Earthquakes and Landslides

02-12-2019
Earthquakes &
Landslides
-Dr Prateek Negi
Largest earthquake in the world

Chile : 1960 May
• More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured,
22 19:11:14 UTC 2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million
damage in southern Chile
Magnitude 9.5 • Tsunami caused 61 deaths
• $75 million damage in Hawaii;
• 138 deaths and $50 million damage
in Japan;
• 32 dead and missing in the
Philippines; and $500,000 damage to
the west coast of the United States.
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Dr Prateek Negi, Assistant Prof, GBPIET, Uttarakhand, India
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02-12-2019
Causes: Accumulated strain

leads to fault rupture
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Styles of faulting
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Styles of faulting
Causes: fault movement releases energy as seismic waves
radiating from rupture
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Seismic wave forms
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Earthquake magnitude:
scales based on seismograms
• ML=local (e.g. Richter scale) - based on
amplitude of waves with 1s period within 600
km of epicentre.
• Mb=body-wave (similar to above)
• Ms=surface wave (wave periods of 20s
measured anywhere on globe
• Mo=seismic moment
• Mw= moment magnitude
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Earthquake Magnitude
Richter magnitude (Local Magnitude ML)
Originally earthquake magnitudes were based on the amplitude of ground motion displacement as
measured by a standard seismograph. The best known of these is the Richter Magnitude which was
defined for local earthquakes in southern California
ML = logA + 2.56logD - 1.67
Where A is the measured ground motion (in micrometers) and D is the distance from the event (in km).
This is still used for measuring the magnitude of shallow events at distances less than 600 km (today called
the Local Magnitude). For events larger than magnitude 8 this scale saturates and gives magnitude
estimates that are too small.
Body wave magnitude Mb
For earthquakes measured at distances greater than 600 km magnitude can be estimated from the
formula.
Mb = log(A/T) + σ(D,h)
Where A is the maximum amplitude (in micrometers)of the P waves measured at period T (generally
about 1second) and σ is a calibration term (in the range 6–8) that depends on distance from the event
D and depth of the event h (tables of σ are used).
Dr Prateek Negi, Asst Prof, GBPIET, Uttarakhand, India 8
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The RICHTER Scale

Steps:
1. Measure the interval (in seconds) between the arrival of the
first P and S waves.
2. Measure the amplitude of the largest S waves.
3. Use nomogram to estimate distance from earthquake (S-P
interval) and magnitude
(join points on S-P interval scale and S amplitude scale).
4. Use seismograms from at least three geographic locations to
locate epicenter by triangulation.
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The Richter scale nomogram
An Earthquake of magnitude 5 may cause damage

within radius of 8km, but that of magnitude 7 may
cause damage in a radius of 80km, and that of 8
over a radius of 250km
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Locating the epicenter:

X, Y and Z are seismograph stations
280 km
220 km
Y
X
epicentre Z
150 km
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Earthquake magnitude:
scales based on shaking intensity
e.g. Mercalli, Rossi-Forel, San Francisco scales
MMI (=Modified Mercalli Index)
I Not felt
…..
VI Felt by all. Many frightened and run
outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Pictures fall
off walls. Furniture moved, trees shaken visibly.
….
XII Damage nearly total. Objects thrown into
air.
Sichuan earthquake, May 12, 2008
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Earthquake geography
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Indian seismic zones
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Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes

Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually
Great 8 and higher 1¹
Major 7 - 7.9 17 ²
Strong 6 - 6.9 134 ²
Moderate 5 - 5.9 1319 ²
13,000
Light 4 - 4.9
(estimated)
130,000
Minor 3 - 3.9
(estimated)
1,300,000
Very Minor 2 - 2.9
(estimated)
¹ Based on observations since 1900.
² Based on observations since 1990.
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Seismic hazards
• Locating faults
• Estimating recurrence: history and geology
• Measuring relative motions and crustal
deformation
• Learning from analogies
• Assessing probabilities
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Seismic hazards
Strike-Slip Fault
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Ground motion, structural damage

and basin morphology: Mexico City, 1985
Damage
heavy light heavy
body\surface surface/body
ridge
basin basin
periodic random periodic
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Earthquakes
don’t kill; • Buildings - site selection, design to code,
buildings do! retrofit, upgrade codes;
• Strengthen bridges, dams, pipelines;
Building harmonics
• Earthquake drills - houses, schools,
Buildings at high risk search & rescue;
•URM = unreinforced • Emergency planning - survival kits,
masonry; evacuation routes, fire prevention, utility
•open lower storeys; failures, communication alternatives,
•poor ties to foundations education
and between storeys;
•lack of cross-bracing;
•poor quality materials.
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Seismic belts and shield areas

