NAMA : DILA SAFUTRI

Nim : B1D120110
Kelas : D4 TLMC

ANTIGEN & ANTIBODY

1. ANTIGEN
Antigen is a substance that can stimulate the body's immune system to produce
antibodies as a form of resistance. Antigen in the human body can take the form of bacteria,
viruses, or certain chemicals. The immune system considers antigens as foreign substances
that can threaten the health of the body. Antigen generally comes from outside the body
through food, drink, dirt, dust, or pollution. However, antigens can also be found in tissues
and cells in the body, including cancer cells. In the body, this antigen can be detected by the
lymphatic system.
In immunology, an antigen (abbreviated as Ag) is any substance capable of causing the
immune system to produce specific antibodies, and capable of binding to a number of
components of the immune system. An antigen is a molecule or molecular structure, such as
those on the outside of a pathogen, which can be bound by antibodies specific to the antigen
or by B cell antigen receptors. The response given by the immune system is called the
immune response. The acronym Ag itself stands for antibody generator or antibody generator.
The antigen is "targeted" by the antibody. Each antibody is produced specifically by the
immune system to match an antigen after cells in the immune system come into contact with
that antigen; this process is used to precisely identify the antigen, produce the appropriate
antibody, and initiate an adaptive immune response. Antibodies are said to be "compatible"
with antigens in the sense that they can bind to them due to molecular adaptations to the
antigen-binding fragments. In most cases, antibodies can only react and bind to one specific
antigen; in some other cases, antibodies can cross-react and bind to more than one antigen.
Antigens can be protein molecules, peptides (amino acid chains), and polysaccharides
(simple monosaccharide / sugar chains), while lipid and nucleic acid molecules become
antigens only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides.
The antigen can come from within the body ("self-antigen") or from the external
environment ("non-self" or "foreign body"). The immune system identifies and attacks
external antigens as "foreign bodies" and usually does not react to self-antigens due to
negative selection of T cells in the thymus.

Antigen and Antibody Relationship

 When the antigen enters the body, the immune system will produce a substance to destroy
the antigen. Substances produced by the immune system to fight antigens are called
antibodies.
Antibodies are part of the immune system which acts as a bulwark to protect the body from
viruses, bacteria, germs, and infectious disease-causing substances. Antibodies will be
produced by the immune system according to the number of antigens.Antibodies have a
shape that resembles the shape of the antigen to be fought. This is so that antibodies can stick
to the antigen and fight it. Thus, the antigen does not develop and does not cause infection. In
certain cases, antigens can also cause allergic reactions and allergy-related diseases, such as
asthma and eczema.

Types of Antigen Tests

In medical science, there are several kinds of tests that can be done to detect the presence of
antigens. With this antigen examination, doctors can quickly diagnose a disease, so that
appropriate treatment steps can be taken immediately.
The following are some of the most common types of antigen tests:
1. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)
This test is done to measure the PSA level in a man's blood. PSA is a chemical produced by
the prostate gland. PSA levels can increase when the prostate is damaged. Therefore, the PSA
antigen test can be useful as a test to detect prostate disorders, such as prostatitis and prostate
cancer.
2. Dengue virus nonstructural protein 1 antigen (NS1)
This antigen test is done to detect the presence of the NS1 protein or antigen in the body. A
positive NS1 result indicates that a person is experiencing acute dengue virus infection. This
NS1 antigen test is useful to help doctors diagnose dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) quickly
and accurately.
3. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)
This examination is done to detect the presence of proteins on the walls or surfaces of the
hepatitis B virus. The HBsAg test can also generally be done to detect acute and chronic
hepatitis B infection.

4.HIV antigen (P24)

An HIV antigen test (P24) is done to check whether a person is infected with the HIV
(Human Immunodeficiency Virus) or not. This test is actually rarely done because it is not
quite common in Indonesia
P24 is a protein found in the HIV virus and can be detected in the first few weeks after
infection. This test can be combined with other types of tests to diagnose HIV.

Antigen Characteristics
 Antigenity the ability to induce antibody production
 antigen specificity the ability to bind to the appropriate antibody
 Immunogenicity Ag's ability to induce specific immune response
 Immunoreactivity The ability of the antigen to bind to Ab appropriate or sensitized T
lymphocytes.

