Romblon State University

Cajidiocan Campus

Cajidiocan Romblon

COMPILATION OF OUTPUT IN GENETICS

( Midterm )

Submitted by :

JUDY R. RIANO

BSED III - Science

Submitted to :

Ms. Cristel Marie M. Rojas

Lecturer
Module 1 : INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS

Activity / Analysis 1.1

IMPORTANCE OF GENETICS
1. Molecular structure & function of genes
2. Gene behaviour in context of a cell or organisms
3. Patterns of inheritance & gene distribution
4. Variation and change in population
5. Applied to the study of all living systems

THINK ABOUT THIS: Do you support or oppose the development of genetically engineered
foods (genetically engineered/modified organisms, or GMOs)? Expound on your reason.

Yes, I agree with using genetically modified products in the food supply. They, alone, do
not pose a risk to human health at all. Genetically engineered products can be modified to be
more resistance to disease, which, without GMOs, could decimate a plant supply vital to many
people.

APPLICATION 1.1

Briefly explain the contribution that each of the following people made to the study of
genetics.

1) Hippocrates
Hippocrates’ theory is known as the “bricks and mortar” theory of genetics and states that
taxonoomical material consists of physical substances originating from each part of the body
and is concentrated in the male semen, which develops into a human within the womb.

2) Aristotle

Aristotle's' zoology and the classification of species was his greatest contribution to the history
of biology, the first known attempt to classify animals into groups according to their behavior
and, most importantly, by the similarities and differences between their physiologies.

3) Jan Swammerdam
Jan Swammerdam, Studying the anatomy of the tadpole and the adult frog, he noted a cleavage
in the egg and discovered valves in the lymphatic vessels, now known as Swammerdam valves.

4) Caspar Friedrich Wolff

Caspar Friedrich Wolff is most famous for his 1759 doctoral dissertation, Theoria Generationis,
in which he described embryonic development in both plants and animals as a process involving
layers of cells, thereby refuting the accepted theory of preformation—the idea that organisms
develop as a result of the unfolding of form that is somehow present from the outset, as in a
homunculus. This work generated a great deal of controversy and discussion at the time of its
publication but was an integral move in the reemergence and acceptance of the theory of
epigenesis.

5) Charles Darwin
Darwin clearly described almost all genetic phenomena of fundamental importance, such as
prepotency (Mendelian inheritance), bud variation (mutation), heterosis, reversion (atavism),
graft hybridization (Michurinian inheritance), sex-limited inheritance, the direct action of the
male element on the female (xenia and telegony), the effect of use and disuse, the inheritance
of acquired characters (Lamarckian inheritance), and many other observations pertaining to
variation, heredity and development.

6) Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) is one of the best-known early evolutionists. Unlike Darwin,
Lamarck believed that living things evolved in a continuously upward direction, from dead
matter, through simple to more complex forms, toward human "perfection." Species didn't die
out in extinctions, Lamarck claimed.
7) August Weismann
August Friedrich Leopold Weismann studied how the traits of organisms developed and evolved
in a variety of organisms, mostly insects and aquatic animals, in Germany in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Weismann proposed the theory of the continuity of germ-plasm,
a theory of heredity.

8) Gregor Johann Mendel

Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity through experiments in his monastery's
garden. His experiments showed that the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows
particular patterns, subsequently becoming the foundation of modern genetics and leading to
the study of heredity.

9) Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak

Three botanists - Hugo DeVries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak - independently
rediscovered Mendel's work in the same year, a generation after Mendel published his papers.
They helped expand awareness of the Mendelian laws of inheritance in the scientific world.

10) Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton

In 1902, the German scientist Theodor Boveri and the American Walter Sutton, working
independently, suggested that chromosomes could be shown to bear the material of heredity.
Mendelian concepts, as it turned out, had an excellent fit with facts about chromosomes.

Activity / Analysis 1.2

Can you think of other model organisms which are studied by many researchers in
genetics? List at least three of them and identify on what studies they are used for.

MODEL ORGANISM USED IN

1. Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

2. Fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster

3. Nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans

APPLICATION 1.2
For each of the following genetic topics, indicate whether it focuses on TRANSMISSION
GENETICS, MOLECULAR GENETICS or POPULATION GENETICS.
1) Analysis of pedigrees to determine the probability of someone inheriting a trait
TRANSMISSION GENETICS.

