
boundary. The angle of incidence for

 If the angle of incidence is further

air
increased beyond the critical angle, glass
the light ray becomes totally reflected i
back to the more optically dense
medium

Condition for total internal reflection to occur

(i) The ray of light must travel from a more dense medium to less dense eg from glass to
water.
(ii) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle of the medium.

Critical angle ,C
Critical angle ,C of the medium is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 for a
ray of light travelling from a more optically dense medium to a less optically dense medium.

Relationship between critical angle, C , and the refractive index, n

Example
230
1. The refractive index of glass is 1.5, find the critical angle
Solution

C=
C = 41.8
2. Find the critical angle for the ray of light moving from water of refractive index 1.33 to air
Solution

C=
C = 40.75

Applications of total internal reflection

1. Totally reflecting prisms
(i) Total internal reflection in a (ii) Formation of inverted image by
right angled prism a single glass prism

Erect object

Inverted
image

(iii) Formation of an erect image using two right

angled glass prisms

Erect object

Erect image

2. The fish- eye view

The fish has a wider field of view in that it
views all objects both in water and above
water surface. Objects above water surface
are viewed as a result of refraction while
those under water are viewed as a result of
total internal reflection

3. Formation of a mirage
Mirage: is an optical illusion of a pool of water appearing on a hot road surface
 This occurs when the air nearer the surface of the road is less dense than that above .
Cool air is denser than warm air

231
 Cool air

Hot air Road surface

Image

 Light from the sky is gradually refracted away from the normal as it passes from denser
layers of air
 When light meets a layer at the critical angle, it suffers a total internal reflection. The
reflection of the sky appears as a pool of water on the road

4. Transmission of radio waves

 Radio waves from radio stations on received on the other part of the
earth surface are sent towards the earth.
ionosphere(Appleton layer) which Appleton
contains ionized gases
 As the optical density of ionosphere layer
decreases with increase in height, the
waves are progressively refracted
away from the normal as the
increases until such a height when
the waves are totally internally Radio station Receiver
reflected and therefore can be

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

Fill a glass with water and place a coin at the bottom. On looking straight down through the water,
the coin appears nearer the surface than it should really be. If the depth of water is 40cm (real
depth) the coin would appear to be at a depth of 30cm (apparent depth). Therefore the coin has
apparently been raised.

GLASS BLOCK
When a glass block e.g. is placed on top of the object, the object when viewed appears displaced as
shown below;

232
 C
A B

Apparent r
depth
i
Real depth I

r
O

Refractive index, n, in terms of real depth and apparent depth.

Where d is the displacement and t is the real depth. Thus refractive index can be defined as
the ratio of real depth to apparent depth.
Apparent displacement of an object
From the figure above, the displacement d of an object is from O to I and it can be calculated as
follows;
Let d be the displacement, t be the real depth.
Then the apparent depth = Real depth – displacement
=t–d
From
Example
A microscope is focused on a mark on a table. When the mark is covered by a plate of glass 2cm
thick, the microscope has to be raised 0.67cm for the mark to be once more in focus.
Solution

n = 1.5

The principle of reversibility of light

It states that: The path of light rays is reversible

Where: is refractive index when the light is moving from air to glass

is refractive index when the light is moving from glass to air

233
LENSES
A lens is a glass or any transparent material shaped to refract light rays from an object to form a real or
a virtual image of the object.
Types of lenses
There are two types of lenses as shown below
b. Converging (convex) lens
 Its curved outwards
 Thicker in the middle
 Thinner at the edge

Convex lenses are also divided into two namely;

(i) Converging meniscus (ii) Plano convex

c. Diverging (concave) lens

 Its curved inwards
 Thinner in the middle
 Thicker at the edge
Concave lenses are also divided into two namely;
(i) Diverging meniscus (ii) Plano concave

Refraction of light in lenses

(i) A parallel beam of light, parallel and close to the principal axis of a converging lens is
converged or brought to focus at the principal focus F
(ii) A parallel beam of light, parallel and close to the principal axis of a diverging lens is
diverged such that the rays appear to come from the principal focus F
Converging lens Diverging lens

Principal axis C F Principal axis F C

f f
Terms used in Lenses
Definition:
i. Principal axis; it is a line joining the centre of curvature to its surfaces through the optical
center.
ii. Optical center C; it is the point mid way between the lens surfaces.

iii. Principal focus (focal point) F

1. O f a Converging lens
234
 This is a point on the principal axis where rays originally parallel to the principal axis converge
after refraction.
A convex lens has a real (in front) principal focus.
2. Of a Diverging lens
Point on the principal axis where rays originally parallel to principal axis appear to be diverging
after refraction.
A concave lens has a virtual (behind) principal focus.
iv. Focal length; this is the distance between the optical center of the lens and the principal focus.