Seismic belts are those places where earthquakes occur frequently.
Shield areas are those places where earthquakes occur either rarely
or very mildly.
Occurrence of an earthquake in a place is an indication of
underground instability there.
Statistics have revealed that nearly 50% of earthquakes have
occurred along mountain ridges and 40% of earthquakes along steep
coasts.
The study of recorded earthquakes shows that they take place on
land most frequently along two well-defined seismic belts.
Circum Pacific Belt which accounts for 68% of earthquake occurrence
Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt accounts 21% of earthquake which extends
east-west from Portugal, Himalayas and Burma with a branch through Tibet and
China.
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Seismic belts and shield areas
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Construction of buildings in seismic areas

Buildings should be Founded on hard bedrock only and never on loose soils or Fractured
rocks, this is because loose ground settles due to earthquake vibrations.
Buildings situated in cuttings on hill slides, near steep slopes always suffer more when an
earthquake occurs.
For large Buildings, raft types of foundations are desirable. Square foundations are more
stable.
Different parts of a building should be well tied together so that the whole structure
behaves like a single unit to the Vibrations.
Only rich cement mortar and reinforced concrete should be used.
Buildings with irregular shapes with wings, Verandas, Porches and all structures should be
avoided.
Buildings should have RCC roofs and they should be designed not to yield to lateral stress.
Resonance is the important factor, If the period of vibration of a structure is the same as
that of the foundation rock it will collapse because of the resonance effect.
https://nidm.gov.in/safety_earthquake.asp
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Difference between wind and seismic loads
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Construction of buildings in seismic areas
Make structures ductile considering their post yield behaviour

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Landslides
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What is a Landslide?
A landslide is defined as the
movement of a mass of rock,
debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of
"mass wasting," which
denotes any down-slope
movement of soil and rock
under the direct influence of
gravity.
The term "landslide"
encompasses five modes of
slope movement: falls,
topples, slides, spreads, and
flows.
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What is a Landslide?
These are further subdivided by the type of geologic material (bedrock,
debris, or earth).
Debris flows (commonly referred to as mudflows or mudslides) and rock falls
are examples of common landslide types.
Almost every landslide has multiple causes. Slope movement occurs when
forces acting down-slope (mainly due to gravity) exceed the strength of
the earth materials that compose the slope.
Causes include factors that increase the effects of down-slope forces and
factors that contribute to low or reduced strength.
Landslides can be initiated in slopes already on the verge of movement by
rainfall, snowmelt, changes in water level, stream erosion, changes in
ground water, earthquakes, volcanic activity, disturbance by human
activities, or any combination of these factors.
Earthquake shaking and other factors can also induce landslides
underwater. These landslides are called submarine landslides. Submarine
landslides sometimes cause tsunamis that damage coastal areas. 27
SLIDES
v
Although many types of mass movements are included in the general term "landslide," the more
restrictive use of the term refers only to mass movements, where there is a distinct zone of weakness
that separates the slide material from more stable underlying material.
Rotational slide: This is a slide in which the surface of

rupture is curved concavely upward, and the slide
movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is
parallel to the ground surface and transverse across the
slide.
Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide mass

moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or
backward tilting.
Block slide: A translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a

single unit or a few closely related units that move downslope as a relatively
coherent mass.
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FALLS
v
A rockfall is a sudden fall or collapse of a large mass of material from a precipitous position. Rockfalls
occur along cliffs or very steep slopes where masses of rock can detach and begin a free-fall, often
combined with a bouncing or rolling descent. No slip-plane or surface of flow is involved. Rockfalls are
rapid, and because of their speed and sudden occurrence, they are very dangerous. They often
occur in the spring as freeze-thaw actions loosen jointed rocks.
Rockfall: Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials,

such as rocks and boulders, that become detached from steep slopes or
cliffs. Separation occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and
bedding planes, and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.
Falls are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the
presence of interstitial water.
Topple: Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a

unit or units about some pivotal point, below or low in the unit, under the
actions of gravity and forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in
cracks.
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FLOWS: Debris Flow

v
There are five basic categories of flows that differ from one another in fundamental ways. re illustrated
on this page. Although there are multiple types of causes of landslides, the three that cause most of
the damaging landslides around the world are (1) water; (2) seismic activity; and (3) volcanic activity.
Debris flow: A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement

