CIVE 205

Introduction to Material Science

Spring 2017

Izmir University of Economics

Department of Civil Engineering

Acknowlegement: The slides are from Asst.Prof.Dr. Mert Yücel YARDIMCI’s work
and the book of Materials Science and Engineering by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Mechanical Properties
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load
and deformation?

• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs?
What materials deform least?

• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations cause permanent

deformation? What materials are most resistant to permanent
deformation?

• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them?

• Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are made for ceramic

materials?
BASIC TYPES OF LOADING

 Tensile
 Compressive
 Shear
 Torsion
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
For Compression and Tension)
 STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS

For Shear and torsion

5
 Mechanical Properties
The role of structural engineers is to determine
stresses and stress distributions within members that are
subjected to well-defined loads

If a load is static or changes relatively slowly with

time and is applied uniformly over a cross section or surface
of a member, the mechanical behavior may be ascertained by
a simple stress–strain test; these are most commonly
conducted for metarials at room temperature.

6
 Tensile Test
Tensile
test
specimen

d=12.8mm One of the most common mechanical

stress–strain tests is performed in tension.
The tension test can be used to ascertain
several mechanical properties
of materials that are important in design
A specimen is deformed, usually to
fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile
load that is applied uniaxially along the long
Tensile testing machine axis of a specimen
 Tensile Test

The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the

specimen at a constant rate, and to continuously and simultaneously
measure the instantaneous applied load (with a load cell) and the
resulting elongations (using an extensometer).

A stress–strain test typically

takes several minutes to perform and is
destructive; that is, the test specimen is
permanently deformed and usually
fractured.
 Tensile Test

The output of such a tensile test is recorded (usually on a

computer) as load or force versus elongation.
These load–deformation characteristics are dependent on the
specimen size. For example, it will require twice the load to produce the
same elongation if the cross-sectional area of the specimen is doubled.
To minimize these geometrical factors, load and elongation are
normalized to the respective parameters of engineering stress and
engineering strain.
 Engineering Stress and Strain
Cross-sectional
area A
F F
Stress
x σ= F/A
x
L0
L0

L1
Elongation
x ΔL = (L1 – L0)
x
Strain
F ε = ΔL / L0
F
F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section (N).
A0 and is the original crosssectional area before any load is applied (mm2)
Engineering stress (stress) is in MPa (=1N/mm2=106N/m2)
L0 is the original length before any load is applied.
L1 is the instantaneous length.
 Mechanical Properties

 σ-ε curves can be grouped into three as:

• Ductile Materials → exhibit both elastic &

plastic behavior
• Brittle Materials → exhibit essentially elastic
behavior
• Viscoelastic Materials → exhibit large elastic
deformation
SPECIAL FEATURES OF STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAMS

D
σ
U
σF E
σ C
σ
σ
YP A B
E
L
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAMS

Point A (Proportional Limit): The greatest stress (σPL) that can

be developed in the material without causing a deviation from
the law of proportionality of stress to strain. In other words it is
the stress upto which the material responds following Hooke’s
Law.

Point B (Elastic Limit): Maximum stress (σE) that can be

developed in a material without causing permanent
deformation. In other words it is the stress upto which the
deformations are recoverable upon unloading.
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAMS
Point C (Yield Point): The stress at which the material deforms
appreciably without an increase in stress. Sometimes it can be
represented by an upper and lower yield points. σY,U
represents the elastic strength of the material and σY,L is the
stress beyond which the material behaves plastically.

Point D (Ultimate Strength): It is the maximum stress that can

be developed in a material as determined from the original X-
section of the specimen.
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAMS
Point E (Fracture Strength): The stress at which the material
breaks, fails.
 Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion of the stress-
strain curve, it is usually specific to each material; a constant, known
value.

• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield point, calculated
by plotting young's modulus at a specified percent of offset (usually
offset = 0.2%).

• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of stress on the

stress-strain curve.

• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length divided by the

original gauge length.
Strain Stress Relation

Stress (σ)
P

P Strain (ε)
Strain Stress Relation

Stress (σ)
P

P Strain (ε)
Strain Stress Relation

Stress (σ)
P

P
Strain (ε)
Strain Stress Relation

Stress (σ)
Elastic
def.

deformation
P

Plastic
P
Strain (ε)
Strain Stress Relation

Stress (σ)
Elastic
def.

deformation
P

Plastic
P
Strain (ε)
Strain Stress Relation

Stress (σ)
Elastic
def.

deformation
P

Plastic
P
Strain (ε)
 Modulus of Elasticity or Young Modulus (E)
Stress and strain are linearly proportional up to
an elastic limit through the relationship

Hooke’s Law
Stress (σ)

Elastic
def. σ=Eε
deformation

The constant of proportionality E (GPa)

Plastic

is the modulus of elasticity, or

Young’s modulus. For most typical
metals the magnitude of this modulus
ranges between 45 Gpa, for
Strain (ε)
magnesium, and 407 GPa, for tungsten.