Ray diagrams for a converging lens

1. Principal rays for a converging lens
 A ray parallel to the principal axis is  A ray passing through the optical
refracted to pass through the center, C is not refracted
principal focus F
 A ray passing through the principal
C F I
focus F is refracted to parallel to the O
principal axis

2. Images formed by a converging lens

(i) Object between F and C (Magnifying glass)
Nature of image
 Virtual
C  Erect
I F O F  Magnified

(ii) Object at F

Nature of image
 Image at infinity
C
F F

(iii) Object between F and 2F

Nature of image
 Real
C F I  Inverted
2F O F
 Magnified
 Beyond 2F

235
 (iv) Object at 2F
Nature of image
 Real
C F I  Inverted
2F F  Same size as object
 Between F and 2F

(v) Object beyond 2F

Nature of image
 Real
 Inverted
C F I
O 2F F  Diminished
 Between F and 2F

(vi) Object at infinity

Nature of image
 Real
C F
2F  Inverted
F
 Diminished
 At F

Ray diagrams for a diverging lens

a) Principal rays for a diverging lens
 A ray parallel to the principal
axis is refracted to appear to
come from the principal focus F
 A ray passing through the O I C
optical center, C is not refracted
b) Formation of an image in a diverging lens
Nature of the image
 Virtual
 Erect
 Diminished
O F I C
 Between F and C

The lens formula

Lens formula is given as;

From which;

Where
236
 u =object distance f = focal length
v = image distance

Note:
All distances are measured from the optical center of the lens.
Sign convention
 Distances of real objects and real images are positive ie u and v for real objects and real images
are positive.
 Distances of virtual objects and virtual images are negative ie u and v for virtual objects and
virtual images are negative.
 Focal length f, for a convex lens is positive and negative for a concave lens.

MAGNIFICATION
It is defined as the ratio of the image height to object height.

Magnification is also defined as the ratio of distance of the image from the lens to the distance of the
object from the lens.
( )
( )
Examples
1. An object is placed 20cm from a converging lens of focal length 15cm. Find the nature, position and the
magnification of the image formed
Solution
u = +20cm, f =+15cm, v =? v = 60cm
) iii) M=
M=

 Real image( since v = positive)

 Magnified image ( since m )

2. A four times magnified virtual image is formed of an object placed 12cm from a converging lens.
Calculate;
(i) The position of the image and (ii) The focal length of the lens
Solution
(i) M = 4, u = 12cm, v =?
M=
4=

(ii) u =12cm, v = -48cm(virtual image), f=? f = 16cm

237
 The power of a lens
The power of a lens,P is the reciprocal of the focal length in metres.
The S.I unit of power of a lens is Dioptres(D).
A diopter is the power of a lens of focal length one metre

( )

( )
Examples
(a) Power of a single lens
1. A converging lens has a focal lens 15cm. Calculate the power of the lens.
Solution
=0.15m,

( )
2. Find the power of a diverging lens of focal length 10cm
Solution
0.1m,

( )

(b) Power of combination of two lenses in contact

When two lenses are in contact, the power of the combination is obtained by adding the power of the
two lenses

1. Two converging lenses of focal length 10cm and 20cm are placed in contact. Find the power of the
combination
Solution
For first lens
=0.1m, ( )

( )

Power of the combination

For second lens

=0.2m,

2. A converging lens of focal length 10cm is placed in contact with a diverging lens of focal length 25cm.
Find the power of the combination
Solution
For first lens
=0.1m,

( ) For second lens

238
 0.25m,
Power of the combination
( )

Determining focal length of a convex lens

b) Using a distant object
 Focus a distant object onto the screen by moving the lens to and fro until a clear image of the
object is seen
Screen
Rays from
A distant object
f
 Measure the distance between lens and the screen
 Repeat the experiment and measure the distance between lens and the screen
 The average value is the focal length of the lens.

c) Using an illuminate object and a plane mirror

 Place a plane mirror vertically facing a screen with a wire gauze (object)
 Place a converging lens on a lens holder and move the lens between the mirror and the screen
until a sharp image of the wire gauze is formed on the screen
Screen
Plane mirror

f
Image
Object
 Measure the distance between the screen and the lens and this is the focal length.

Application of the lens

Lenses are used in;
 The camera, projector, eye glasses, microscope, and telescopes
The lens camera
The lens camera consists of a light proof box with a converging lens in font and a light sensitive film at
the back
Aperture Film spool

Converging Film
lens
Shutter

Diaphragm
Note : The inner surface of the camera is painted black in order to prevent the reflection of stray rays of
light
239
 Functions of parts of a camera
(i) Converging lens:
 Focuses the image of an object on to the film
(ii) Diaphragm
 Regulates the size of the aperture.
 Controls the amount of light entering the camera by its size
(iii) Shutter
 Controls the amount of light entering the camera by the length of time of being open
(iv) Film
 Light sensitive part where image is formed

The human eye

The eye is a light sensitive organ for vision in animals
Lens
Iris
Retina

Pupil

Functions of parts of an eye

(i) Converging lens:
 Focuses the image of an object on to the retina
(ii) Iris
 Controls the amount of light entering the eye by controlling the size of the pupil
(iii) Pupil
 Circular opening through which light enters the eye
(iv) Retina
 Light sensitive part where image is formed

Similarities between the eye and the camera

 Both have a converging lens
 Both have light sensitive parts for image formation
 Both have openings that admits light
 Both have the ability to control the amount of light entering them

Differences between the eye and the camera

Eye Camera
(i) Has natural lens with (i) Has artificial lens with a
a variable focal length fixed focal length
(ii) The image distance is The image distance is
fixed variable

Accommodation
Accommodation is the ability of the eye to focus an image of an object by altering the focal length of the
lens.
240
Near point and far point
 The near point is the closest point at which the eye can focus clearly
 The far point is the furthest point at which the eye can focus clearly
Note: for a normal eye the near point is 25cm and the far point is at infinity .