in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic matter,
air, and water mobilize as a slurry that flows downslope.
Debris flows include less than 50% fines. Debris flows are
commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to
heavy precipitation or rapid snowmelt, that erodes and
mobilizes loose soil or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows also
commonly mobilize from other types of landslides that occur
on steep slopes, are nearly saturated, and consist of a large
proportion of silt- and sand-sized material. Debris-flow source
areas are often associated with steep gullies, and debris-
flow deposits are usually indicated by the presence of debris
fans at the mouths of gullies. Fires that denude slopes of
vegetation intensify the susceptibility of slopes to debris
flows.
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FLOWS: Earthflow & Mudflow

v
Earthflow: Earthflows have a characteristic

"hourglass" shape. The slope material liquefies and
runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head.
The flow itself is elongate and usually occurs in fine-
grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on
moderate slopes and under saturated conditions.
However, dry flows of granular material are also
possible.
Mudflow: A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of

material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and
that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and
clay-sized particles. In some instances, for example
in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris
flows are commonly referred to as "mudslides."
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FLOWS: Debris Avalanche

Debris avalanche: This is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
Creep: Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward

movement of slope-forming soil or rock. Movement is caused by
shear stress sufficient to produce permanent deformation, but too
small to produce shear failure. There are generally three types of
creep: (1) seasonal, where movement is within the depth of soil
affected by seasonal changes in soil moisture and soil temperature;
(2) continuous, where shear stress continuously exceeds the
strength of the material; and (3) progressive, where slopes are
reaching the point of failure as other types of mass movements.
Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining
walls, tilted poles or fences, and small soil ripples or ridges.
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Debris Flow
Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop
into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud
may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges
and tributaries causing flooding along its path.
As the impoundments fail, a "domino effect" may be created,
with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass,
which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid–liquid
mixture can reach densities of up to 2,000 kg/m3 and velocities of
up to 14 m/s.
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Debris Flow?
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02-12-2019
FLOWS: Lateral Spreads

Lateral Spreads: Lateral spreads are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle
slopes or flat terrain. The dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied by
shear or tensile fractures. The failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated,
loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a
liquefied state. Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experienced
during an earthquake, but can also be artificially induced. When coherent material, either
bedrock or soil, rests on materials that liquefy, the upper units may undergo fracturing and
extension and may then subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or liquefy and flow.
Lateral spreading in fine-grained

materials on shallow slopes is usually
progressive. The failure starts suddenly
in a small area and spreads rapidly.
Often the initial failure is a slump, but in
some materials movement occurs for
no apparent reason. Combination of
two or more of the above types is
known as a complex landslide. 35
Landslide Mitigation -
How to Reduce the Effects of Landslides
Total avoidance of landslide hazard areas or by restricting,
prohibiting, or imposing conditions on hazard-zone activity
avoiding construction on steep slopes and existing landslides
Stability increases when groundwater is prevented from rising in
the landslide mass
covering the landslide with an impermeable membrane,
directing surface water away from the landslide,
draining groundwater away from the landslide, and
minimizing surface irrigation
Slope stability is also increased when a retaining structure and/ or

the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at the toe of the
landslide or when mass is removed from the top of the slope.
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02-12-2019
Thank You
Dr Prateek Negi, Assistant Prof, GBPIET, Uttarakhand, India 37
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02-12-2019

Largest earthquake in the world

Causes: Accumulated strain

Seismic wave forms

Dr Prateek Negi, Asst Prof, GBPIET, Uttarakhand, India 8

The RICHTER Scale

The Richter scale nomogram

An Earthquake of magnitude 5 may cause damage

Locating the epicenter:

Indian seismic zones

Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes

Ground motion, structural damage

heavy light heavy

periodic random periodic

Seismic belts and shield areas

Seismic belts and shield areas

Construction of buildings in seismic areas

Difference between wind and seismic loads

Construction of buildings in seismic areas

Make structures ductile considering their post yield behaviour

Rotational slide: This is a slide in which the surface of

Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide mass

Block slide: A translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a

Rockfall: Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials,

Topple: Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a

FLOWS: Debris Flow

Debris flow: A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement

FLOWS: Earthflow & Mudflow

Earthflow: Earthflows have a characteristic

Mudflow: A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of

FLOWS: Debris Avalanche

Creep: Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward

FLOWS: Lateral Spreads

Lateral spreading in fine-grained

Slope stability is also increased when a retaining structure and/ or

Dr Prateek Negi, Assistant Prof, GBPIET, Uttarakhand, India 37

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