Assignment No.

3
Title: Water pollution; definition, key concepts, facts, causes
and impacts on human and environment, their mitigation
strategies and legislation in Pakistan.
Course title: Air Pollution Control
(ENV-640)

Submitted by: Mubashara Amin

Registration No: FA20-RES-003
Submitted to: Dr. Mazhar Ali
Submission date: 31-05-2021
Department of Environmental Sciences
COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus

0
 Contents
Chapter One.....................................................................................................................................4
1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................4
Chapter Two....................................................................................................................................7
2. Sources of Water......................................................................................................................7
2.1 Groundwater......................................................................................................................7
2.2 Surface Water....................................................................................................................8
Chapter Three..................................................................................................................................9
3. Water Pollution.........................................................................................................................9
3.1 Sources of Water Pollution...............................................................................................9
3.1.1 Point Sources.............................................................................................................9
3.1.2 Non–point Sources...................................................................................................10
3.1.3 Major Sources of Water Pollution...........................................................................10
Chapter Four..................................................................................................................................13
4. Major pollutants.....................................................................................................................13
4.1 Bacteriological contamination........................................................................................13
4.2 Pesticides.........................................................................................................................15
4.3 Heavy Metals..................................................................................................................20
4.3.1 Beneficial Heavy Metals..........................................................................................21
4.3.2 Toxic Heavy Metals.................................................................................................21
Chapter Five...................................................................................................................................26
5. Impact of pollutants in Human Health and the Environment.................................................26
5.1 Adverse Human Impacts.................................................................................................26
5.2 Adverse Impacts on the Environment.............................................................................28
Chapter Six....................................................................................................................................29
6. Chemical and Physical Pollution............................................................................................29
6.1 Temperature....................................................................................................................29
6.2 pH....................................................................................................................................29
6.3 Turbidity..........................................................................................................................30
6.4 Conductivity....................................................................................................................30
Chapter Seven................................................................................................................................32
7. Environmental legislations in Pakistan and their effectiveness.............................................32

i
Chapter Eight.................................................................................................................................34
8. Conclusion and recommendations..........................................................................................34
Chapter Nine..................................................................................................................................36
9. References..............................................................................................................................36

ii
Water pollution; definition, key concepts, facts, causes and impacts on human
and environment, their mitigation strategies and legislation in Pakistan.

Chapter One

1. Introduction

Our survival on Earth depends on three basic resources – water, air and soil, nature’s three
valuable gifts to mankind. Among which water is the most important component as it forms the
basic medium for origin of life. The importance of availability of high quality drinking water can
be realized by the press release of UNO Secretary General on world water day 2002. “An
estimated 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, 2.5 billion people have no access
to proper sanitation, and more than 5 million people die each year from water-related diseases —
10 times the number killed in wars, on average, each year. All too often, water is treated as an
infinite free good. Yet even where supplies are sufficient or plentiful, they are increasingly at
risk from pollution and rising demand. By 2025, two thirds of the world's population is likely to
live in countries with moderate or severe water shortages”. Water is an essential element for life.
Fresh water comprises 3% of the total water on earth. Only a small percentage (0.01%) of this
fresh water is available for human use (Azizullah et al. 2011). Unfortunately even this small
proportion of fresh water is under immense stress due to rapid population growth, urbanization
and unsustainable consumption of water in industry and agriculture.

According to a UNO report, the world population is increasing exponentially while the
availability of fresh water is declining. Many countries in Africa, Middle East and South Asia
will have serious threats of water shortage in the next two decades. In developing countries the
problem is further aggravated due to the lack of proper management, unavailability of
professionals and financial constraint (Nabeela et al. 2014). Like other developing countries of
the world, Pakistan is also facing critical water shortage and pollution. The country has
essentially exhausted its available water resources it is considered as water stressed and is likely
to have a water scarcity in the near future (Hashmi et al. 2009). The water precipitation rate is
lower than the evaporation rate in the country. This causes a continuous decrease in water
quantity in its rivers, lakes and diminishing the groundwater as well. The problem is further
1
aggravated by factors like long droughts and lack of construction of new water reservoirs (Ullah
et al. 2009). This decrease in water quantity coupled with increasing demand resulted in severe
water shortage in almost all sectors of the country. The per capita water availability in the
country dropped from 5000 in 1951 to 1100 m3 per annum. Exponential increase in population
of the country and no development of new water resources may cause per capita water
availability of less than 1000 m3 from the year 2010 onwards. The situation might get worse in
areas situated outside the Indus basin where the average per capita water availability per annum
is already below 1000 m3 (Colbeck et al. 2010). In certain regions, like the drought-affected
areas of Sindh Province, people already have no fresh water for drinking and are compelled to
drink brackish water (Ullah et al. 2009).In Baluchistan Province, the underground aquifers are
dropping at a rate of 3.5 m annually and will be exhausted in the next 15 year. This combination
of decreasing quantity and increasing usage inmultiple sectors has adversely affected the quality
of water and resulted in a serious problem of water pollution. Water quality in most of the rivers,
lakes and ground aquifers of the country is considered not to be safe for human consumption.
Various reports present conflicting data about the availability and quality of drinking water to the
public in the country.

According to national statistics 56% of the total population has access to safe drinking water
(Farooq et al. 2008). However, considering international standards for safe and drinkable water,
only 25.61% (rural 23.5% and 30% urban) of the population in Pakistan have access to this basic
need (Rosemann 2005). Drinking water supplied by municipalities to the public is mostly
contaminated with infectious microorganisms or hazardous chemicals. Drinking water in densely
populated cities like Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Peshawar, Faisalabad, Qasur, Sialkot and
Gujrat is polluted due to various anthropogenic activities and cannot be recommended for human
consumption. The situation is even worse in the capital Islamabad. Analysis of water samples
from Islamabad and its twin city Rawalpindi revealed that 94% and 34% of water samples were
contaminated with total coliforms and fecal coliforms, respectively.

Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) conducted a detailed study on water
quality in 23 major cities in all the four provinces of the country from 2002 to 2006. The
conclusion of this study It reveals that an average of 84–89% of water sources throughout the
country have a water quality below the recommended standards for human consumption

2
(Nabeela et al. 2014). The poor quality of drinking water available to the public forced people to
obtain an expensive alternative in the form of commercially available mineral water packed in
plastic bottles. However, this commercially available water is also not completely safe due to the
lack of proper monitoring of processing plants (Rosemann 2005). Weak purchasing power of the
public is also a big hindrance in using such an alternative. As a result the majority of the
population in Pakistan is exposed to contaminated and polluted water which may cause a
multitude of water-related health problems. The increasing pollution of drinking water sources in
Pakistan and the consequent effects on human health and the environment is an issue of great
concern. This study aims at highlighting the problem of water pollution in Pakistan with special
emphasis on major pollutants and their possible impacts on human health. A great majority
(≈70%) of the population in Pakistan obtains water from ground aquifers however, surface water
is another main source of water for drinking and other domestic purposes (Aziz 2005). Therefore
we concentrate both on ground and surface water sources and summarize the major pollutants
and their concentrations in surface and groundwater separately. Furthermore we summarize the
various water-linked health problems reported in the country.

Figure 1 https://images.app.goo.gl/foeZGKV6K5EHhFYg9
3
 Chapter Two

2. Sources of Water

Water is one of the essentials that supports all forms of plant and animal life (VanLoon and
Duffy 2017) and it is generally obtained from two principal natural sources; Surface water such
as fresh water lakes, rivers, streams, etc. and Ground water such as borehole water and well
water (Mendie 2005). Water has unique chemical properties due to its polarity and hydrogen
bonds which means it is able to dissolve, absorb, adsorb or suspend many different compounds
(Organization 2007), thus, in nature, water is not pure as it acquires contaminants from its
surrounding and those arising from humans and animals as well as other biological activities
(Mendie 2005).

Figure 2 https://images.app.goo.gl/XpjgDfD4kgamCkEw9

2.1 Groundwater

Groundwater is underground or subsurface water. Groundwater comes from surface water

percolating through overlying soils and it resides in the pore spaces between particles of soil and
other geologic materials. Formations that have all the pore spaced saturated with water are called
saturated zones or aquifers. The top of the aquifer is called the water table. Aquifers typically
consist of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone. These materials are
4
permeable because they have large connected spaces that allow water to flow through. The
amount of ground water and the speed at which groundwater flows depends on the size of the
spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected (Akpan and Bassey 2020).