The eye defects and their corrections

Eye defects are caused by inability of accommodation.

(i) Long sightedness (hypermetropia)

 A long sighted person sees only far objects clearly because their images are formed on the
retina.
 A person with long sight defect can’t see near objects clearly and this occurs when the image is
formed beyond the retina.

O I

 The lens of the eye becomes a bit thinner and the focal length increases and this causes all the
images of nearer objects to fall behind the retina.

Correction of long sightedness

It is corrected by using a suitable converging lens called a converging meniscus

(ii) Short sightedness (myopia)

 A short sighted person sees only near objects clearly because their images are formed on the
retina.
 A person with short sight defect can’t see far objects clearly and this occurs when the image is
formed in front of the retina.

Rays from far

object I

 The lens of the eye becomes a bit thicker and the focal length decreases and this causes all the
images of far objects to fall in front of the retina.

Correction of short sightedness

It is corrected by using a suitable diverging lens called a diverging meniscus

241
The Slide Projector or Enlarger
A projector is an instrument used to project an image on to a screen.
It forms a real magnified image of the slide on the screen.
Concave mirror Heat filter Projection
lens
Screen

Image
Lamp Slide
Condenser
Note : The slide is placed upside down so that the image formed is an erect image

Functions of different parts of a projector

(i) Lamp:
 It is a source of light that provides a power beam of light to illuminate the slide
 It is always placed at the centre of curvature of the mirror so that the light is reflected
along the same path.
(ii) Concave mirror
 It reflects back any light rays that travel a way from the source
(iii) Condenser
 Converge light rays from the lamp and concentrate them on to the slide
(iv) Heat filter
 Protects the slide from heat of the lamp
(v) Slide
 It is where the object is placed.
(vi) Projection lens
 It focuses the image of the object on to the screen
(vii) Screen
 This where the image is formed

REFRACTION IN A GLASS PRISM

A prism is a geometrical object with at least two plane surfaces. A prism is made up of glass.
Terms used in a prism
F  Angle of a prism or refracting angle;
C
D E
 Base; ABED
A B

 Triangular face; ABC=DEF

 Refracting surface; CBEF= CADF
Path followed by a ray of light in a glass prism

i1 i2
r1 r2

242
 Deviation by a prism
It is the change in direction of a ray of light produced by a prism.
When light passes through a glass prism, the direction of the emergent ray is altered from the initial
direction. The angle through which the beam direction is altered is called deviation, d

A
i1 d1 d 2 d
r1 r2 i2
A
Formula for deviation, d

Since and
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Since
( )
Examples
1. The diagram below shows a ray of monochromatic light incident at an angle of 50 on an equilateral
triangular prism of refractive index 1.52
(i) Calculate the angles marked r and e
50 0
e (ii) Find the deviation produced
r
A (iii) Explained what could be observed if
the ray above were of white light
Solution
hence

500 M N e
r b
A Applying Sneil’s law at N

i) Applying Sneil’s law at M

( )

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ii) ( )
( ) ( )
Since it equilateral,

2. The diagram below shows a ray of light incident at an angle of on one side of an equilateral
triangular prism immersed in liquid of refractive index ,

243
 Liquid Given that the refractive index of glass is 1.5
and the angle of refraction at the first face is
46.46 i2 , calculate
400 r (i) The value of refractive index of the
ng = 1.5 liquid
(ii) The value of and
(iii) The angle of deviation
Solution
Liquid hence

46.46 M N i2
400 r Applying Sneil’s law at N
600
ng = 1.5

i) Applying Sneil’s law at M

( )

( )
( ) ( )

( ) iii) ( )
( ) ( )
ii) Since it equilateral,

3. A monochromatic beam of light is incident at an angle on a glass prism of refracting angle , the
emergent ray grazes the surface of the prism as shown below
Find ;
i (i) The refractive index of the prism
30 0 r (ii) Angle
700

4. A ray of red light is incident on a prism of refractive index 1.48 and refracting angle 60 . The ray
emerges from a prism at an angle of 43 . Find;
(i) The angle of incidence (ii) The angle of deviation

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

Dispersion is the separation of white light into its constituent colours by a glass prism.
The prism disperses all the colours in white light into a band of colours called a spectrum

White
Slit light
Red
Violent

244
  The spectrum is formed on the screen because of the difference in refractive index which occur
for light of different wavelengths.
 Red light having the longest wavelength is deviated least while violent light having the shortest
wavelength is deviated most.

Note;
 The order of the colours can be recalled from
Richard Opolot You Got Brenda In Village
 The spectrum formed is impure due to overlapping of colours. However, a pure
spectrum can be obtained.

Pure spectrum
A pure spectrum is one in which light of one colour only forms on the screen without overlapping.
Production of a pure spectrum
Screen

Red

Lamp
Violet
A
B

 Place a source light at the focal point of lens A

 Lens A produces a parallel beam of white light and the light is dispersed and deviated at
the prism, splitting up into various colours
 Lens B then reverses the effect of lens A so that the parallel beam of each colour is
focused at different points on the screen thus forming a pure spectrum

Colours
The colour of objects you see depends on the colour of the light which reach the eye.