Antigen Chemicals
1. PROTEIN
 Imunogenic
 generally multideterminant and univalent
 microba toxin, enzymes
2. POLYCARACIDES
 immunogenic
 the surface part of microorganism cells
 immune response: antibody formation
3. LIPID
 less-imunogenic
 immunogenic hapten when binding dg carrier protein
 example: sphingolipid
4. NUCLEIC ACID
 less-imunogenic
 immunogenic when binding dg carrier protein
 example: dna in sle

Antigens can be classified according to their source

1. Exogenous antigen
Exogenous antigens are antigens that enter the body from outside, for example through
inhalation, ingestion or injection. The immune system's response to exogenous antigens is
often subclinical. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, exogenous antigens are carried into the
antigen presenting cells (APC) and processed into fragments. APC then presents the
fragments to helper T cells (CD4 +) using the class II histocompatibility molecules present on
their surface. Some T cells are specific for peptides: the MHC complex. They become active
and begin to secrete cytokines, which are substances that activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes
(CTL), B cells that secrete antibodies, macrophages, and other particles.
2. Endogenous antigen
Endogenous antigens are produced in normal cells as a result of normal cell metabolism or
due to intracellular viral or bacterial infection. The fragments are then presented on the cell
surface in a complex with MHC class I molecules. When activated cytotoxic CD8 + T cells
recognize them, the T cells secrete various toxins that cause lysis or apoptosis of the infected
cells. In order to keep cytotoxic cells from killing cells only for self-presenting proteins,
cytotoxic cells (self-reactive T cells) are removed as a result of tolerance (negative selection).
Endogenous antigens include xenogenic (heterologous), autologous, and idiotypic or
allogeneic (homologous) antigens. Sometimes the antigen is part of the host itself in
autoimmune diseases.
3. Autoantigen
Autoantigens are usually normal proteins or protein complexes (and sometimes DNA or
RNA) that are recognized by the immune system of patients with certain autoimmune
diseases. Under normal conditions, these antigens should not be the target of the immune
system, but in autoimmune diseases, the associated T cells are not removed and instead
attack.
4. Neoantigen
Neoantigens are antigens completely absent in the normal human genome. Compared with
non-mutated self-antigens, neoantigens have relevance to tumor control, because the quality
of the T cell pool available for these antigens is not affected by central T cell tolerance.
Technologies for systematically analyzing the reactivity of T cells against neoantigens are
only recently available. Neoantigen can be detected and measured immediately by a method
called MANA-SRM developed by molecular diagnostics company, Complete Omics Inc., in
collaboration with a team at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.
5. Viral antigen
For virus-related tumors, such as cervical cancer and head and neck cancer subsets, epitopes
originating from the open reading frame of the virus contribute to neoantigen accumulation.

6. Tumor antigen
Tumor antigens are antigens presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the
surface of tumor cells. An antigen found only on these cells is called a tumor-specific antigen
(TSA) and generally results from tumor-specific mutations. The more common types are
antigens presented by tumor cells and normal cells, called tumor-linked antigens (TAAs).
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy tumor cells.
Tumor antigens can appear on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, mutated
receptors, in which case they are recognized by B cells. For human tumors without a viral
etiology, new peptides (neo-epitopes) are created by tumor-specific DNA changes.

7. Origin
The original antigen is the antigen that has not been processed by APC into smaller pieces. T
cells cannot bind to the original antigen, but require that it be processed by the APC first,
whereas B cells can be activated by the original antigen.