Groundwater is located in an underground, saturated zone but can intercept surface water. Water
wells extend into aquifers to allow water to be collected and pumped to the surface. Groundwater
does not (generally) exist as underground rivers or pools – instead it is captured between
particles above an impermeable layer that restricts water movement further downward. The
quality of ground water is the resultant of all the processes and reactions that act on the water
from the moment it condensed in the atmosphere to the time it is discharged by a well or spring
and varies from place to place and with the depth of the water table. With sufficient water
infilteration, soil contaminants such as heavy metals can leach to underlying groundwater.
Unconfined aquifers are especially vulnerable to various contaminants (Nouri et al. 2006) and
sediment loads (including microscopic bacteria, viruses and protozoa).

2.2 Surface Water

Municipal areas draw heavily on surface water for their drinking water supplies. Precipitation
that does not evaporate or infiltrate into the ground runs as surface water, which may accumulate
to form streams, and streams join to form rivers. Lakes are inland depressions that hold standing
freshwater. Ponds are generally considered to be small temporary or permanent bodies of water
shallow enough for rooted plants to grow over and at the bottom. While lakes contain nearly one
hundred times as much water as all rivers and streams combined, they are still a major
component of total world water supply (Mendie 2005).

Because of the interconnectedness of groundwater and surface water, these contaminants may be
shared between the two sources. Neither water source can ever be entirely free from water
contaminants. Due to the cycle of water (hydrology), the two sources of drinking water feed each
other, sharing contaminants.

5
 Chapter Three

3. Water Pollution

Water is a unique substance, because it can naturally renew and cleanse itself, by allowing
pollutants to settle out (through the process of sedimentation) or break down, or by diluting the
pollutants to a point where they are not in harmful concentrations. However, this natural process
takes time, and is difficult when excessive quantities of harmful contaminants are added to the
water. Water pollution includes all of the waste materials that cannot be naturally broken down
by water.

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater).
Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and
organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to
individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. It has been
suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and disease and that it
accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (Larry 2006).

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and

either does not support human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its
ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as
volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and
the ecological status of water.

3.1 Sources of Water Pollution

3.1.1 Point Sources

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water

6
Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. The CWA definition of
point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as
industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.

3.1.2 Non–point Sources

Non–point source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single
discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants
gathered from a large area. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and
8highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution.
However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through
pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However where such water is not channeled
and drains directly to ground it is a non-point source.

Figure 3 https://images.app.goo.gl/HEdL3BVQk6WKtUhp6
3.1.3 Major Sources of Water Pollution

Water pollution is most often due to human activities. The major ones are indiscriminate disposal
of industrial, municipal and domestic wastes in water channels, rivers, streams and lakes, etc. An
estimated 2 million tons of sewage and other effluents are discharged into the world's waters

7
every day. In developing countries the situation is worse where over 90% of raw sewage and
70% of untreated industrial wastes are dumped into surface water sources (Jamshaid et al. 2018).
According to Sial Sr (2006), in Pakistan out of 6634 registered industries 1228 are considered to
be highly polluting. Due to the high load of organic and toxic materials in their waste effluents,
industries became a major source of water pollution in Pakistan (Nasrullah et al. 2006). The
major industries contributing to water pollution are textile, pharmaceuticals, ceramics,
petrochemicals, food industries, steel, oil mills, sugar industries, fertilizer factories, and leather
tanning. These industries produce several hundred thousands of wastewater containing huge
quantities of pollutants like nitrates, nitrites, cations and anions such as Ag+, Na+, K+, Mg2+,
Ca2+ Cl−, CO3 2−, HCO3 − and toxic metals like arsenic, iron, lead, mercury, chromium,
cadmium, copper, nickel, zinc, cobalt and magnesium (Ullah et al. 2009).

Most of the industries in Pakistan are located in or around major cities. They dispose their waste
effluent directly into the nearby drains, rivers, streams, ponds, ditches and open or agricultural
land. For example, River Kabul in Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa, receives an estimated amount of
80,000 m3 (8 × 107 L) of industrial effluents each day. Even in the capital city of Islamabad
there is no proper management of effluents in its two industrial estates, and wastes are directly
drained into the Sawan River. It has been estimated that only 1% of wastewater of industries in
Pakistan is treated before being discharged. As a result, wastewaters with potentially toxic
substances are poured into water bodies without taking into account the environmental hazards
caused by these wastes. An estimated amount of 40 × 109 L of waste effluent is discharged daily
into water bodies in Pakistan by different industries. These waste pollutants do not remain
confined to surface water but their percolation to the soil results in contamination of groundwater
aquifers.

In addition to the industrial wastes, domestic and municipal wastes also pose a serious threat to
water. Like industrial wastes, domestic wastes containing household effluent and human wastes
are discharged directly to a natural drain or water body and open or agricultural land. In some
cases there are sewerage collecting systems, normally discharging to the nearest water body but
collecting systems cover less than 50% in many urban cities and only about 10% of the
collecting sewages are treated effectively (Hahim 2015). The large cities of the country like

8
Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Sialkot and Hyderabad contribute a major
share to wastewater.

In some of these cities treatment plants exist; however, many of these are built without the
completion of associated sewerage networks. Consequently, the plants are often either under
loaded (much of the municipal effluents do not reach the plant due to incomplete sewerage
network) or abandoned and hardly a few percent of wastewater are effectively treated. It is
estimated that only ≈8% of the urban wastewater is treated in municipal treatment plants and the
rest is drained into natural water sources without any treatment. An estimated quantity of 2000
million gallons (7.5708×109 L) of sewage is being discharged to surface water bodies every day
in Pakistan.

Another strong source of water pollution is the extensive use of agrochemicals in agriculture.
Water contamination with agricultural chemicals has been reported in developed countries like
China and USA. Conditions in Pakistan are not different. Agriculture chemicals like fertilizers
and pesticides applied to the crop lands mix with the irrigation water which leach through the
soil and ultimately reach natural water resources. The problem is further aggravated by heavy
agriculture runoff and flooding during monsoon seasons. As discussed above, many pesticides
have been detected in both surface and groundwater, especially in the areas of extensive
agriculture practices. The various fertilizers applied are not totally utilized by crops. Large
quantities leach into water resources resulting in increased concentrations of nitrates, nitrites,
ammonia, sulphates and phosphates in the water. These nutrients accelerate the growth of algae
in surface water and cause eutrophication that poses direct and indirect threats to the
environment. In addition, some fertilizers contain heavy metals as by product, and the extensive
use of such fertilizers results in the accumulation of these toxic metals in soil and water (Mzini
2017).

Agricultural drainage contributes to the overall contamination of the water resources, however
less than the industrial and domestic wastes. All these sources of water pollution, i.e. industrial
and domestic wastes and agricultural practices, not only contribute toxic chemicals to water but
they also cause widespread bacteriological contamination which results in frequent occurrence of
water-borne diseases. In addition, they also result in an increase in parameters like biological

9
oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), total
suspended solids (TSS), and salinity and thus deteriorate the water quality and make it unfit for
drinking and other purposes.

Chapter Four

4. Major pollutants

Many substances are regarded as active water pollutants and are classified into different groups.
The most common among them are pathogens (bacteria, viruses and protozoas), inorganic
pollutants (acids, salts and toxic metals), anions and cations (nitrates, phosphate, sulphates,
Ca+2, Mg+2 and F−) and water-soluble radioactive substances. In addition, organic compounds
like oil and pesticides are also considered potential threats to water quality. All these substances,
if they exceed a threshold value, are deleterious and cause severe health problems in humans and
other organisms in the ecosystem. Bacteriological contamination, toxic metals like arsenic, iron,
cadmium, nickel, pesticides and in some areas nitrates andfluorides are posing major threats to
water quality in Pakistan.

4.1 Bacteriological contamination

Microbial analysis of water is usually carried out to detect total and/or fecal coliforms. Coliforms
commonly occur in the environment and are generally not harmful to humans but their presence
is used as an indicator for water contamination with diseases causing germs and pathogens. The
presence of fecal coliforms and E. coli is also an indicator for water contamination with human
or animal wastes (Farooq et al. 2008). According to the WHO standard for public drinking water
total and fecal coliforms must not be present in 100 mL of water samples i.e. 0 counts/ 100 mL
of water sample. In Pakistan bacteriological contamination has been regarded as the most
potential problem of drinking water. Many studies reveal heavy bacteriological contamination of
drinking water in the country as summarized and many of the reported species of bacteria can
cause severe health problems.