Colours of light are grouped in to two;

 Primary colours and  Secondary colours

 Primary colours
Primary colours are colours which can not be made by mixing or adding any other colours of light
together.

Examples primary colours are;

 Red  Blue  Green

 Secondary colours
Secondary colours are colours which can be made by mixing or adding any two primary colours of light
together

Examples of secondary colours

 Yellow  Magenta  Cyan
 Red + Green = Yellow
 Red + Blue = Magenta
245
  Green + Blue = Cyan(peacock blue)

Yellow
Red Green
White
Magenta Cyan

Blue

 Complementary colours
These are a pair of colours(primary and secondary colours ) when mixed together make up white light.
 Yellow + Blue = White
 Red + Cyan = White
 Magenta + Green = White

Colour of objects in white light or other colours of light

An object appears coloured because it absorbs other colours and reflects that particular colour.

Colour of Colour of Appearance Reason

object light of object
The object reflects all the colours of
White White White
white light
The object absorbs other colours of
White Green Green
spectrum and reflects only green
The object absorbs other colours of
White Red Red
spectrum and reflects only red
The object absorbs other colours of
White Blue Blue
spectrum and reflects only blue
Green The object absorbs other colours of
Green Green
or white spectrum and reflects only green
Red or The object absorbs other colours of
Red Red
white spectrum and reflects only red
Blue or The object absorbs other colours of
Blue Blue
white spectrum and reflects only bue
Black The object absorbs other colours of
Any colour Black
spectrum and reflects none

Note: When a primary colour of an object is in a different primary colour of light, it appears black.
Thus;
 A red or blue object appears black in green light because it absorbs the green light and reflects
none
 A red or green object appears black in blue light because it absorbs the blue light and reflect
none
 A blue or green object appears black in red light because it absorbs the red light and reflect
none

Colour of yellow object in white or coloured light

Yellow colour behaves differently as shown below;

246
  A yellow (R+ G) object appears yellow in white or yellow light
 A yellow (R + G) object appears red in red light and appears green in green light
 A yellow (R + G) object appears green in cyan(B + G) light

Filters
A filter lets through light of certain colours only. It transmits only its colour and its constituents.
In filters very little reflection occurs and the colours we sees are those that are transmitted, the missing
colours are absorbed.

(i) Colour filters of primary colours

Red filter absorbs all Green filter absorbs all Blue filter absorbs all
other colours of white other colours of white other colours of white
light and transmit only light and transmit only light and transmit only
red green Blue

R R R R
Green Blue
O O O
Y Y Y
G G G G
Red
B B B B
I I I
V V V

(ii) Colour filters of secondary colours

Yellow(R+G) filter
Cyan(G+B) filter absorbs Magenta(R+B) filter
absorbs all other colours
all other colours of white absorbs all other colours
of white light and
light and transmit green of white light and
transmit red, green and
and blue transmit red and Blue
yellow

R R R R R
Cyan
O O O
Y Y Y Y Magenta
G G G G G
B B B B B
I Yellow I I
V V V

Note: Each filter with secondary colour transmits the primary colour which make up it except for a
yellow filter which in addition to the two primary colours (G+R), transmits its own colour since yellow
is one of the colours in white light.
Ultra -violet , Visible and Infra-red spectrum
The spectrum from the sun has both visible and invisible spectrum. The invisible spectrum consists of
ultra-violet found at the extreme end of the violet and infra-red found beyond the red light.

Increasing frequency

Ultra-violet V I B G Y O R Infra- red

Invisible spectrum Visible spectrum Invisible spectrum

Increasing wavelength

247
 SECTION A
1. (a) Explain the cause of refraction of light.
(b) Describe an experiment you would use to measure the refractive index of glass
using a glass block.
(c) (i) State the conditions for total internal reflection to occur.
(ii) State two application of total internal reflection
(iii) Calculate the critical angle for an air – glass interface if refractive index of glass
is 1.5
2. (a) Use a ray diagram to show how a virtual image may be formed in a converging lens.
(b) A converging lens of focal length 20cm forms a real image 4cm high of an object which
is 5cm high. If the image is 36cm away from the lens, determine by graphical method the
position of the object.
(c) State two differences between a pin – hole camera and a lens camera.
(d) With the aid of a diagram explain why a pond appears shallower than it actually is.
(e) Using a labeled diagram, show how two right angled isosceles prisms may be used to
produce an erect image of a distant object.
3. (a) Describe a experiment to show that light travels in a straight line.
(b) An object of height 4cm is placed 5cm away from a pin – hole camera. The screen is 7cm
from the pin hole.
(i) Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image by the pin hole camera.
(ii) What is the nature of the image?
(iii) Find the magnification.
(iv) Explain what happens to the image if the pin hole is made large.
(c) Draw a diagram to show the formation of a solar eclipse.
4. (a) Describe an experiment to demonstrate the laws of reflection of light
(b) With the aid of a diagram illustrate how a shadow is formed when an opaque object is
placed between an extended source of light and a screen.
(c) An 0bjective 10cm high is placed at a distance of 25cm from a convex mirror focal
length 10cm.
[i] Draw a ray diagram to locate the position of the image.
[ii] Calculate the magnification.
[d] Give reasons for use of convex mirror in vehicles.
5. [a] What is meant by the following terms.
[i] Critical angle. (ii) Total internal refraction.
(b) Explain briefly how sky radio waves travel from a transmitting station
to receiver.
(c) State two applications of converging lenses.
(d) An object 8cm high is placed perpendicularly on the principal axis 12cm away from a
diverging lens. With the aid of a ray diagram, find the focal length of the lens, if the
height of the image formed is 2cm.
6. (a)
The diagram below shows a ray of yellow light
incident at an angle of 500 0n one side of an 500 i
r
equilateral triangular glass prism of refractive 60 0