2) Study of people on a small island to determine why a genetic form of asthma is common on
the island POPULATION GENETICS .

3) Examination of the nucleotide sequences found at the ends of chromosomes MOLECULAR

GENETICS

4) Mechanisms that ensure a high degree of accuracy in DNA replication MOLECULAR

GENETICS

5) Relationship between a gene sequence and a physical trait TRANSMISSION GENETICS

ACTIVITY / ANALYSIS 1.3

Define the following terms.

TERMS MEANING

1. Eukaryotes An organism consisting of a cell or cells in

which the genetic material is DNA in the form
of chromosomes contained within a distinct
nucleus. Eukaryotes include all living
organisms other than the eubacteria and
 archaebacteria.

2. Prokaryotes A microscopic single-celled organism that

has neither a distinct nucleus with a
membrane nor other specialized organelles.
Prokaryotes include the bacteria and
cyanobacteria.

3. Chromosomes A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and

protein found in the nucleus of most living
cells, carrying genetic information in the form
of genes.

4. Genes A gene is the basic physical and functional

unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA.
Some genes act as instructions to make
molecules called proteins.

Every person has two copies of each gene, one

inherited from each parent.

5. Alleles One of two or more alternative forms of a

gene that arise by mutation and are found at
the same place on a chromosome.

6. Traits is a distinguishing characteristic of an

organism and it is not what is inherited or
passed on to offspring. Instead, genes are
inherited, and genes, together with
environmental factors, determine the
expression of traits.

7. DNA The molecule inside cells that contains the

genetic information responsible for the
development and function of an organism.
DNA molecules allow this information to be
passed from one generation to the next.

8. RNA Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric molecule

essential in various biological roles in coding,
decoding, regulation and expression of genes.
RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid are nucleic
 acids.

9. Mutation In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the

nucleotide sequence of the genome of an
organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.
Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA.

10. Evolution Evolution is a process that results in changes

in the genetic material of a population over
time. Evolution reflects the adaptations of
organisms to their changing environments and
can result in altered genes, novel traits, and
new species.
How do you think are genetics and evolution related?

 Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over generations.

Genetic variations underlie these changes.
 Evolution is genetic change over time. For evolution to occur, genetic variation must first
arise, and then evolutionary forces change the proportions of genetic variants over time.
Genetic variation is therefore the basis of all evolutionary change.

APPLICATION 1.3
Read each statement carefully. Write TRUE if the statement is true and tells a fact and write
FALSE if the statement is wrong.

TRUE 1) There are two basic types of cells: the simpler prokaryotic cells and the more complex
eukaryotic cells.

TRUE 2) The set of alleles that determines a trait is termed the phenotype; the trait that they
produce is the genotype.

TRUE 3) Genes are located on chromosomes, which are made up of nucleic acids and proteins
and are partitioned into daughter cells through the process of mitosis or meiosis.

FALSE 4) Genetic information is expressed through the transfer of information from proteins to
RNA to DNA.

FALSE 5) Evolution requires genetic change in populations.

ASSESSMENT 1.3
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. B
 MODULE 2 : CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
Lesson 2.1 :

ACTIVITY / ANALYSIS 2.1

Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) - both asexual and sexual reproduction.

Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) - sexual reproduction

Honey bee (Apis genus ) - both asexual and sexual reproduction.

APPLICATION 2.1

The sperm of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) has 39 chromosomes while the fertilized
eggcell for tiger (Panthera tigris) has 38 chromosomes.

A) What is the haploid number for the chicken?

Ans: 33 plus or minus one

B) What is the diploid number for the chicken?

Ans: 66 plus or minus two

C) What is the haploid number for the tiger?

Ans:
D) What is the diploid number for the tiger?

Ans: 38

Lesson 2.2
ACTIVITY 2.2
QUESTIONS:

1. At the beginning, how many cell/s are there?

some 70 trillion

2. How about at the end? (Try to count approximately the number of cells.)
four daughter cells

3. What do you think happened to the cell at the beginning to produce the latter number of
cell?
The cell cycle can be thought of as the life cycle of a cell. In other words, it is the series of
growth and development steps a cell undergoes between its “birth”—formation by the division
of a mother cell—and reproduction—division to make two new daughter cells.