Water sources including rivers, lakes and ground aquifers in most of the regions in the country
are highly polluted with bacteriological contamination (Aziz 2005). In Rawalpindi samples from

10
the water distribution networks and even at treatment plants were found contaminated with total
coliform and in some sites with fecal coliform (Farooq et al. 2008; Hashmi et al. 2009). In
Khairpur in the Sindh province, out of 768 drinking water samples 567 (73.83%) and 351
(45.70%) were contaminated with total coliform and fecal coliform, respectively (Shar et al.
2008). Another study conducted in the same city revealed the presence of total coliforms and
fecal coliforms in all 90 (100%) water samples collected from the main reservoir, distribution
lines and consumer taps (Shar et al. 2008). The situation is not much different in other major
cities of the country like Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi. In all these cities drinking water was
found contaminated with bacteria (Hussain et al. 2007).

Another study conducted in major cities of the country reported 65% and 35% of groundwater
samples contaminated with total coliforms and E. coli, respectively, while 100% samples of the
surface water had bacterial contamination of both total coliforms and E. coli (Mumtaz et al.
2011). A very recent study reported that water samples from Rawal Lake, Islamabad, (a lake
providing drinking water to more than 1.5 million people of Rawalpindi) and its feeding streams
were potentially contaminated with bacteria. Surface and groundwater contamination with
bacteria is usually attributed to surface runoff through urban areas and pastures, leakage of
sewage disposal systems and septic tanks, overloaded sewage treatment plants, disposal systems
and raw sewage deep well injection . Other factors like cross-connection, broken or leaking
pipes, back siphonage (backflow of polluted or contaminated water, from a plumbing fixture or
cross-connection into a water supply line, due to a lowering of the pressure in the line) and
intermittent water supply result in contamination of the distribution system (Shar et al. 2008).

In rural areas open dug wells and low water table make it further vulnerable to bacterial
contamination. It is generally considered that the water is free from bacteriological
contamination at the sources and becomes contaminated in pipes due to unauthorized connection
or leakage. But in reality the situation is different in the country as water was found to contain
bacterial contamination even at the source or treatment plants (Mzini 2017). In the capital,
Islamabad and Rawalpindi, the filtration and treatment plants do not properly purify water from
bacterial contamination before distribution. The situation could be worse in other cities and
especially in rural areas where there is no monitoring of drinking water quality and no treatment
plants exist.

11
Bacterial contamination in rural areas is usually expected to be higher than in urban areas. This
hypothesis is supported by studies in the rural area of Punjab, where 91.30% and 95.83% of
samples from tap and domestic pumps, respectively, were found contaminated with bacteria as
compared to 42.85% of tap water samples from Lahore (Mashiatullah et al. 2010). Microbial
contamination of drinking water is a major contributor to water-borne diseases like diarrhea,
nausea, gastroenteritis, typhoid, dysentery and other health-related problems, especially in
children and persons with weak immune systems. Microbial contamination of water in the
country is one of the potential threats to public health and needs special attention to take
remedial measures to stop its further aggravation.

4.2 Pesticides

Pesticides In the last four decades, the use of pesticides has increased substantially throughout
the world. It aims at protection of crops from insect infestation to achieve higher crop yields with
better quality (Zia et al. 2008). An estimated quantity of 2.5 million tons of pesticides is used in
the world annually with continuous increases. In Pakistan pesticides were introduced for the first
time in 1954 with 254 metric tons of formulation (Tariq et al. 2007). After this in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, thousands of tons of pesticides were imported from Europe and USA while
some pesticides like dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and benzene hexachloride (BHC)
were produced locally. At present an estimated quantity of 70 thousand tons of pesticides are
applied every year in Pakistan with an increasing annual rate of about 6%. Of the total pesticides
used, about 75% are applied to cotton crops and the remaining to others crops such as maize,
tobacco, paddy rice, sugarcane, fruits and vegetable.

An estimated amount of only 0.1% of pesticides applied reach the target organisms and the
remaining 99.9% disperse through air, soil and water, thus resulting in the pollution of natural
ecosystems and affecting human health and other biota (Organization 2007). In addition to field
applications, pesticides are introduced to the environment during manufacturing, handling and
transportation. In developing countries like Pakistan, the problem is further aggravated by
improper storage, careless disposal of pesticides containers and usage of outdated pesticides (Zia
et al. 2008). This happens mainly because the farming communities lack awareness of the
harmful effects of pesticides. As a result pesticide residues contribute to pollution of soil, ground

12
and surface water, drinking water, and even commercially available mineral water and soft
drinks. A limited number of data is available on pesticide contamination of drinking water in
Pakistan. Major hindrance in the availability of data is the lack of laboratory facilities in the
country. Only one or two laboratories in the country have the analytical facilities that can
determine specific pesticides in parts per billion (Tariq et al. 2007). In spite of all these
limitations pesticides have been detected in water, soil, food and air as reviewed by Tariq et al.
(2007). The results of various studies reporting pesticide residues in ground and surface waters
of Pakistan are summarized.

In Pakistan pesticides residues were reported for the first time in cattle drinking water in Karachi.
The results reported the contamination of 10 samples out of 79 with chlorinated pesticides or
their metabolites at concentrations ranging from traces to 16.7 μg/L. Since most of the pesticides
in the country are applied on cotton crops, extensively cotton-growing areas in the plains of
Punjab and Sindh are likely to have contamination of pesticides in the water. Analysis of shallow
groundwater samples from the Summandri area Faisalabad (a cotton growing area) revealed the
presence of pesticides like monocrotophos (40 to 60 μg/L), cyhalothrin (traces to 0.2 μg/L), and
endrine (0. 1 to 0.2 μg/L).

In Multan (another cotton growing area), all 12 groundwater samples taken from 6 different sites
were found contaminated with pesticides with 33% samples exceeding maximum residual limits.
It carried out a shallow groundwater analysis for pesticides residues in four cotton-growing
districts of Punjab Province, namely Bahawalnagar, Muzafargarh, Dera Ghazi Khan and Rajan
Pur. Out of 8 pesticides analysed for, 6 were detected in water samples of the area at various
concentrations but the MCLs established by the USEPA for drinking water were not exceeded.
In Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa province substantial amounts of pesticides are applied on tobacco,
sugarcane and maize crops (Colbeck et al. 2010). Use of high doses of pesticides on tobacco
fields in Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa is a common practice. Farmers in the area may sometime apply
more than 10 sprays per crop of tobacco (personal observation, one of the authors is from the
area).

In Mianchannu, District Khanewal, the highest concentration of p,p′-DDT (1.06 ng/mL) was
documented, which is 10 times more than the maximum admissible limits (Asi et al. 2008). DDT

13
had been produced locally in Pakistan. After the ban of the use of such environment non-friendly
and toxic pesticides, its factories have been abandoned. The long half life of DDT makes it
dangerous till now in many parts of the country, particularly in the vicinity of the demolished
factories for its production. A study conducted by Jan et al. (2009) in and around a former DDT-
producing factory in Aman Gharh, Nowshera, revealed p,p′-DDT contamination in different
water sources ranging from 0.07± 0.10 to 0.40± 0.14 μg/mL (=70– 400 μg/L). However, their
results are conflicting and do not agree with other studies. In another study, (Ahad et al. 2010)
the water samples from the same area had concentrations of various pesticides ranging from 0
μg/L to 15.17 μg/L. DDT was reported in the range of ±0.05 μg/ L.

Furthermore the sample with the maximum level was from a rain water pond instead of a well or
some surface water source. Similarly Asi et al. (2008) reported residues of various DDT isomers
of up to a maximum of 0.947 μg/L in groundwater and 1.06 μg/L in surface water. Compared
with the results of Asi et al. (2008) and Ahad et al. (2010) the concentration of 400 μg/L by Jan
et al. (2009) looks extremely high. As stated earlier the improper storage and handling of
pesticides increases the risk of exposure and contamination. In Pakistan no proper planning for
handling pesticides is present at the private or at government level. In the 1980s pesticide import
and distribution was transferred from the public to the private sector, subsidy on pesticides was
abolished and the policy of aerial spraying was withdrawn. At that time large stocks of
pesticides, mostly consisting of banned pesticides, were in government custody but no proper
strategy was adopted for handling these stocks (Ahad et al. 2010).