index 1.52
(i) calculate the angles marked r and i
248
 (ii) State and explain what would be observed if the ray above were of white light.
(b) Explain, with the aid of a diagram, why the writing on a piece of paper placed under a
glass block appears raised when observed from above.
(c) State:
(i) The conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur.
(ii) One application of total internal reflection.
7. (a) Explain what is meant by dispersion of light.
(b) With the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment to produce a pure
spectrum.
(d) State why most hind car registration number plates are printed black on a yellow back
ground.
(d) Explain why the sun appears red at sun rise and sunset
8. (a) Explain the phenomenon of dispersion of white light by a glass prism.
(b) Draw a ray diagram to show the dispersion of white light by a glass prism.
(c) Distinguish between secondary and primary colours . Give one example of each.
(d) Name the colour that would be obtained when the following coloured lights are mixed:
(i) Green and red
(ii) Cyan and red
(e) Explain why an object illuminated by white light appears
(i) coloured
(ii) black
9. (a) Define;
(i) Principal focus of a converging lens.
(ii) A virtual image.
(b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe a simple experiment to determine the focal
length of a converging lens.
(c) An object of height 4cm is placed perpendicular on the principal axis at a distance of
45cm from a converging lens of focal length of 15cm.
By graphical construction determine:
(i) The position of the image.
(ii) The magnification
(e) Give one use of converging lenses.
10. (a) (i) State the laws of reflection.
(ii) Describe an experiment to verify the laws of reflection.
(b)
The figure above shows a stick lying on
a horizontal ground. Two parallel rays
from the stick strike the mirror and are
B 5cm C Axis of lens
reflected on to the converging lens
Converging lens whose centre is C. The focal length of
10cm
the lens is 10cm and the distances SB
and BC are 10cm and 5cm respectively.
S
4cm

(i) State the nature of the image of the stick formed by the lens .
(ii) Use graphical method to locate the position of the two images of the stick.
(iii) Find the magnification of the final image.

249
11. (a) (i) Describe an experiment to show that light travel in a straight line
(ii) An object 3cm high is placed at right angle to the principal axis of a concave
mirror of focal length 7.5cm. If the object is 30cm from the pole of the mirror ,
construct a ray diagram to obtain the position and size of the image formed.
(iii) State two applications of concave mirror
(b) (i) State the laws of refraction of light.
(ii) Light of the same wavelength is incident from air on glass of refractive index 1.5
. If the angle of incidence is 600, find the angle of refraction.
12. (a) Describe a simple experiment to determine the refractive index of the glass of a
triangular prism.
(b) The angle of refraction in a glass block is 320. Calculate the angle of incidence if the refractive
index of the glass is 1.5.
(c) A simple magnifying of glass of focal length 5cm forms an erect image, of a small object,
25cm from the lens.
(i) By graphical method , find the distance between the object and the image.
(ii) Calculate the magnification.
13. (a) (i) Explain the term total internal reflection.
(ii) Calculate the critical angle for a glass – air boundary if the refractive index of
glass is 1.60.
(b) With the aid of a diagram explain the dispersion of white light by a glass prism.
(c) Explain the appearance of a blue flag with red stripes when viewed in day light through
a sheet of yellow glass.
14. (a) State the laws of reflection of light .
(b) With the help of a ray diagrams,
(i) Explain the action of a pin – hole camera.
(ii) Distinguish between partial and total eclipse of the moon.
(c) (i) Describe a simple experiment to determine the focal length of a concave
mirror.
(ii) State and explain one application of a concave mirror.
15. (a) Describe a simple method of measuring the refractive index of a glass in the form
of a glass block.
(b) (i) Explain , with the aid of a diagram , the term critical angle.
(iii) Light of the same
i
wavelength is incident
180 420
at an angle i, on a glass
prism. The light is Find the angle i
refracted and follows
the paths shown below.
16. (a) Explain the term virtual image as applied to optics.
(b) With aid of a ray diagram, explain why a convex mirror is used as a driving mirror.
(c) An object is placed 15.0cm infront of a concave mirror. An upright image of
magnification four is produced. By graphical method, determine the
(i) Nature of the image
(ii) The focal length of the mirror
(iii) Distance of the image from the mirror
250
 (d) Name two applications of a concave mirror.
18. (a) Explain with aid of a ray diagram, the formation of umbra and penumbra
(b) Draw a ray diagram to show the action of a converging lens as a magnifying glass.
19. (a) Explain dispersion as applied to light.
(b) (i) What is a pure spectrum?
(ii) With aid of a labeled diagram, describe briefly how a pure spectrum is produced.
(c) (i) Distinguish between primary and secondary colour.
(ii) The figure below shows colour mixed by addition . Name the colour
represented by the parts labeled .
A,B,C and D