Apart from the tests above, there are various types of antigen tests that can be done to help
doctors diagnose infections or other medical conditions.
 Keep away from viruses and bacteria
 washing hands
 Get vaccinated
 Take drugs

2. ANTIBODY
 Antibodies are chemicals that circulate in the bloodstream and are included as part of the
immune system or immune system. Antibodies have an important function for the body,
namely as a bulwark against antigens such as viruses, bacteria and toxic substances that cause
disease.
Antibodies (abbreviated Ab), also known as immunoglobulins (abbreviated Ig), are
large, Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign bodies
such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Antibodies recognize unique molecules belonging to
pathogens, called antigens. Each "Y" end of the antibody contains a paratope (analogous to a
lock) specific to one particular epitope (analogous to a key) of the antigen, which allows
these two structures to bind precisely. Using this binding mechanism, antibodies can mark
infected microorganisms or cells for attack by other components of the immune system or can
neutralize them directly (eg by blocking parts of the virus that are important for invasion).
To allow the immune system to recognize millions of different antigens, the antigen
binding sites at both ends of the antibody also have an equally large variation. Meanwhile,
the remaining part of the antibody is relatively constant. Antibodies have several variants that
determine the class or isotype of the antibody, namely IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, or IgM. In the
relatively constant body of antibodies, there are sites involved in interactions with other
components of the immune system. Therefore, this class division determines the function
triggered by the antibody after binding to the antigen, in addition to differences in structural
characteristics. The different classes of antibodies also influence the differences in where
they are released in the body and at what stage of the immune response.
Together with B cells and T cells, antibodies are the most important part of the adaptive
immune system. They come in two forms: attached to B cells or as dissolved in extracellular
fluids such as blood plasma. Initially, the antibodies attach to the surface of B cells - they are
referred to as B cell receptors (BCR). After the antigen binds to BCR, the B cells are
activated to multiply and differentiate into plasma cells (which secrete-soluble antibodies
with the same paratope) or memory B cells (which persist in the body to activate long-term
immunity to the antigen). The dissolved antibodies are released into the blood and
extracellular fluids, as well as many secretions. Since fluid is also referred to as humor,
antibody-mediated immunity is sometimes known as, or is considered part of, humoral
immunity. Y-shaped units can stand alone as monomers or arranged in molecular complexes
of two to five units.
Antibodies are glycoproteins that belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily. The terms
antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably, although the term 'antibody' is
sometimes used for the secreted and soluble forms, in other words, excluding B cell
receptors.

 Identifying Types of Antibodies

There are several types of antibodies and each has its own function. Antibodies are also
known as immunoglobulins. The following are the types of antibodies:
1. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
IgA antibodies are the most common type of antibody found in the body and are involved in
the process of allergic reactions.
In the body, IgA antibodies are found in the mucosal layer (mucous membrane) of the body,
especially those lining the respiratory tract and digestive tract. IgA is also found in many
body fluids, such as saliva, sputum, tears, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
Doctors also usually perform IgA antibody tests to diagnose disorders of the immune system,
such as celiac disease.
2. Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
IgE antibodies are generally found in the blood in small amounts. However, the number of
IgE antibodies will increase when the body experiences an inflammatory reaction due to
allergies. Medically, IgE antibody tests are performed to detect allergic diseases and parasitic
infections.
3. Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
IgG antibodies are the most common types of antibodies found in blood and other body
fluids. When antigens such as germs, viruses, or certain chemicals enter the body, white
blood cells will "remember" the antigen and form IgE antibodies to fight it.
Thus, if the antigen re-enters your body or attacks your body, the immune system will easily
recognize it and fight back because antibodies have already been formed.
4. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
The body will make IgM antibodies when you are first infected with bacteria or viruses as the
body's first form of defense against infection. IgM levels will increase in a short time during
infection, then slowly decrease and are replaced by IgG antibodies.
Because of this, a high score of IgM is often considered a sign of an active infection. Doctors
will usually test for IgM antibodies along with IgA and IgG antibody tests to monitor the
condition and function of the immune system and diagnose whether there is disease. certain,
such as infections or autoimmune diseases.

 How Antibodies Work

In this case, the way antibodies work against antigens is "something that can cause disease",
among others:
 Neutralization
Antibodies neutralize the toxins or toxins produced by "antigen" bacteria and render them
ineffective so that they can be secreted from the body through the kidney tubules.
 Precipitation "Precipitation"
Antibodies precipitate antigen molecules by causing them to form insoluble clumps. In this
form, the antigens can be ingested by the phagocytic cells, digested and rendered harmless.
 Sticking
Antibodies attach to the microorganized cells "antigen" as opsonins so that these antigens can
be phagocytes and destroyed by neutrophils.
 Activity of Complement Proteins
Antibodies work together with complement proteins in plasma, attach to the antigen cell
walls and identify them for T cells.