The residual concentrations in water samples from Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa (NWFP), Punjab, and
Sindh, were 0– 15.17 (median 0.29) μg/L, 0.25–0.78 (median 0.36) μg/L, and 0.11– 0.83
(median 0.21) μg/L respectively. Although the means were not high, several individual pesticide
residues exceeded their individual maximum admissible limits. Rawal Lake is a beautiful picnic
point in the capital city Islamabad and supplies drinking water to more than 1.5 million people of
Rawalpindi. It is noteworthy to mention that this Lake caught attention of print and electronic
media in June, 2004 when many dead fish were found in the lake. When the water samples from
the lake were analyzed for pesticides, 30.4 μg/L total pesticides were detected (Ahad et al.,
2006). While the first sampling and analysis was performed in the dry month of June, the follow-
up sampling was done in the rainy season (first week of August). When the lake's total volume

14
increased from 1.85× 103 m3 in June to 2.47× 107 m3 ; therefore the total pesticides reduced by
64% (from 30.4 μg/L to 11.2 μg/L) due to dilution and degradation.

However, the concentration was still approximately 22 times higher than EEC standards. These
concentrations, after receiving treatment in the Water and Sanitation agency (WASA) filtration
plant were further reduced by 81%. The water supplied to the general public still had pesticide
residues approximately 4 fold higher than EEC standards (Ahad et al. 2006). Another study on
Rawal Lake and Simly Lake revealed the presence of residues of various pesticides belonging to
the group of organophosphates, organochlorines and pyrethroids, and many of them exceeded the
standard of European Union for drinking water.

Water contamination levels with pesticides residues are quite variable throughout the country but
in many cases exceed the standard limits. The situation is further endangered by the high
frequency of pesticides occurrence in water. Exposure to multiple pesticides for a prolonged time
can cause cytotoxic changes and adversely affect the normal functioning of organs like liver and
kidney and possibly produce characteristic clinical effects such as dyspnea and burning sensation
in urinary tract. Farmers and workers need to be aware of the deleterious effects of pesticides and
associated problems (Jamshaid et al. 2018). They need to be educated well about the safe
handling and use of pesticides to ensure sustainable development with emphasis on high degree
of environment and human protection.

Water pollution and human health Water contamination is one of the main causes of health
problems in human beings. About 2.3 billion peoples are suffering from water related diseases
worldwide. In developing countries more than 2.2 million people die every year due to drinking
of unclean water and inadequate sanitation. Water related infectious and parasitic diseases
account for ≈60% of infant mortality in the world (Ullah et al. 2009). In Pakistan contamination
of drinking water with industrial wastes and municipal sewage coupled with lack of water
disinfection practices and quality monitoring at treatment plants is the main cause of the
prevalence of waterborne diseases (Hashmi et al. 2009). It is very hard to quantify exactly the
waterborne diseases in Pakistan because of lack of maintenance of records at hospitals.

According to a UNICEF report 20–40% of patients in hospitals of Pakistan are suffering from
water-linked diseases. These diseases include hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, cryptosporidiosis,

15
giardiasis, and typhoid which account for one third of all deaths in the country. Each year with
the onset of monsoon (July and August) rains in summer the situation gets worse with water-
borne diseases like hepatitis, typhoid fever, gastroenteritis, dysentery, cholera, E. coli diarrhea,
rotavirus diarrhea, malaria, giardiasis and intestinal worms. Lack of effective prevention and
control measures contribute in worsening the situation. Diarrhea, which is a water-linked disease,
accounts for 14% of illnesses in children below five years old and for 7% of all diseases in
people of all ages in Pakistan (Rosemann 2005).

In the Khairpur district of Sindh Province unclean drinking water has been the cause of very
common occurrences of water-related diseases like diarrhea, dysentery and typhoid fever. The
Quarterly Report of Infectious Diseases of Civil Hospital, Khairpur reported 25 cases of typhoid
fever, 18 cases of diarrhea, and 7 cases of dysentery in the area during 2006–2007 (Shar et al.
2008). Similarly, in May 2008 consumption of contaminated water led to an episode of
gastrointestinal illness in rural Sindh affecting hundreds of people as reported in national press
reports. In certain areas of Punjab, problems of bone softening and deformation have been
reported as a result of high fluoride concentrations in drinking water.

In Manga Mandi, an area near Lahore about 124 children were found suffering from skeletal
fluorosis due to high fluoride contents in their drinking water. In Kalalanwala, near Lahore more
than 400 people were reported having bone diseases with a great majority of children (72%
patients were under 15 years of age). In addition to the common complaints of joint and back
pain, bone deformation and spinal defects were observed in the people of the area. The problem
has been traced to a high concentration of fluoride in drinking water of the area. Arsenic has
been reported as a serious problem in many parts of the country but very few studies are
available regarding its health effect on the local population. A study conducted revealed that 30–
40% people of the Bobak village (near Manchar Lake in Sindh) were suffering from rough skin
with black dots and arsenical skin lesions, especially on face, arms and feet due to exposure to
high arsenic concentrations.

However, the authors concluded that arsenic was not the only cause of the skin problems. Other
factor including malnutrition, improper medical facilities and presence of other toxicants in
surface and groundwater may also contribute synergistically with arsenic overload in the area.

16
Another study revealed that 61 to 73% of the population of villages on the bank of Manchar
Lake suffer from chronic arsenic toxicity like melanosis and keratosis (Kazi et al. 2009). The
authors found a strong correlation between arsenic concentrations in drinking water and hair and
blood samples of exposed skin in diseased patients. In addition, the exposed people had clinical
features like respiratory problems, anemia, gastrointestinal problems, muscles cramps and
weakness. All the health effects were traced to high arsenic content in drinking water. Among
people consuming low arsenic water (municipal water with low arsenic) no such problems were
observed (Kazi et al. 2009).

Another potential threat to public health is the occurrence of pesticides in drinking water of
Pakistan. Few studies have been conducted in the country concerning pesticides exposure and
human health. Studies revealed the presence of high quantity of pesticides in blood and their
adverse effects on various enzyme levels in the body and biochemical parameters of blood in
Pakistani population exposed to pesticides. Clinical characteristics like headache, vomiting,
dizziness, muscle weakness, shortness of breath, skin rash and burning sensation in the urinary
tract due to pesticide exposure have been reported in the country (Kazi et al. 2009). Although the
majority of studies regarding pesticide effects on public health have been conducted in
populations exposed to pesticides either as workers or as farmers, the adverse effects can be
expected in people exposed to pesticides through drinking water.

4.3 Heavy Metals

Advancement in technology had led to high level of industrialization leading to discharge of

heavy metals into our environment. Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust.
They cannot be degraded or destroyed. The most frequently reported heavy metals with regards
to potential hazards and the occurrence in contaminated soils are Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn, Fe and Cu. The
concentration of these toxic elements in soils may be derived from various sources, including
anthropogenic pollution, weathering of natural high background rocks and metal deposits.

Heavy metals is a general collective term which applies to the group of metals and metalloids
with atomic density greater than 4 g/cm3 or 5 times or more, greater than water. Their pollution
of the environment, even at low levels and the resulting long – term cumulative health effects are
among the leading health concerns all over the world. Heavy metals normally occurring in nature

17
are not harmful to our environment, because they are only present in very small amounts
(Jamshaid et al. 2018). However, if the levels of these metals are higher than the levels of healthy
life, the roles of these metals change to a negative dimension. This is evident in Bangladesh
where high levels of arsenic in groundwater were evident. Drinking water is also an important
source for heavy metals for humans.

4.3.1 Beneficial Heavy Metals

In small quantities, certain heavy metals are nutritionally essential for a healthy life. Some of
these are referred to as the trace elements (e.g., iron, copper, manganese, and zinc). These
elements, or some form of them, are commonly found naturally in foodstuffs, in fruits and
vegetables, and in commercially available multivitamin products. Diagnostic medical
applications include direct injection of gallium during radiological procedures, dosing with
chromium in parenteral nutrition mixtures, and the use of lead as a radiation shield around x-ray
equipment. Heavy metals are also entered into the environment through industrial applications
such as in the manufacture of pesticides, batteries, alloys, electroplated metal parts, textile dyes,
steel, and so forth. Many of these products are in our homes and actually add to our quality of
life when properly used.