Blue B
Green
D
A C
Red

(f) State the colour of a yellow dress in a green light

20. (a) With the aid of diagram, distinguish between diffuse and regular reflection.
(b)
A ray bird A ray from gun makes an angle of 600 to the same reflector at
the same point, m as shown above.
300 600 Find the angle through which the
M Reflector reflector must be rotated about m such
A ray from a bird makes an angle of 300 with a that the ray from the barrel of the gun
plane reflector and a ray from a barrel of a gun falls on the bird.
(c) With the aid of a diagram explain why a parabolic mirror is most suitable for use in car
headlight.
(d) List three uses of a concave mirror
21. (a) With the aid of a diagram , explain briefly how a pure spectrum may be produced.
(b) (i) What are primary colours? Name them.
(ii) Explain briefly what happens when white light falls on a green
body?
(c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a lens camera works.
22. (a) State the laws of reflection.
(b) Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate the principle of reversibility of light.
(c) An object is released from a light of 10m above the plane mirror. What distance must it
drop through in order to be 5m away from its image?
(d)
M1
the plane mirror in position m1 as shown
200
above. What will be the angle of reflection, if the
M2 mirror is rotated through 60 to position m2 while
direction of the incident ray remains the same?

An incident ray makes an angle of 200 with

(d) With the aid of a ray diagram, explain how a thick plane mirror forms multiple images of
an object.
SECTION B TYPE.
1. (a) Define the term lateral inversion as applied to mirrors.
251
 (b) State two properties of an images formed in a concave mirror when the object is placed
between the focal point and the mirror.
(c) Sketch a ray diagram to show how refraction of light makes a pond to appear
shallower than it actually is
2.
D The figure above a ray of light incident on a
Q
Air C semi- circular glass block of centre C.
Glass (a) Why is the ray not deviated?
350
Air (b) Calculate the value of angle Q if the
B refractive index of glass is 1.52
A

3. (a) What is meant by refractive index.

(b) (i) Define focal length of a converging lens.
(ii) With the help of a ray diagram show how a converging lens can be used as a
magnifying glass.
4. (a) State two conditions for total interval reflection.
(b) Draw a diagram to show how a fish in water attains a wide field of view.
5. (a)
Complete the diagram in the figure above to
Q
P show the path of the light ray PQ through the
prism.
(b) Light travelling in water is incident at a water – air surface at 300 . What is the angle of
refraction if the refractive index from air to water is 1.33.
6. (a) Define focal length of a converging lens.
(b) The focal length of a converging lens is 10.0cm . What is its power?
(c) State any two properties of an image of a real object formed in a diverging lens
7. (a) Sketch a diagram to show the formation of a solar eclipse.
(b) The refractive index of a glass block is 1.52. Calculate its critical angle.
8.
The figure above shows refraction of light rays
I from a distant object by a human eye.

(a) Explain whether the eye is able to see the object clearly .

(b) What is meant by accommodation?

9. (a) State the laws of refraction.

b)
E In the diagram above, an object O is place at the
bottom of a clear pond. Draw rays to show how
the object appears to an observer at E

10. (a)
252
 Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of an
image of the object O placed in front of a
concave mirror shown below. F is the principal
focus of the mirror. F

(b) State one application of a convex mirror.

11. An object 4cm high is place vertically on the principal axis of a converging lens of focal length
8cm. If the object is 32cm from the lens.
(a) Locate, by graphical method , the position of the image
(b) Find the magnification.
12.
B
The diagram above shows rays of light in
400
200
D
a semicircular glass block.
A
C

(a) Explain why ray AB

(i) Is not refracted on entering block at A
(ii) Takes path BD on reaching B
(b) Ray CB is refracted at B . Calculate the angle of refraction (refractive index glass = 1.5 )
13. (a) What is meant by rectilinear propagation of light.
(b) An opaque object is placed infront of a source of light.
Draw ray diagram to show the formation of a shadow when
(i) A point source is used
(ii) An extended source is used.
14. The figure below shows the arrangement of a simple projector.
Concave B Slide
mirror

Screen
Source of light
A

(a) Name the parts labeled

(i) A……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) B……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) On the diagram , draw rays to show the final position of the image on the screen.
(c) What is the role of B?
15.
cm behind the mirror as shown in the diagram
20cm above, on the diagram draw rays to find
(a) The object distance.
C F 15cm 30cm
(b) The object height.
Scale: 1cm = 5cm.
An object placed in front of a concave mirror of
focal length 15cm and its image is formed 30
16. (a) What is meant by refractive index of a medium ?
(b)

253
 410
water – glass boundary at an angle of 410 .
water Calculate the angle of refraction r if the
r refractive indices of water and glass are 1.33
glass
and 1.50 respectively.
A ray of light is incident on the
17. (a) Define

(i) Critical angle. (ii) Total internal reflection.