4. Why do you think the cell has to undergo this process?

One of the key differences in mitosis is a single cell divides into two cells that are replicas of
each other and have the same number of chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for
basic growth, repair, and maintenance

ANALYSIS 2.2

Can you think of other situations when the process of mitosis occur? Give at least one.
Mitosis occurs in response to the body's need for growth and repair. Generally, it occurs in
all tissues except mature nerve tissue and in the formation of gametes. Mitosis and cytokinesis
together is defined as the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle, the division of the mother cell into
two daughter cells, each the genetic equivalent of the parent cell. Mitosis occurs exclusively in
eukaryotic cells.

How about meiosis? When does it occur?

Meiosis is one form of cell division, whereby four unique haploid cells are produced from one
diploid parent cell.

These haploid cells are also known as gametes, which are commonly also called sex cells. For
sexually reproducing organisms it is therefore very important that the cells are haploid, as they
join together when the male gamete (in humans: sperm) fertilises the female gamete (in
humans: egg cell).

If meiosis had not occurred, the zygote (fertilised egg cell) would have twice as many
chromosomes than it needs.

Therefore meiosis occurs so that sexual reproduction can happen.

APPLICATION 2.2

PHASE OBSERVABLE EVENT

Telophase 1 when the chromosomes arrive at the opposite

poles, the nuclear envelope starts to form
again around the chromosomes.

Prophase 2 the spindle apparatus forms while the nuclear

envelope starts to break down and disappear
along with the nucleolus

Metaphase 1 The homologous pairs of chromosomes starts

to move and align at the equator or
metaphase plate, with one chromosome in
each pair facing opposite poles

Anaphase 2 cohesin breaks down, allowing the sister

chromatids to separate

Prophase 1 is a very lengthy stage, consisting of five sub-

stages

Metaphase 2 the dyads now start to move and align at the

metaphase just like in mitosis

Anaphase 1 the molecule which is responsible for the

sister chromatid cohesion, disintegrates,
allowing the homologues to move apart

Telophase 2 the chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles

and the spindle disappears
Part II. Read each item carefully. Identify which phase of meiosis is described in each item.
Write the answer on the blanks provided before each item number.

PROPHASE I PROPHASE II
PROMETAPHASE I PROMETAPHASE I

METAPHASE I METAPHASE II
ANAPHASE I ANAPHASE II
TELOPHASE I TELOPHASE II

TELOPHASE 1 1) A cleavage furrow forms, resulting in haploid nuclei. Each chromosome

contains two chromatids.
PROPHASE 1 2) Tetrads form, and crossing-over occurs.
METAPHASE 2 3) Dyads align at the spindle equator.
TELOPHASE 2 4) Four haploid daughter cells are created.
ANAPHASE 1 5) Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles.
ANAPHASE 2 6) Sister chromatids separate.
METAPHASE 1 7) Tetrads align on the spindle equator.
PROPHASE 2 8) Chromosomes in haploid nuclei condense.
PROMETAPHASE 1 9) Spindle attaches to kinetochore of homologous chromosomes
PROMETAPHASE 2 10) Spindle attaches to kinetochore of each chromatids

ASSESSMENT 2

1. B
2. B
3. D
4. B
 5. A

MODULE 3 : PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

LESSON 3.1

ACTIVITY 3.1

1. No
2. Yes
3. No
4. Yes
5. Yes
6. No
7. No
8. No
9. Yes
10. No
11. Yes

ANALYSIS 3.1

Yes No

0 1

1 0

0 1

1 0

1 0

0 1

0 1

0 1

1 0
 0 1

1 0

QUESTIONS: What traits do you share in common with others in your family? What traits are
unique to you?

The traits that i share in common with my family are we talk to each other about big issues as
well as small issues and we are able to cope with difficulties and crises—they are resilient. The
traits are unique to me is we are built differently in weight as well as height , from small to tall .
And I'm sad I'm the only who small and big one .

APPLICATION 3.1

Part I. Try to predict the outcome of the genetic cross given below using Punnett square.