4.3.2 Toxic Heavy Metals

Heavy metals become toxic when they are not metabolized by the body and accumulate in the
soft tissues. Heavy metals may enter the human body through food, water, air, or absorption
through the skin when they come in contact with humans in agriculture and in manufacturing,
pharmaceutical, industrial, or residential settings. Heavy metal poisoning could result, for
instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations
near emission sources, or intake via the food chain (Yahaya et al. 2010). Some heavy metals like
Ar, Cd and Pb have been reported to have no known bio-importance in human biochemistry and
physiology and consumption even at very low concentrations can be toxic.

Industrial exposure accounts for a common route of exposure for adults. Ingestion is the most
common route of exposure in children. Children may develop toxic levels from the normal hand-
to-mouth activity of small children who come in contact with contaminated soil or by actually

18
eating objects that are not food (dirt or paint chips). Less common routes of exposure are during
a radiological procedure, from inappropriate dosing or monitoring during intravenous
(parenteral) nutrition, from a broken thermometer, or from a suicide or homicide attempt. Heavy
metals can enter a water supply by industrial and consumer waste, or even from acidic rain
breaking down soils and releasing heavy metals into streams, lakes, rivers, and groundwater
(Yahaya et al. 2010).

4.3.2.1 Heavy Metals in Groundwater

With sufficient surface water infiltration, soil contaminants such as heavy metals can leach to
underlying groundwater. Occurrence of heavy metals in groundwater is directly related to soil
characteristics that determine the rate of water movement (Bhaskar et al. 2010). The quality of
ground water varies from place to place and with the depth of the water table. Toxic metals
Natural water contains impurities of trace elements/heavy metals as it dissolves these substances
while moving downward as a hydrological cycle. In addition, these metals are introduced to both
surface and groundwater through several human activities like large scale use of chemicals in
agriculture and improper disposal of industrial and municipal wastes. Many of these metals are
considered essential for human health but upon overloading they cause water pollution and result
in severe health problems in living organisms including humans.

In Pakistan toxic metals in both ground and surface waters, often exceed the maximum
admissible concentrations recommended by WHO for drinking water. The results of various
studies conducted on contamination of water with toxic metals in Pakistan are summarized. Zinc
(Zn) and copper (Cu) are essential elements for human health but overexposure can lead to
adverse health consequences. For drinking water WHO set maximum acceptable concentrations
of 3 mg/L and 2 mg/L for Zn and Cu, respectively. Both these metals are usually found well
below the WHO standard limits both in ground and surface water in Pakistan. Only one study
reported conflicting data showing a higher Zn concentration of 4.02 mg/L in Karachi (Bhaskar et
al. 2010). Manganese (Mn) is a naturally occurring mineral in surface and groundwater, but
human activities also contribute much to its introduction in water. In Pakistan drinking water
contamination with Mn poses a small problem in some parts where it exceeds the WHO standard
limits (0.5 mg/L). The highest concentration of Mn (2.56 mg/L) in groundwater was reported

19
from Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa followed by 1.06 mg/L in water samples from Faisalabad (Akpan
and Bassey 2020).

In Pakistan iron is one of the major pollutants of both ground and surface water. A country-wide
study conducted by PCRWR reported an overload of iron in 28% of ground- and 40% of surface
water samples. Various studies reported iron concentrations ranging from 0 to 3.7 mg/L (means)
in groundwater and 0.01 to 9.0 mg/L in surface water in different areas of Pakistan. The
summaries of various studies reveal that in comparison to the Punjab and Sindh provinces, the
concentration of iron in groundwater of Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa is lower but still higher than the
0.3 mg/L standard in many cases. These elevated concentrations in natural water resources can
be a possible risk for human health and environment. Although in comparison to its deficiency,
iron overload or overexposure is a less common condition but it can lead to several serious health
problems like cancer, liver and heart diseases as well as neurodegenerative disorders.

Cadmium (Cd) is an element of great concern from a toxicity point of view. The safe standard
for Cd concentrations in drinking water set by WHO is 0.003 mg/L. In Pakistan Cd
concentrations in both ground and surface water, with some exception, are above the WHO safe
limits. The data of various studies reveal that the groundwater of Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa and
Sindh provinces has relatively high contamination of Cd as compared to Punjab. Cadmium is a
toxic metal causing both acute and chronic toxicity in humans. Intake of cadmium may cause
acute gastrointestinal problems, such as vomiting and diarrhea while chronic exposure to
cadmium for a long time may cause kidney damage, reproductive problems and cancer.

Chromium is one of the most common elements in the earth crust and water. For drinking water
WHO described its maximum allowable concentration at 0.05 mg/L. In water sources of Pakistan
it has been documented in a wide concentration range by different studies. A study conducted in
23 major cities of the country showed that only 1% of groundwater samples exceed the safe
limits for chromium. In contrast, individual studies reported chromium concentrations ranging
above the safe limits of WHO (0.05 mg/L) in most of the cases (Hashmi et al. 2009). Analysis of
drinking water samples from the residential area of Kasur showed chromium concentrations
reaching 9.80 mg/L (mean 2.12 mg/L). In general, chromium had 21–42 times higher
concentrations than the recommended quality value (Tariq et al., 2008). Similarly, 75% samples

20
from various sources in Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa and 25% samples from Karachi (Sindh) exceeded
the maximum acceptable value for chromium in drinking water.

In most cases chromium concentrations are lower in surface than in groundwater; however, in
some cases they exceeded the recommended safe WHO limits. Frequently higher concentrations
of chromium in drinking water in cities like Lahore, Gujrat and Sialkot have been traced to the
leather industry and tanneries (Ullah et al. 2009). Chromium itself is not toxic and plays an
important role in the carbohydrate metabolism in the body. But some of its compounds
especially in its hexavalent status cause skin diseases, cancers, irritants and diseases related to
the digestive, excretory, respiratory and reproductive system. Nickel, dubbed as “Allergen of the
Year 2008”, is a widely distributed element in the environment, and can be found in air, water
and soil. The maximum admissible concentration set by WHO for nickel in drinking water is
0.02 mg/L. In Pakistan its concentration varies from 0 to 3.66 mg/L in groundwater whereas in
surface water from 0 to 1.52 mg/L as documented in various studies. Among the groundwater
samples, the highest range of nickel is reported in water samples from Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa
(0.002– 3.66 mg/L) and Karachi (0.01–2.19 mg/L). It shows that in most cases groundwater is
contaminated with nickel beyond the standard of WHO.

Surface water also shows similar contamination with nickel. It reported that 75% of the surface
water samples from the largest city of the country (Karachi) exceed the USEPA criteria for
nickel in drinking water. The local population of such areas can be at risk of exposure to high
doses of nickel with food and water being the two main (Mumtaz et al. 2011). Nickel compounds
can cause a variety of adverse effects, such as nickel allergy in the form of contact dermatitis,
lung fibrosis, cardiovascular diseases, kidney problems and cancer of the respiratory.

Lead (Pb) is a normal constituent of the earth's crust and trace amounts naturally occur in soil
and water. Drinking water picks up lead contamination from various sources like household
paint, vehicle exhausts and industrial wastes. The safe standard set by WHO for lead in drinking
water is 0.01 mg/L. Its concentration is reported from 0.001 to 2.0 mg/L in groundwater and 0 to
0.38 mg/L in surface water from various parts of the country. A large study conducted by PCWR
in major cities revealed that 15% and 1% of surface and groundwater samples, respectively, had
lead above the safe limits (Ullah et al., 2009). Even at low concentrations lead is a special threat

21
during pregnancy. It may cause developmental delay, low birth weight and miscarriage of the
fetus. Mercury (Hg) is a naturally occurring element and a “persistent bio-accumulative toxin”. It
is introduced to the environment through various natural processes as well as different human
activities. According to the WHO standards, its concentration in drinking water should not
exceed 0.001 mg/L.

In Pakistan data regarding Hg contamination of water are limited as very few studies exist on the
issue. PCRWR reported Hg concentrations beyond the safe limits in 5% of surface water samples
but none in groundwater samples. Yahaya et al. (2010) reported Hg concentrations of 0.01 mg/L
in groundwater samples from Karachi which is 10 times higher than the WHO standard. A study
conducted on three main water reservoirs of the country, namely Tarbela (0.014 mg/L), Chashma
(0.017 mg/L) and Lloyd (0.14 mg/L), showed Hg concentrations beyond the safe limits.
However, the available data are very limited and further studies are necessary regarding Hg
concentrations in drinking water throughout the country. Hg is a potentially harmful metal to
human health and the environment. It is the only metal, which indisputably magnifies through
the food chain. Furthermore, in the aquatic environment, it is efficiently transformed into methyl
mercury which is its most toxic form. Being a potential cellular toxin, it adversely affects various
important processes within nerve cells (Nouri et al. 2006). It disrupts the neurotransmitter
production and also decreases the production of important hormones including thyroid hormones
and testosterone in the body.