(b)
Air refractive index of glass is 1.5, calculate the value
glass of angle i.
i

A ray of light travelling from glass to air is

refracted as shown above in the diagram. If the

SECTION A OBJECTIVES.
1.
X on a magenta colour filter. What colour filter
White light should x be so that red is seen on the screen?
A. cyan B. Blue
Magenta
filter
C. Black D. Yellow.
The figure above shows white light incident
2. An object 6cm high is placed 24cm from a tiny hole in a pinhole camera. If the distance from the
hole to the screen is 8cm, find the size of the image on the screen.
A. 0.2cm B. 2.0cm C. 18cm D. 32.0cm.
3. When does the eclipse of the moon occur?
A. When the moon is between the sun and the earth
B. When the earth is between the sun and the moon
C. When the sun is totally eclipsed by the moon
D. When a bright ring of sun light shows round the edge of the moon.
4. A concave mirror can be used as a sharing mirror because when an object placed between the
principal focus and the pole, the image formed is.
A. Magnified , virtual erect C. Diminished , real and inverted
B. Magnified , real and inverted D. Diminished , virtual and erect
5. An object is placed 30cm in front of a plane mirror. If the mirror is moved a distance of 6cm
towards the object, find the distance between the object and the image.
A. 24cm B. 36cm C. 48cm D. 60cm
6. Light energy is reflected when
A. Angle of incidence is greater than angle of reflection
B. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
C. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of refraction
D. The normal at the point of incidence makes the same angle as the incident ray.
7. An object is placed 6cm from the plane mirror. If the object is moved further by 2cm, find the
distance between the object and its image.
A. 16cm B. 12cm C. 8cm D. 6cm

254
8. A pin is placed infront of a convex lens at a distance less than the focal length of the lens. What
type of image is formed?
A. Real, inverted and diminished. C. Real, erect, diminished
B. Virtual , erect, magnified D. Virtual , inverted , magnified.
9. Which of the following information is true about concave and convex mirrors?
Concave mirror convex mirror.
A. Converges light Diverges light
B. Diverges light Converges light
C. Refracts light Reflects light
D. Has a wide field of view Has a narrow field of view.
10. A piece of white cloth viewed through a blue glass looks blue because.
A. Blue light is absorbed by the glass
B. The glass adds blue light to the light coming from the cloth
C. The glass transmits only blue light and absorbs all the other colours.
D. The colour of the glass is reflected on to the cloth.
11. The focal length of a concave mirror is the
A. Distance between the pole of the mirror and the focal point.
B. Distance between the centre of curvature and the mirror.
C. Distance between the object and the image
D. Diameter of the mirror.
12. A stick with one end immersed in a liquid appears bent at the liquid surface due to
A. Diffusion B. Reflection C. Interference D.Refraction
13. When a pin hole camera is moved nearer an object , the size of the image.
A. Remains the same B. Becomes smaller
C. Becomes larger D. Becomes diminished.
14. A student is holding a white paper with green printing on it. If she enters a room with red light,
she will see
A. Black printing on a red paper C. Yellow printing a red paper
B. Blue printing on a red paper D. Red printing on a white paper.
15. An object 2cm tall is placed 5cm in front of a convex lens. A real image is produced 20cm from
the lens. Calculate the magnification of the lens.
A. 4 B. 2 C. 0.5 D. 0.25
16. Which of the following is /are correct?
(i) Green light shone on green surface is all absorbed.
(ii) Green light added equally to red light appears yellow.
(iii) Green light passes through a red filter.
A. (ii) only C. (ii) and (iii) only
B. (i) and (ii) only D. (i), (ii) and (iii) only
17. An object is placed between a converging lens and its principal focus. The image formed is
A. Real, magnified upright C. Virtual, diminished upright
B. Real, magnified inverted D. Virtual, magnified, upright.
18. Which of the following are secondary colours?
A. Red, green and yellow. C. Yellow , cyan and magenta
B. Blue, yellow and magenta D. Red, green and blue.
19.

255
 3m Objects P and Q are placed at distances of 2m
Q P
2m Plane mirror
and 3m respectively from a plane mirror as
shown above. Find how far the image of P is
from Q,
A. 1m B 4m C. 5m D. 7m
20.
The figure above shows white light passing
White light through a glass prism. Which colour is bent
most?
A. Red B. Yellow
C. Green D. Violet
21. The secondary colours of light are cyan, magenta and yellow. Which of the following sets of
addition of colour of light will produce white light?
(i) cyan + blue and magenta + red (iii) cyan +red and magenta + blue
(ii) cyan + red and magenta + green (iv) cyan + green and yellow + blue.
A. (i) only B. (ii) only C. (iii) only D. (iv) only
22. White light is separated into its component colour by a prism due to
A. absorption B. Dispersion
C. reflection D. transmission
23. In a pin hole camera , sharper and taller images are obtained by
A. Widening the hole and moving the object farther
B. Narrowing the hole and moving the object nearer.
C. using a longer camera with a wider hole.
D. using shorter camera with a narrower hole.
24.
Plane mirror
above. The reflected beam from the pin
observor
reaching the observer is
Pin
A. Virtual beam
A person observer the image of a pin placed in B. Divergent beam
front of a plane mirror as shown in the figure C. Parallel beam
D. Convergent beam.
25. Which of the following is a correct ray diagram.

