Strength of Materials

MEC2003

Instructor: Dr. Ambuj Sharma,

Associate Professor
School of Mechanical Engineering

Office: (Room No. 328, AB-I)

Email: sharma.ambuj@vitap.ac.in
Phone: 5357
 Mechanical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
 INTRODUCTIO:

The practical application of engineering materials

in manufacturing engineering depends upon a thorough
knowledge of their particular properties under a wide
range of conditions.
The term”property” is a qualitative or quantitative
measure of response of materials to externally imposed
conditions like forces and temperatures.
However,the range of properties found in different
classes of materials is very large.
Classification of material property:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
The properties of material that determine its behaviour
under applied forces are known as mechanical properties.
They are usually related to the elastic and plastic
behaviour of the material.
These properties are expressed as functions of stress-
strain,etc.
A sound knowledge of mechanical properties of materials
provides the basis for predicting behaviour of materials
under different load conditions and designing the
components out of them.
 STRESS AND STRAIN
Experience shows that any material subjected to a load
may either deform, yield or break, depending upon the
The Magnitude of load
Nature of the material
Cross sectional dime.
CONTI
..
The sum total of all the elementary interatomic forces or
internal resistances which the material is called upon to
exert to counteract the applied load is called stress.
Mathematically, the stress is expressed as force divided
by cross-sectional area.
CONTI
…
Strain is the dimensional response given by material against
mechanical loading/Deformation produced per unit length.
Mathematically Strain is change in length divided by original
length.
STRENGTH
The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand
destruction under the action of external loads.
It determines the ability of a material to withstand
stress without failure.
The maximum stress that any material will withstand
before destruction is called ultimate strength.
Elastic Deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
10
ELASTICITY:
The property of material by virtue of which deformation caused
by applied load disappears upon removal of load.
Elasticity of a material is the power of coming back to its original
position after deformation when the stress or load is removed.

bonds
stretch

returnto
initial
d
F Elastic means reversible.
CONTI..
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

delastic + plastic dplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
13
PLASTICITY:
The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some
degree of permanent deformation without rupture or failure.
Plastic deformation will take only after the elastic limit
is exceeded.
It increases with increase in temperature.

•F
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic

Plastic means permanent.

STRESS STRAIN CURVE SHOWS ELASTICITY AND
PLASTICITY FOR MATERIALS:
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
17
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F Ft
Ft lb f N t= s F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
18
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

20
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0

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Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 22
 Stress-Strain Testing

• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile

machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.) 23
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

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STIFFNESS:

The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or

deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.
A material which suffers slight deformation under load
has a high degree of stiffness or rigidity.
E.g. Steel beam is more stiffer or more rigid than
aluminium beam.
DUCTILITY:
It is the property of a material which enables it to draw out into
thin wires.
E.g., Mild steel is a ductile material.
The percent elongation and the reduction in area in tension is
often used as emperical measures of ductility.
Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

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Toughness

• Energy to break a unit volume of material

• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
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Malleability:
Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened
into thin sheets without cracking by hot or cold
working.
E.g Lead can be readily rolled and hammered into thin
sheets but can be drawn into wire.
Comparision of ductility and malleability

Ductility and Malleability are frequently used

interchangeably many times.
Ductility is tensile quality, while malleability is
compressive quality.
RESILIENCE:
It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically.
The maximum energy which can be stored in a body upto
elastic limit is called the proof resilience, and the proof
resilience per unit volume is called modulus of resilience.
The quantity gives capacity of the material to bear shocks
and vibrations.
Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
• Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur =  sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
33
 HARDNESS:
Hardness is a fundamental property which is closely
related to strength.
Hardness is usually defined in terms of the ability of a
material to resist to scratching, abrasion, cutting,
identation,or penetration.
Methods used for determining hardness: Brinel, Rockwell
,Vickers.
 Hardness

• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.

• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
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Hardness: Measurement

• Rockwell
• No major sample damage
• Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
• Minor load 10 kg
• Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
• TS (psia) = 500 x HB
• TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

36
Hardness: Measurement

37
BRITTLENESS:
It is the property of breaking without much
permanent distortion.
Non-Ductile material is considered to be brittle
material.
E.g, Glass, Cast iron,etc.
CREEP:

The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at

constant stress is called creep.
Depending on temperature, stresses even below the elastic limit can
cause some permanent deformation.
It is most generally defined as time-depndent
strain occuring under stress.
 Tension Test

Stress-strain diagram obtained from the standard tension test on a structural steel specimen

40
41
 True Stress & Strain

Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress
sT = F Ai sT = s1  e 
eT = ln i  o  eT = ln1  e 
• True strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 Design or Safety Factors

• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.

• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

 d /42
 F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
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FATIGUE:
This phenomenon leads to fracture under repeated or
fluctuating stress.
Fatigue fractures are progressive beginning as minute
cracks and grow under the action of fluctuating stress.
Many components of high speed aero and turbine engines
are of this type.