Arsenic (As) is recognized as a big threat to public health in many countries like Bangladesh,
India, China, Vietnam, Nepal and Myanmar. The situation is the same in Pakistan, and in many
of its regions' concentrations of arsenic in drinking water exceeds the WHO standard of 10 ppb
(μg/L). In the early 1990s study reported elevated concentrations of arsenic in the large water
reservoirs of Pakistan, i.e. Tarbela, (620 μg/L), Chashma (750 μg/L) and Lloyd (620 μg/L).
Similarly an average arsenic concentration of 80 μg/L in groundwater samples from Karachi was
reported in the nineties. However, the issue of arsenic as a threat to drinking water remained
unnoticed until a joint study conducted by the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources
(PCRWR) and the United Nations Children Fund in 2000. In this study groundwater
contamination with arsenic was identified in the Attok and Rawalpindi districts. Subsequent
studies have been conducted in various parts of the country which revealed a wide range of

22
arsenic concentrations in water samples. Results obtained for arsenic in various parts of Punjab
and Sindh (Sial Sr 2006). It show that a sizable number of samples exceed the WHO standard of
10 μg/L. In some areas the situation is very alarming as for example in Multan (Punjab), Dadu
and Ganbat (Sindh) where more than 50% of the water samples exceed the standard limits of 10
μg/L. The situation is further aggravated as some areas have a contamination of above 50 μg/L
and in Sindh even exceeds 200 μg/L (Azizullah et al. 2011). Long time exposure to arsenic can
cause melanosis, leuko-melanosis, hyperkeratosis, cardiovascular disease, black foot disease,
neuropathy and cancer.

Chapter Five

5. Impact of pollutants in Human Health and the Environment

5.1 Adverse Human Impacts

The shortage of iron causes disease called “anemia’’. Although iron is an essential mineral,
prolonged consumption of drinking water with high concentration of iron may lead to liver
disease called Haermosiderosis. Diseases of aging such as Alzheimer’s disease, other
neurodegenerative diseases, arteriosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, and others have been linked to
excess iron intake. High concentrations of dissolved iron can result in poor tasting, unattractive
water that stains both plumbing fixtures and clothing. Previous studies conducted in an industrial
area Sialkot, Pakistan, shown high levels of Fe which varied between 0.004 and 0.828 mg/l, well
above WHO MCL of 0.3 mg/l. (Ullah et al., 2009). Iron content varies from 97 μg/L in sample
taken from Mekelle to 1872 μg/L from Zalambessa, Ethiopia. About 62.69% of the samples
were within the desirable concentration of iron in drinking water (300ug/L), whereas 37.31% of
the samples have shown iron concentration above the limit (Larry 2006).

Exposure to lead through water is generally low in comparison with exposure through air or
food. Lead from natural sources is present in tap water to some extent, but analysis of both
surface and ground water suggests that lead concentration is fairly low. The main source of lead
in drinking water is (old) lead piping and lead-combining solders. Studies on lead are numerous
because of its hazardous effects .Lead is a metal with no known biological benefit to humans.
Too much lead can damage various systems of the body including the nervous and reproductive

23
systems and the kidneys, and it can cause high blood pressure and anemia. Lead accumulates in
the bones and lead poisoning may be diagnosed from a blue line around the gums. Lead is
especially harmful to the developing brains of foetuses and young children and to pregnant
women. Lead interferes with the metabolism of calcium and Vitamin D.

High blood lead levels in children can cause consequences which may be irreversible including
learning disabilities, behavioral problems, and mental retardation. At very high levels, lead can
cause convulsions, coma and death (Organization 2007). Studies conducted in some of the Great
Cairo Cities, Egypt aimed to determine the relationship between the contaminant drinking water
and its impact on human health. It was revealed that Patients who suffer from renal failure were
related to contaminant drinking water mainly with lead and cadmium. Previous studies
conducted in an industrial area Sialkot, Pakistan, shown high levels of Pb with maximum mean
concentration of 0.81 mg/l, well above WHO MCL of 0.01 mg/l. (Ullah et al., 2009). Studies
conducted by Adelekan and Abegunde in 2011,regarding heavy metal groundwater pollution at
automobile mechanic villages in Ibadan, Nigeria showed that , Pb concentration measured in
hand-dug wells was lower than the limits set by WHO guideline for drinking water ( Adelekan
and Abegunde, 2011).

A maximum level of Pb (1347 μg/L) was found in drinking water sampled from Indasilase in
Ethiopia. More than 70.15% of the samples analyzed contain lead concentration within the WHO
MAL of lead in drinking water (10 μg/L). Not only does lead poisoning stunt a child’s growth,
damage the nervous system, and cause learning disabilities, but also it is now linked to crime and
anti-social behavior in children.

In humans, long-term exposure is associated with renal dysfunction. High exposure can lead to
obstructive lung disease and has been linked to lung cancer, although data concerning the latter
are difficult to interpret due to compounding factors. Cadmium exposure may cause kidney
damage. Long-term high cadmium exposure may also produce bone defects (Osteomalacia,
osteoporosis) in humans and animals. In addition, the metal can be linked to increased blood
pressure and effects on the myocardium in animals, although most human data do not support
these findings.

24
The average daily intake for humans is estimated as 0.15µg from air and 1µg from water.
Smoking a packet of 20 cigarettes can lead to the inhalation of around 2-4µg of cadmium, but
levels may vary widelyAdditional exposure to humans arises through cadmium in ambient air
and drinking water. Chromium 6 is known to be a potent carcinogen when inhaled. It was
recently found to also cause cancer in laboratory mice and rats that were exposed through
drinking water. Low-level exposure can irritate the skin and cause ulceration. Long-term
exposure can cause kidney and liver damage, and damage to circulatory and nerve tissue.

5.2 Adverse Impacts on the Environment

Food chain contamination by heavy metals has become a burning issue in recent years because
of their potential accumulation in biosystems through contaminated water, soil and air. Metals
are persistent pollutants that can be biomagnified in the food chains, becoming increasingly
dangerous to human beings and wildlife .Heavy metals enter into the environment mainly via
three routes namely: (i) deposition of atmospheric particulate, (ii) disposal of metal enriched
sewage sludge and sewage effluents and (iii) by-products from metal mining process. Soil is one
of the repositories for anthropogenic wastes. Biochemical processes can mobilize them to pollute
water supplies and impact food chains. Heavy metals such as Cu, Cr, Cd, Ni, and Pb are potential
soil and water pollutants (Adelekan and Abegunde 2011).

Iron can also cause algae blooms, which create biological oxygen demand, can kill fish, smother
aquatic plants and produce potent neurotoxins. Even low concentrations of iron (0.1-1.0 mg/L)
may cause nuisance algae species to replace inoffensive species. Water collects iron in several
ways. Lead (Pb) is the most common environmental contaminant found in soils. Unlike other
metals, Pb has no biological role, and is potentially toxic to microorganisms. Its excessive
accumulation in living organisms is always detrimental.

The highest lead concentration was reported from Heliopolice and El-Salam areas in Cairo,
Egypt with 0.90 ppm and 0.70 ppm respectively. All areas have exceeded the standard limit (0.1
ppm) in most of the drinking water samples (tap water). Lead has been recognized for centuries
as a cumulative general metabolic poison (Adelekan and Abegunde 2011). Cadmium often
accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to
high levels of Cadmium.

25
When an industrial facility emits chromium 6 into the environment, it is sometimes deposited
into the soil and often is converted to chromium 3 with some remaining traces of chromium 6.
Chromium 6 can occur naturally but can also enter drinking water sources by historic leaks from
industrial plants’ hazardous waste sites. Various other sources also contribute to the amount of
hexavalent chromium in groundwater. Chromium is used in metal alloys and pigments for paints,
cement, paper, rubber, and other materials. Chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding
to the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to high levels of chromium.