A B C D

26. An object is placed at a distance of 20cm from convex lens of focal length 15cm. The type of image
formed is
A. Inverted and magnified B. Inverted and diminished
C. upright and diminished D. Upright and magnified.
27. A stick with one end immersed in water appears bent at the water surface because of.
A. Diffraction B. Reflection C. Interference D. refraction
28. The hand of an image of an un number clock face in a plane mirror indicates the position of 6
:20. The actual time is
A. 5:40 B. 6:20 C. 6:40 D. 7:40

256
29. A ray of light is incident on a glass block at angle of incidence of 400 and angle of refraction 210.
Find the critical angle of glass.
A. 420 B. 40.00 C. 33.80 D. 35.00
30. A point object is 10cm infront of a plane mirror. When the object is moved 4cm towards the
mirror , what is the distance between the object and the image?
A. 6cm B. 8cm C. 10cm D. 12cm
31. A ray of light PQ is incident on the face AB of a glass prism ABC as shown below.
S
T
U Which one of the rays R,S,T,U indicates the
R
C
correct direction of the emergent ray?
A
Q A. R B. S
P
B
C. T D. U
32. Which of the following statements is / are true?
1. A glass prism disperses shorter wavelengths more then longer wavelengths.
2. A glass prism disperses longer wavelengths more than shorter wavelengths.
3. A red filter allows red and longer wavelengths in the spectrum to pass.
4. A red filter allows all colour in the spectrum to pass except red.
A. 1, 2, 3 only B. 1,3 only C. 2,4 only D. 4only
33.
I1 The images of an object O placed 2m and 1.5m
M1 from a plane mirror m1 and m2 respectively are
I1 and I2 as shown above. Find the shortest
1.5m
I2 distance between I1 and I2.
2m
A. 2.5m B. 3.5m
M2 C. 5m D. 7m

34. Dispersion of light is

A. The rectilinear propagation of light
B. The spreading of light around an obstacle
C. The splitting of white light into its constituent colours
D. The changing of direction of light when it moves from medium to another.
35. Total internal reflection occurs when
1. The incident angle is equal to the critical angle .
2. Light travels from a denser to a less dense medium
3. Light travels from a less dense to a dense medium
4. The incident angle in a dense medium is greater than the critical angle.
A. 1,2,3 only B. 1,3 only C. 2,4 only D. 4 only
36. When a yellow dress with blue dots is placed in a room lit with pure red light, the dress appears
A. Red with black dots C. Green with red dots
B. Yellow with blue dots D. Black with yellow dots.
37. An image 5cm high is formed by a converging lens. If the magnification is 0.4, find the height of
the object
A. 2.0cm B. 4.6cm C. 5.4cm D. 12.5cm
38. When reflection occurs in a plane mirror.
1. The image is real, erect and magnified
2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

257
 3. The incident ray and reflected ray lie in different planes
4. The object and the image are at the same distance from the mirror.
A. 1,2,3 only B. 1,3 only C. 2,4 only D.4 only
39. The refractive index of glass is 1.5 . Calculate the angle of refraction for light incident on glass at
an angle of 300
A. 19.50 B. 42.00 C. 45 D. 48.60
40. Which of the following makes a pair of complementary colours?
A. Blue and yellow B. Green and red
C. Green and yellow C. Yellow and magenta
41. The image of a distant object formed by a pin hole camera is
(i) Real (ii) Diminished (iii) Erect
A. (i) only B. (i) and (ii) only C. (iii) only D. (i),(ii)only
42. Which of the following statement are true about the action of curved mirror on rays of light?
1. Rays incident at the poles make the same angle with principal axis after reflection
2. Rays passing through the focal point are reflected back along the same paths.
3. Ray incident parallel to the principal axis are reflected through the principal focus.
4. Rays passing through the centre of curvature are reflected parallel to the principal axis.
A. 1,2,3 only B. 1,3only C. 2,4 only D. 4 only
43.
Incident ray Reflected ray A ray of light travelling in air is incident as
shown above. The ray is partially reflected and
1000
refracted . Calculate the angle of incidence.
A. 300 B. 450
350 Refracted ray
C. 500 D. 800

44. The brightness of the image formed by a pin hole camera depends on
A. The size of the object C. Size of the pin hole
B. The shape of the object D. The shape of the pin hole.
45.
Which one of the following graphs would give
i
a straight line through the origin?
r A. against

B. sin against
C. Sin against Sin
The figure above illustrates an experiment to
determine the D. against .
refractive index of glass.
46. For a person who is short sighted , the rays of light from
A. distant objects are focused behind the retina.
B. near objects are focused behind the retina.
C. distant objects are focused behind the retina
D. near objects are focused in front of the retina.
47. When a girl wearing a red dress with white stripe passes under green street light , her dress
appears
A. Green B. Red and green
258
 C. Black and green D. Black and white.
48. A beam of white light is to be passed through a combination of two filter. Which filter
combination will allow only red light?
A. Blue and red filters B. Cyan and red filters
C. Yellow and magenta filter D. Cyan and magenta filters
49. The critical angle of glass is 42 . Which of the diagram describes the path of light at critical
0

angle?
420 420 420

420 420 420

A B C D

50.

K
Red Green
M
N
L

Blue

Name the colour of the overlapping patches K,L,M,N of the primary colour.
K L M N
A Magenta Cyan White Yellow
B Yellow Magenta White Cyan
C Yellow Cyan White Magenta
D Cyan Yellow white Magenta

51. A driver uses a convex mirror as his driving mirror because it

(i) Forms an upright image
(ii) Gives a bigger magnification
(iii) Gives a wider field of view.
A. (i) only B. (i) and (ii) only
C. (iii) only D. (i),(ii) and (iii) only

259