P generation ( Oo × Oo )

O o

O OO Oo

o Oo oo

1- OO ( 25 %)

2- Oo ( 50 %)

1- oo ( 25 %)

1:2:1

F1 generation genotypes ( OO )

Phenotypes ( OO × oo )

Genotype Phenotypes
 OO Oo

Oo oo

F1 hybrids self-pollinate ( Oo × OO )

O o

O OO Oo

O OO Oo

50 % OO

50 % Oo

F2 Generation

Genotypes Phenotype

OO OO

Oo Oo

F2 generation

Genotypic ratio : 1/2

Phenotypic ratio : 1/2

Part II. Predict the outcome of a dihybrid cross between TTGG and ttgg. Do this by filling in the
blank spaces on the Punnett square below.

 Height
T – tall

t - short
  Pod Color

G – green pea pod

g – yellow pea pod

a) TG
b) tg
c) TtGg
d) TTGG
e) TtGg
f) TTgg
g) ttGg
h) TtGG
i) ttGG
j) TtGg
k) ttGg
l) ttgg

LESSON 3.2

ACTIVITY 3.2

From your previous lesson, you have learned that when you cross a true-breeding plant with
dominant allele for a certain trait with a true-breeding plant with a recessive allele for the same
trait, the offspring will manifest the dominant phenotype. But this was in the case of traits with
only two phenotypes such as the color of the pea plant flower, purple and white. What about
those with more than two phenotypes?

QUESTIONS:

1. Consider crossing a homozygous white snapdragon with a homozygous red snapdragon

which is slightly dominant. What do you think will be the genotype of the offspring? 100 %
Show your answer by solving a Punnett square. (Use RR for homozygous red snapdragon and
WW for homozygous white snapdragon.)
P generation

R R

W RW RW

W RW RW

F1 generation

Genotypic ratio: RW = 100 %

2. What do you think will be the phenotype (color of the flower) of the offspring with the
genotype RW? PINK

3. This time consider crossing a heterozygous RW snapdragon with another heterozygous RW

snapdragon. What do you think will be the genotypic ratio of the offspring? How about their
phenotypes? Show your answer by solving a Punnett square.

F1 generation

R W

R RR RW

W RW WW

F2 generation
Genotypic Ratio: 1:2:1
Phenotypic Ratio: 1:2:1

ANALYSIS 3.2

From the Punnett squares you solved earlier, what have you observed with the phenotypes
and genotypes of the offspring from F1 and F2 generation?
 The parental cross above resulted in all F1 offspring with a genotype of RW, and 100% of the
offspring have pink flowers.

The F1 cross above resulted in F2 offspring with a genotype and ratio of 1 RR, 2 RW, 1 WW .
The two genotypes with a dominant allele produce red flowers, while the one genotype with
two recessive alleles produce pink flowers. The percentage of F2 offspring with pink flowers is
75%, while the percentage of offspring with white flowers is 25%.

APPLICATION 3.2

Examine the pedigree chart below. Identify what is being asked in each item. Write the answer
on the blanks provided.

1.

a) 8
b) 3

2.

a) 8
b) 2

3.

a) 3

4.

a) 3
b) 7

5.

a) 4
b) 7

Part 2
Alkptonuria is the autosomal recessive disorder.

Ann and Michael are not affected but they have one affected daughter, this shows that
alkaptonuria is an autosomal recessive trait. the child of two phenotypically normal individuals
has affected means the trait is recessive.

LESSON 3.3

ACTIVITY 3.3

CHILD NAME CHROMOSOME PAIR ( XX or GIRL o BOY

XY )

Jello XY Boy

Jeff XY Boy

Johansson's XY Boy

Shawn XX Girl

Shelly XX Girl

ANALYSIS 3.3

Using what you have found out from the activity earlier, answer the following questions:
1. How many turned out to be girl/s? Boy/s?

 3 boys and 2 girls

2. Was the first child a boy or a girl?

 Boy

3. Which parent’s sex cell do you think makes the baby a boy or a girl? Why do you think so?
  Men determine the sex of a baby depending on whether their sperm is carrying an X or
Y chromosome. An X chromosome combines with the mother's X chromosome to make
a baby girl (XX) and a Y chromosome will combine with the mother's to make a boy (XY)

APPLICATION 3.3

GENOTYPES PHENOTYPES

a. XBY XBXB

b. XBXB XBY

c. XBY XBXb

d. XBY XBXB

e. XBY XBXB

ASSESSMENT 3

1. D
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. C