Chapter Six

6. Chemical and Physical Pollution

6.1 Temperature

Water Temperature is a controlling factor for aquatic life: it controls the rate of metabolic
activities, reproductive activities and therefore, life cycles. If stream temperatures increase,
decrease or fluctuate too widely, metabolic activities may speed up, slow down, malfunction, or
stop altogether. There are many factors that can influence the stream temperature. Water
temperatures can fluctuate seasonally, daily, and even hourly, especially in smaller sized streams.
Spring discharges and overhanging canopy of stream vegetation provides shade and helps buffer
the effects of temperature changes. Water temperature is also influenced by the quantity and
velocity of stream flow and the temperature of effluents dumped into the water. When people
dump heated effluents into waterways, the effluents raise the temperature of the water. The sun
has much less effect in warming the waters of streams with greater and swifter flows than of
streams with smaller, slower flows. Temperature affects the concentration of dissolved oxygen in
a water body. Oxygen is more easily dissolved in cold water.

6.2 pH

The balance of positive hydrogen ions (H+) and negative hydroxide ions (OH-) in water
determines how acidic or basic the water is. pH is expressed in a scale with ranges from 1 to 14.
A solution with a pH less than 7 has more H+ activity than OH-, and is considered acidic. A
solution with a pH value greater than 7 has more OH- activity than H+, and is considered basic.

26
In pure water, the concentration of positive hydrogen ions is in equilibrium with the
concentration of negative hydroxide ions, and the pH measures exactly 7. pH is an important
limiting chemical factor for aquatic life. If the water in a stream is too acidic or basic, the H+ or
OH- ion activity may disrupt aquatic organisms biochemical reactions by either harming or
killing the stream organisms. Streams generally have pH values ranging between 6 and 9,
depending upon the presence of dissolved substances that come from bedrock, soils and other
materials in the watershed. (http://www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm/, assessed on April 10, 2012)

In a lake or pond, the water’s pH is affected by its age and the chemicals discharged by
communities and industries. Most lakes are basic (alkaline) when they are first formed and
become more acidic with time due to the build-up of organic materials. Studies conducted in a
petrochemical area in Ubeji community in Nigeria have shown mean pH range of 4.66 and 6.85
(Ogunlaja and Ogunlaja(2007). pH will produce a synergistic effect when acid waters (waters
with low pH values) come into contact with certain chemicals and metals, they often make them
more toxic than normal.

6.3 Turbidity

Turbidity is the term given to anything that is suspended in a water supply. It is most common in
surface waters and usually non-existent in ground water except in shallow wells and springs after
heavy rains. Turbidity gives the water a cloudy appearance or shows as dirty sediments.
Turbidity may be caused when light is blocked by large amounts of un-dissolved materials such
as sand, clay, silt or suspended irons, microorganisms, and coal dust. The most frequent causes
of turbidity in lakes and rivers are plankton and soil erosion. Moderately low levels of turbidity
may indicate a healthy, well-functioning ecosystem, with moderate amounts of plankton present
to fuel the food chain. However, higher levels of turbidity pose several problems for stream
systems. Turbidity blocks out the light needed by submerged aquatic vegetation. It also can raise
surface water temperatures above normal because suspended particles near the surface facilitate
the absorption of heat from sunlight. Turbidity can cause the staining of sinks and fixtures as
well as the discoloring of fabrics. Turbidity is measured in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
Units).

27
6.4 Conductivity

Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current. Conductivity in

water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate,
and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron,
and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive charge). Organic compounds like oil, phenol,
alcohol, and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well and therefore have a low
conductivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the warmer the water,
the higher the conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25
degrees Celsius (25 ˚C. Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the geology of
the area through which the water flows. Streams that run through areas with granite bedrock
tend to have lower conductivity because granite is composed of more inert materials that do not
ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the water. The basic unit of
measurement of conductivity is the mho or siemens. Conductivity is measured in micromhos per
centimeter (µmhos/cm) or microsiemens per centimeter (µS/cm).

Table 1: Water quality of dams, rivers and lakes

Source pH Turbidity TDS(mg/l) Coliform E.coli

(NTU) (MPN/100ml) (MPN/100ml)
Simly dam 8.2 6 192 >16 >16
Rawal dam 7.9 24 208 >16 >16
Sutlej dam 7.5 694 580 >16 >16
Mangla dam 8.2 4 93 >16 >16
Ravi river 7.5 670 127 >16 >16
Lahore canal 7.6 647 126 >16 >16
Swat river 7.3 36 46 >16 >16
Indus river 7.6 76 84 >16 >16
Kabul river 6.1 774 120 >16 >16
Khanpur dam 8.1 2 222 >16 >16
Terbela dam 7.9 52 94 >16 >16
Hanna lake 7.5 11 385 >16 >16
Hub river 7.2 6 756 >16 >16
Hub dam 7.2 5 743 >16 >16
Hamal lake 7.3 12 4652 >16 >16
Manchar lake 7.6 134 5318 >16 5
Terkhezai dam 7.7 400 150 >16 >16
Jehlum river 7.8 419 132 >16 >16

28
 Chenab river 7.6 590 115 >16 >16
Chashma lake 7.8 183 132 >16 >16

Chapter Seven

7. Environmental legislations in Pakistan and their effectiveness

Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance 1983 (PEPO 1983) was the first ever legislation in
the country regarding environmental protection (Nadeem and Hameed 2008). This ordinance
further resulted in the establishment of two organizations, namely, the Pakistan Environmental
Protection Council (PEPC) and the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Pak-EPA).
Furthermore, the concept of Environmental Impact Assessment was introduced in the country
due to this ordinance. However, slackness in its implementation is evident from the fact that the
first meeting of PEPC was held in 1993 after 10 years of its establishment. It was encouraging
that in its first meeting the PEPC approved National Environmental Quality Standard (NEQS)
and soon formulated the maximum acceptable limits for various pollutants in municipal and
industrial discharges and emission. In 1997 a regulatory framework known as Pakistan
Environmental Protection Act 1997 (PEPA 1997) was approved to regulate and monitor issues
regarding environmental protection in the country (GoP, 1997).

In November 2002 national standards for drinking water quality were introduced. Similarly other
policies including National Environment Policy 2005, National Sanitation Policy 2006 and
National Drinking Water Policy 2009 have been approved. These policies were aimed at
preventing water pollution and providing safe drinking water to the general public at affordable
costs. Although such ordinances, acts and policies have been approved from time to time, no
clear strategy has been devised so far for their implementation. As a result, after appropriate and
necessary administrative capacity on paper, its effectiveness is seriously curtailed in practice. For
example, the NEQS for industry and municipal discharges were formulated in 1993, but could
not be implemented in its spirit until now. The industries do not follow the national standards for
pollutants in their waste effluents. Government has introduced different programs like Pollution
Charge System, Self Monitoring and Reporting, Cleaner Production in Industry and Common

29
Effluent Treatment Plants to control the pollution due to industrial wastes. But unfortunately no
one is implemented appropriately due to weak law enforcement and the problems remained the
same (WWF, 2007). Similarly the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system is mandatory
but is seldom followed in the public sector. To monitor environmental quality, laboratories have
been established in all provinces but are not fully functional due to the absence of skeletal staff
and inadequate budgets. Similarly, environmental tribunals have been shaped but are not
efficient in all provinces. It seems that laws and a setup for monitoring the environmental issues
exist in the country but lack implementation.

The main hindrances in implementation are insufficient budgetary allocations and lack of
effective coordination and communication among the responsible authorities like federal,
provincial and local entities. Political interference cannot be excluded from the factors hindering
implementation of environmental laws.

30
 Chapter Eight

8. Conclusion and recommendations

Both surface and groundwater sources in Pakistan are highly polluted and not safe for human
consumption as most of the pollutans exceed the qualitiy standards for drinking water.
Bacteriological contamination of water is the most potential threat to consumers. Among the
heavy metals, with the exception of Cu and Zn, all exceed their standard limits set by WHO in
many cases. The frequent and high level occurrence of iron, nickel, chromium, cadmium and
arsenic is alarming. Among the cations K+ and Na+ were found above the standard limits in a
large number of reports. Nitrates and fluoride are a threat in some parts. Fluoride poses a dual
problem, i.e. in some areas it is very low and needs to be supplemented but in other areas it is too
high and needs removal measures.

Pesticides occur frequently in water samples from different areas and in many cases exceed the
safe limits. Various human activities, particularly disposal of untreated industrial and municipal
wastes are the main sources of water pollution in Pakistan. There is a lack of proper monitoring
of water quality particularly in rural areas. Water disinfection practices like chlorination are
either nonexistent or unsatisfactory and treatment plants, if they exist, are not providing quality
water to the public. Bacteriological and chemical pollution of public drinking water have been
the cause of waterborne diseases in many parts of the country. However, compar atively little
data are available regarding water-related diseases due to the lack of diagnostic facilities and
maintenance of records. Regular surveys need to be conducted in various parts of the country to
obtain a clear picture of water-linked diseases.