 Antibody Properties
Antibodies have characteristics that characterize them, namely:
 Produced in the Reticuloendrotheljal Scheme "RES" such as bone marrow, lymph glands,
liver and others that correspond to the site of formation of white blood cells.
 Has the nature of not being resistant to sunlight "thermolable", therefore, the antibody
substances that have been frozen must be stored in the refrigerator and also not exposed
to direct sunlight.
 Can be reacted with antigens in particular, like a lock with a lock.
 Can dissolve in the blood "ECF cells".
 Composed of a substance attached to gammaglobulin.
In addition to the above properties, there are several antibody properties when judged by the
workings of each type of antibody, the antibody properties include:
 Precipirin, Antibodies that have characteristic properties will work by depositing
foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses and others.
 Lysine, Antibodies that have lysine eel will work by destroying the incoming foreign
substances.
 Opsonin, The nature of this opsonin in antibodies means that these antibodies can
stimulate a leukosive attack on the incoming antigen.
 Agglutinins, Agglutinins are antibody properties that work by shedding antigens,
agglutinogens and other foreign substances.

 Antibody Function
Antibodies have the ability to recognize and attach or attach to recognized antigens that
can cause disease in the body. In recognizing and attaching to an antigen, the antibody
substance always acts as a marker and then we send a signal to other white blood cells to
attack the foreign substance.
 Basic Structure of Antibodies
 The basic structure of the antibody is a catalyst molecule that has the shape of the letter Y
which has two heavy polypeptide chains and two light polypeptide chains, each antibody has
an upper chain whose function is to bind than the antigen.
With this chain the antibody can bind itself to the antigen, while the lower chain of the
antibody has its function to determine how the antibody can interact with the antigen. These
chains into antibodies can regulate and stimulate an appropriate immune response.
 Types of Antibodies
1. Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
2. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
3. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
4. Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
5. Immunoglobulin E (IgE)

Definition of Rapid Antibody Test

Definition of Rapid antibody test Antibody rapid test is an initial screening method for
detecting antibodies, namely IgM and IgG, which are produced by the body to fight the
Corona virus. These antibodies will be formed when there is exposure to the Corona virus or
SARS-CoV2. This type of rapid test is considered ineffective because when exposed to the
Corona virus, the body does not immediately produce antibodies.
 Reported by the Indonesian Information Portal, the antibody rapid test has another name,
namely the serological test by taking blood for examination samples. The target of this
antibody rapid test is the antibodies in the blood.
The US Food & Drug Administration (FDA) explains that antibodies are proteins made
by the immune system to fight infections such as viruses and can help ward off future events
by the same infection. Antibodies can take days or weeks to develop in the body after
exposure to SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection and it is not known how long they stay in
the blood. The length of time it takes to detect the presence or absence of antibodies in the
body is 5 to 10 minutes. But unfortunately, this precise antibody test is still inaccurate
because a person's antibodies will usually only form 7-14 days after the person is infected
with COVID-19.

What is the Rapid Antigen Test (PCR swab test)

The rapid antigen test is a rapid diagnostic test or commonly known as the rapid swab
PCR (polymerase chain reaction) COVID-19. This test is done to detect the presence of a
new type of Corona virus antigen, COVID-19 in samples from the respiratory tract.
The trick is to take a sample of mucus in the nose and throat for examination. The purpose
of the examination is to identify the presence or absence of an active corona virus infection
through detection of the protein from the corona virus.
This is certainly different from the rapid antibody test that identifies antibodies in the
body. Perhaps there are still many who are confused by the difference between the antigen
test and the PCR swab test. In fact, both are an integral part, where the PCR test is a medical
test method used when carrying out antigen tests that aim to detect viral DNA. The World
Health Organization (WHO) explains that molecular testing such as PCR taken from
respiratory tract samples is the recommended method for laboratory identification and
confirmation of COVID-19 cases. As quoted from the Indonesian Information Portal, the
time needed to detect an active corona virus through an antigen rapid test is approximately 30
minutes. While the accuracy of this inspection is quite accurate because this examination is a
real time detection and the sensitivity is up to 80 percent.