The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of

elasticity E
Modulus of Elasticity or Young Modulus (E)

E modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or a material’s resistance

to elastic deformation. The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the
smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a given stress.
The modulus is an important design parameter used for computing elastic
deflections.
Modulus of Elasticity or Young Modulus (E)
Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are
about the same as for metals; for polymers they are lower.
These differences are a direct consequence of the different
types of atomic bonding in the three materials types.

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 Elastic Deformation

σ σ σ

ε ε ε
Lineer elastic Non-Lineer elastic

Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called

elastic deformation.

There is no permanent deformation on the elastic

material after unloading!
 Elastic Deformation
Cast iron, concrete, many
polymers

For this nonlinear behavior, either tangent or secant modulus is normally used.
Tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the stress–strain curve at some specified level of
stress, while secant modulus represents the slope of a secant drawn from the origin to
some given point of the s– curve
Elastic Deformation
 Anelasticity
In most engineering materials, however, there will also exist a time-
dependent elastic strain component. That is, elastic deformation will continue
after the stress application, and upon load release some finite time is required for
complete recovery.

This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity.

It is due to time-dependent microscopic and atomistic processes that

are attendant to the deformation. For metals the anelastic component is
normally small and is often neglected. However, for some polymeric materials
its magnitude is significant; in this case it is termed viscoelastic behavior, which

will be the topic of next lectures.

ELASTIC CONSTANTS IN ISOTROPIC
MATERIALS

1. Elasticity Modulus (E)

2. Poisson’s Ratio (n)

3. Shear Modulus (G)

4. Bulk Modulus (K)

Modulus of Elasticity, E
(Young’s Modulus)
F
s

e
Linear- F
simple
elastic tension
test

s=Ee
Units:
E: [GPa]
 Modulus of Elasticity, E
(Young’s Modulus)
Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the
elastic modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

E=

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister 7e.
 Poisson's ratio, n
 “n” is the ratio of eT F
transverse contraction
strain to longitudinal
extension strain in the eL
direction of stretching force.
n F
Either transverse strain or simple
eT tension
longitudional strain is n=-
eL test
negative,  ν is positive
eT : Transverse Strain
eL : Longitudional Strain
Units:
n: dimensionless
 Poisson's ratio, n

• Virtually all common materials undergo a transverse contraction when

stretched in one direction and a transverse expansion when
compressed.

• In an isotropic material the allowable (theoretical) range of Poisson's

ratio is from -1.0 to +0.5, based on the theory of elasticity.

metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
 Shear Modulus, G

t
G M

simple
g torsion
test

t=Gg
Units:
G: [GPa] M
 Bulk Modulus, K
P
Initial Volume = V0
Volume Change = DV P
P
DV Units:
savg = K
Vo K: [GPa] savg
σavg is the average of
DV
three stresses applied Vo
along three principal K
directions.
 Example
Uniaxial Loading of a Prismatic Specimen

P=1000
kgf
10 9.9 cm
cm Determine
E and n
10 10.4
cm cm

10 9.9 cm
cm
Before After
 P=1000
kgf
1000
P=1000kgf → σ= = 10kgf/cm2
Δd/2=0.0 10*10
5cm
Δl/2=0.2cm
σ 10
E= = = 250 kgf/cm2
ε 0.04
10cm
Δl 0.4
εlong= = =0.04
l0 10

10cm Δd -0.1
εlat= = = -0.01
d0 10
1000
kgf -0.01
ν=- = 0.25
0.04
 RELATION BETWEEN K & E
 Consider a cube with a unit volume
σ
D
σ causes an elongation in the direction CD
1 and contraction in the directions AB & BC.

C The new dimensions of the cube is :

1

B • CD direction is 1+ε
A
1
σ • BC direction is 1-νε

• AB direction is 1-νε
 RELATION BETWEEN K & E

 The relation between K

E
K=
and E is :
3 (1-2ν)

 Moreover the relation between

E
G and E is : G=
2 (1+ν)

 The relation between G, E 1 1 1

= +
and K is : E 9K 3G
 Modulus of Elasticity, E
(Young’s Modulus)

• High in covalent compounds such as diamond

• Lower in metallic and ionic crystals

• Lowest in molecular amorphous solids such as plastics and

rubber.
 Elastic Constants of Some Materials

E(psi)x106 (GPa) G(psi)x106 (GPa) ν (-)

Cast Iron 16 110 7.4 50 0.17
Steel 30 205 11.8 80 0.26
Aluminum 10 70 3.6 25 0.33
Concrete 1.5-5.5 10-40 0.62-2.30 4-15 0.2
Wood Long 1.81 12 0.11 0.7
?
Tang 0.10 0.7 0.03 0.2
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F

Elastic means reversible.

 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

linear linear
elastic elastic
Plastic means permanent. 
plastic
 Yield Strength
Typical stress-strain behavior
for a metal showing elastic
and plastic deformations, the
proportional limit P and the
yield strength σy, as
determined using the 0.002
strain offset method (where
there is noticeable plastic
deformation). P is the gradual
elastic to plastic transition.
Yield Stress & Strain in different metallic
materials