The following recommendations are made which may help to control or diminish the problems
of deteriorating water quality in Pakistan.

 There should be continuous monitoring of drinking water throughout the country both in
rural and urban locations.

31
 Local authorities should be provided with facilities for monitoring and purification of
drinking water.
 There is a need to shift from an intermittent to a continuous water supply system to avoid
the wide spread contamination caused by intermittent water supply.
 There should be a renovation of old and rusty pipelines of the water distribution network.
 There should be sufficient distances between sewage and drinking water supply lines to
avoid cross contamination.
 Industrial wastewater disposal should be strictly monitored and all industries should be
forced to adapt wastewater treatment measures. Also active and operating sewage
collecting and treatment plants in large cities for municipal wastewater treatment must be
installed.
 There is a need of the existence and implementation of strict laws with no compromise on
quality of public drinking water.
 Public awareness campaigns should be launched to educate the population about the
importance of safe drinking water.
 The public should receive guidance to adapt safety measures for stored water inside the
houses.
 The farmer community needs to be educated well about the safe handling and use of
pesticides and proper application of fertilizers to minimize the contribution of agricultural
practices to water pollution.

32
 Chapter Nine

9. References

1. Adelekan, B. and Abegunde, K. (2011). Heavy metals contamination of soil and

groundwater at automobile mechanic villages in Ibadan, Nigeria. International journal of
physical sciences 6, 1045-1058.
2. Ahad, K., Mohammad, A., Mehboob, F., Sattar, A. and Ahmad, I. (2006). Pesticide
residues in rawal lake, Islamabad, Pakistan. Bulletin of environmental contamination and
toxicology 76, 463-470.
3. Ahad, K., Mohammad, A., Khan, H., Ahmad, I. and Hayat, Y. (2010). Monitoring results
for organochlorine pesticides in soil and water from selected obsolete pesticide stores in
Pakistan. Environmental monitoring and assessment 166, 191-199.
4. Akpan, C.O. and Bassey, S.A. (2020). The Quandary on Water Pollution in Nigeria's
Niger Delta: an Environmental Ethical Analysis. Bulletin of Pure & Applied Sciences-
Geology.
5. Asi, M., Hussain, A. and Muhmood, S. (2008). Solid phase extraction of pesticide
residues in water samples: DDT and its metabolites.
6. Aziz, J. (2005). Management of source and drinking-water quality in Pakistan. EMHJ-
Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 11 (5-6), 1087-1098, 2005.
7. Azizullah, A., Khattak, M.N.K., Richter, P. and Häder, D.-P. (2011). Water pollution in
Pakistan and its impact on public health—a review. Environment international 37, 479-
497.
8. Bhaskar, C.V., Kumar, K. and Nagendrappa, G. (2010). Assessment of heavy metals in
water samples of certain locations situated around Tumkur, Karnataka, India. E-Journal
of chemistry 7, 349-352.
9. Colbeck, I., Nasir, Z.A. and Ali, Z. (2010). The state of ambient air quality in Pakistan—
a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 17, 49-63.

33
10. Farooq, S., Hashmi, I., Qazi, I.A., Qaiser, S. and Rasheed, S. (2008). Monitoring of
coliforms and chlorine residual in water distribution network of Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
Environmental monitoring and assessment 140, 339-347.
11. Hahim, M. (2015). Pesticides and drinking water. J Adv Botany Zool 3, 7-15.
12. Hashmi, I., Farooq, S. and Qaiser, S. (2009). Chlorination and water quality monitoring
within a public drinking water supply in Rawalpindi Cantt (Westridge and Tench) area,
Pakistan. Environmental monitoring and assessment 158, 393-403.
13. Hussain, M., Rasool, S.A., Khan, M.T. and Wajid, A. (2007). Enterococci vs coliforms as
a possible fecal contamination indicator: baseline data for Karachi. Pak J Pharm Sci 20,
107-111.
14. Jamshaid, M., Khan, A.A., Ahmed, K. and Saleem, M. (2018). Heavy metal in drinking
water its effect on human health and its treatment techniques–a review. International
Journal of Biosciences 12, 223-240.
15. Jan, M.R., Shah, J., Khawaja, M.A. and Gul, K. (2009). DDT residue in soil and water in
and around abandoned DDT manufacturing factory. Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment 155, 31-38.
16. Kazi, T.G., Arain, M.B., Baig, J.A., Jamali, M.K., Afridi, H.I., Jalbani, N., Sarfraz, R.A.,
Shah, A.Q. and Niaz, A. (2009). The correlation of arsenic levels in drinking water with
the biological samples of skin disorders. Science of the Total Environment 407, 1019-
1026.
17. Larry, W. (2006). World water day. A billion people worldwide lack safe drinking.
18. Mashiatullah, A., Chaudhary, M., Khan, M., Javed, T. and Qureshi, R. (2010). Coliform
bacterial pollution in Rawal Lake, Islamabad and its feeding streams/river. The Nucleus
47, 35-40.
19. Mendie, U. (2005). The nature of water. The Theory and Practice of Clean Water
Production for Domestic and Industrial Use. Lagos: Lacto-Medals Publishers 1, 21.
20. Mumtaz, M.W., Adnan, A., Mukhtar, H., Nawaz, K., Raza, A. and Ahmad, Z. (2011).
Estimation of bacteriological levels in surface water samples to evaluate their
contamination profile. Environmental monitoring and assessment 172, 581-587.
21. Mzini, L.L. (2017). Water de-pollution: Different sorbents for different water pollutants.

34
22. Nabeela, F., Azizullah, A., Bibi, R., Uzma, S., Murad, W., Shakir, S.K., Ullah, W.,
Qasim, M. and Häder, D.-P. (2014). Microbial contamination of drinking water in
Pakistan—a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 21, 13929-13942.
23. Nadeem, O. and Hameed, R. (2008). Evaluation of environmental impact assessment
system in Pakistan. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 28, 562-571.
24. Nasrullah, R.N., Bibi, H., Iqbal, M. and Durrani, M.I. (2006). Pollution load in industrial
effluent and ground water of Gadoon Amazai Industrial Estate (GAIE) Swabi, NWFP.
Journal of agricultural and biological science 1, 18-24.
25. Nouri, J., Mahvi, A., Babaei, A., Jahed, G. and Ahmadpour, E. (2006). Investigation of
heavy metals in groundwater. Pakistan journal of biological sciences 9, 377-384.
26. Organization, W.H. (2007). In: Quality assurance of pharmaceuticals: A compendium of
guidelines and related materials. Good manufacturing practices and inspection. Volume
2, (World Health Organization).
27. Rosemann, N. (2005). Drinking Water Crisis in Pakistan and the Issue of Bottled Water:
The Case of Nestlé’s ‘Pure Life.’. Actionaid Pakistan 4, 37.
28. Shar, A.H., Kazi, Y.F. and Soomro, I.H. (2008). Impact of seasonal variation on
bacteriological quality of drinking water. Bangladesh Journal of Microbiology 25, 69-72.
29. Sial Sr, R.A. (2006). Quality of Effluents from Hattar Industrial Area Pakistan.
30. Tariq, M.I., Afzal, S., Hussain, I. and Sultana, N. (2007). Pesticides exposure in Pakistan:
a review. Environment international 33, 1107-1122.
31. Ullah, R., Malik, R.N. and Qadir, A. (2009). Assessment of groundwater contamination
in an industrial city, Sialkot, Pakistan. African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology 3.
32. VanLoon, G.W. and Duffy, S.J. (2017). In: Environmental chemistry: a global
perspective, (Oxford university press).
33. Yahaya, M., Ezeh, G., Musa, Y. and Mohammad, S. (2010). Analysis of heavy metals
concentration in road sides soil in Yauri, Nigeria. African Journal of Pure and Applied
Chemistry 4, 022-030.
34. Zia, M., Jamil, M., Qasim, M., Rahman, A. and Usman, K. (2008). Natural resources
pollution and degradation due to pesticide use in Pakistan12th International conference

35
on integrated diffuse pollution management (IWA DIPCON 2008). Khon Kaen
University, Thailand, 226-227.

36